Didáctica Específica I

The effect of age

Critical Period Hypothesis

Folk wisdom holds that children are very successful second language learners. It has been observed repeatedly
that children who move to another country pick up the new language seemingly effortless and quickly as
opposed to their parents/ carers, who often find language learning more of a challenge. This observation
observation led to assumptions about the advantages of starting learning a second language at a young age and
also to a great deal of enthusiasm around the world for introducing English in primary school, or even earlier.
One reason why early language learning has become so popular is that many psycholinguists have explained
the advantages by proposing a so-called “sensitive period” in childhood for language learning. Originally, Eric
Lenneberg proposed the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) (1967), which suggested that brain plasticity was
only conductive to language learning until puberty. While the original claims of the CPH have been called
into question, it seems that young children do have some advantages when learning a second language.

Young learners
A comprehensive summary by Robert DeKeyser (2012) suggests that young children´s advantages apply in
so-called “natural learning environments”. For example, studies that looked at the relationship between the
age of arrival (AOA) of young children in the new country and their language competence found an effect
for age in implicit language learning ability. This means that young children can acquire grammatical
structures without explicitly thinking about them, i.e. they just naturally soak these up from the rich input
around them. Also, studies which examined the relationship between AOA and phonological ratings indicate
that younger learners do consistently better with pronunciation. DeKeyser (2012) reminds us, though, that not
all aspects of language are affected in the same way.
Leaving behind naturalistic environments, research into the advantages of younger learner in formal school
environments is not so conclusively positive. If we compare those who started learning a second language
younger, in primary schools, with those who started a bit later, in secondary schools, most studies show that
the advantages of early starters tend to disappear by the time children are 16.
Carmen Muñoz (2014) also attests that the long-term advantage conferred to young learners by an early start
in a naturalistic context does not seem to work in an EFL context because of the input limitations. EFL studies
all show a rate of advantage of late starters when learners´ performances are compared after the same number
of instructions. When exploring the second language performance of learners after 15 years of learning
English, looking at whether starting age would play an important role or not, Muñoz found that the length of
instruction and starting age were not important factors. Instead, the key factors were varied and frequent
contact with native speakers (good-quality input) and opportunities for immersion, i.e. for intensive exposure.
While children learning English in formal classrooms can´t ever be surrounded by similar levels of input as
naturalistic learners, they can still enjoy some advantages as young learners. For example, young children
have an intuitive grasp of language and they have an ability to be more attuned to the phonological system of
the new language compared to adults. Children are sensitive to the sounds and the rhythm of new languages,
and they enjoy copying new sounds and patterns of intonation.
In addition, younger learners are less anxious and less inhibited, and they worry less than older learners about
mistakes or how they come across as non-native speakers.

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Older learners
Older learners and adults are often labelled as less successful as language learners but, of course, the truth is
somewhat more complex. Older learners use more efficient strategies, have a more mature conceptual world
to rely on, have a clearer sense of discourse, and, more importantly, have a clearer sense of why they are
learning a new language. Adults and older learners are more analytical and give attention to detail, which
helps with language learning. The only are that is difficult to compensate for seems to be pronunciation but,
even here, cultural and identity issues may play a role. Adults and older children might not want to sound
English because they want to preserve their own identity. There is another argument which challenges the
supposed advantages of an early start. There are some rare but exceptionally successful cases of adults who
start learning a second language quite late in life and succeed nonetheless in achieving native, or near-native,
levels of competence.
A very interesting study by Ciara Kinsella and David Singleton (2014) explored the complex factors that
contribute to exceptional adult learners´ second language success. The participants in this study were all native
speakers of English, and spoke French as second language. Their first significant exposure to French occurred
after the age of 20, thus excluding those with any possible CPH advantage. The study showed that age is
indeed not the critical factor. Instead, the participants all shared some key characteristics: they all made long-
term investments into French learning; they had all lived in France for a long time - in some cases for more
than 25 years; they were firmly integrated into their local communities; and they all married French natives
and had bilingual or French speaking children. In their homes, French was the language spoken and they
conducted nearly all their social interactions outside the home in French, too. It was important for them to
speak a high standard of French and they all took pride in their ability.

Bibliography:
 Pinter, Annamaria (2017). Teaching Young Language Learners. Oxford handbooks for Language Teachers. 2 nd edition.

Children Learning a Foreign language

Young Learner´s characteristics
Jean Piaget is considered one of the first scholars who provided insights into learners' characteristics
according to their ages. Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children's thinking processes
develop and change as they grow and mature. He identified several stages of cognitive development, each
characterized by unique cognitive processes and abilities.

Piaget's theory has been influential in the field of education and has helped educators understand how
children's thinking and learning develop over time. Piaget's ideas about cognitive development have been

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applied to language learning, and his theory has helped shape our understanding of how children acquire
language at different stages of development.

However, it is important to note that Piaget's theory has also been criticized for its limitations, including its
focus on cognitive development at the expense of other important factors, such as social and cultural
influences. Nonetheless, Piaget's work has had a lasting impact on our understanding of learners'
characteristics according to their ages, and his ideas continue to inform educational practice and research
today.

Piaget believed that children's cognitive development occurs in stages, and that young children's thinking is
more concrete and less abstract than that of older children and adults. Piaget's work has been influential in
the study of language development, as researchers have used his ideas to understand how young children
acquire language.

General characteristics of young language learners according to age:

Infants (0-12 months)
● Begin to distinguish between different sounds and intonations of their native language
● Begin to babble and produce simple sounds
● Respond to their name and familiar voices
● Show preference for familiar faces and voices
● Begin to understand some simple words and phrases

Toddlers (1-3 years)

● Develop a vocabulary of about 50-100 words
● Begin to combine words to form simple sentences
● Use gestures and facial expressions to communicate
● May have difficulty understanding abstract concepts
● Show a high level of curiosity and interest in the world around them

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 ● Have a short attention span and may quickly lose interest in activities

It's important to note that these are general characteristics and that there can be a great deal of
variation within each age group. Additionally, children develop at their own pace and may not
fit neatly into these categories.

Remember that these are general characteristics and that individual children may develop at
different rates or have unique traits and strengths. It's also worth noting that the characteristics
of children may be influenced by a wide range of factors, including culture, language background,
and individual experiences.

Age of acquisition
According to Lightbrown and Spada (2013), the relationship between a learner´s age and his or her
potential for success in second language acquisition is the subject of much lively debate.

It has been widely observed that children from immigrant families eventually speak the language of
their new community with native-like fluency. Their parents rarely achieve such high levels of
mastery of new language.

Adult second language learners become very capable of communicating successfully in the
language, but there will always be differences of accent, word choice, or grammatical features, which
set them apart from native speakers or from speakers who began learning the language while they
were very young (see Critical Period Hypothesis).

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It is difficult to compare children and adults as second language learners. One of the difficulties in
making the comparison is that the conditions for language learning are often very different.

Young second language learners between the ages of 3 and 12 years old are typically characterized
by some common traits that can influence their second language learning.

Genevieve Roth (1998), in his book Teaching very Young Children, provides a chart with
children´s basic development. According to this author, many children who enter school at the
ages of three and four are not yet able to speak their own language, or even two or three other
languages, at the same time. Learning that second or third language is easier for the child if he has
a way of keeping the different languages separate. His point of reference could be, for example:

…L1 (his first language) is used with one teacher and English is used with another, or

…L1 is used in the morning and English in the afternoon, or

…L1 is used in the classroom and English in the gym

Children, at this age, learn another language much as they have learned, and are learning,
L1. This principle is fundamental when deciding how to teach them a foreign language.

Genevieve provides a list of main learning characteristics – and their implications:

- Children are energetic. They need to move a lot.

- Children are noisy. You can´t expect a quiet class with young children, especially if you are
trying to teach a spoken language! It´s more a matter of controlling the noise level (getting
them not to speak too loudly) and teaching them, little by little, to have quiet time as well.
Allow them be noisy in a positive way by getting them to play action games, and by letting
them speak to each other in class while they are working.
- Children are quick – quick to learn and quick to forget! You will need to constantly revise
what you have taught.
- Children like to use their senses as well as to speak. They need to see, hear, touch, smell
and taste.
- Children have imagination. Use it.
- Children are fun and enthusiastic. Have fun and be enthusiastic with them and everyone
will benefit.
- Children are children. Don´t expect too much. Everything comes with time.

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Here are some general characteristics of young second language learners according to age:
PRESCHOOLARS (Early Childhood  3-5 years old)
● Have limited vocabulary in their second
language
● Use mostly simple sentences and may have
difficulty with more complex grammatical
structures
● May mix words and grammar from their
first language with their second language
● Have a limited understanding of the rules
and patterns of their second language
● May need more repetition and visual aids
to understand and learn new vocabulary and
concepts.
High level of plasticity: Children in this age range have a high degree of neural plasticity, which
means that their brains are more flexible and adaptable than those of older learners. They are able
to learn new languages more easily and quickly than adults.

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Developing cognitive abilities: Children in this age range are still developing their cognitive
abilities, including memory, attention, and executive function. These cognitive abilities are important
for learning a new language, and can help young learners to better understand and retain new
information.
Imitation and repetition: Young children are often good at imitating sounds and patterns, and
may use repetition as a way to learn new vocabulary and grammar structures. They may also rely
on visual cues, gestures, and facial expressions to help them understand and communicate
in a new language.
Play-based learning: Young children learn best through play, and language learning is no
exception. They may benefit from playful and interactive language activities that incorporate songs,
stories, games, and role-playing.
Pronunciation: Young children are more likely to acquire native-like pronunciation than older
learners are, and may benefit from exposure to native speakers or audio recordings of native
speakers.

EARLY ELEMENTARY / PRIMARY (Middle Childhood 6-8/10 years old)

Young second language learners between the ages of 6 and 8 years old
are typically characterized by their ability to learn a new language more
quickly and easily than older learners.

● Have a growing vocabulary in their second language

● Can use more complex sentences and understand more
complex grammatical structures
● May still mix words and grammar from their first language
with their second language, but to a lesser extent than younger
learners
● Are developing a better understanding of the rules and
patterns of their second language
● Can use context clues to help understand new vocabulary and concepts
● May still have some difficulty with pronunciation and speaking fluency in their second
language.
High level of curiosity: Children in this age range are naturally curious and eager to learn about
the world around them. They are typically motivated to learn a new language, and are often excited
about the prospect of being able to communicate with people from other cultures.
Good language learning aptitude: Children in this age range have a high level of language
learning aptitude, which means they are able to pick up new vocabulary, grammar rules, and
pronunciation quickly and easily.
Developing cognitive abilities: Children between the ages of 6 and 8 are still developing their
cognitive abilities, including memory, attention, and executive function. These cognitive abilities are
important for learning a new language, and can help young learners to better understand and retain
new information.
Increased socialization: Children in this age range are often more social and outgoing than
younger children, and are eager to communicate with their peers and adults. This increased

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socialization can provide opportunities for young learners to practice their new language skills in a
natural, immersive setting.
Use of cognitive strategies: Children in this age range are also starting to develop cognitive
strategies for learning, such as using mnemonics or visualization techniques to help them remember
new words and concepts. These strategies can be effective tools for second language learning.

LATE ELEMENTARY (Late childhood 8-11/12 years old)

● Have a larger vocabulary in their
second language
● Can use more complex sentences
and understand more complex
grammatical structures with
increasing accuracy
● Are developing more fluency and
accuracy in speaking their second
language
● Are increasingly able to separate
their first language from their second language when communicating
● Can use their second language to express more complex ideas
● May still have difficulty with more abstract and complex vocabulary and concepts in
their second language

Growing cognitive abilities: Children in this age range are continuing to develop their cognitive
abilities, including their ability to think abstractly, understand complex grammar structures, and
learn new vocabulary in context. They are also starting to develop metacognitive awareness, which
means they are becoming more aware of their own thought processes and can use this awareness
to plan and monitor their own learning.
Increased motivation: As children enter late childhood, they are becoming more independent and
self-motivated in their learning. They may have a better understanding of the benefits of learning
a second language and how it can help them communicate with people from other cultures.
Socialization: Children in this age range are often socializing more outside of their immediate
family, which can provide opportunities to practice their second language skills in more natural
contexts. They may also be able to engage in more complex conversations with peers and
adults, which can help to develop their language proficiency.
Prior knowledge and cultural understanding: As children grow older, they may have more prior
knowledge about the world and different cultures, which can facilitate their second language
learning. They may also have a better understanding of cultural differences and how these can
impact communication.
Individual differences: It is important to note that every child is unique and may have individual
differences in their second language learning. For example, some children may have stronger
cognitive abilities or be more motivated to learn than others. Teachers and caregivers should take
into account these individual differences and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly.

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Understanding children's characteristics in first and second language acquisition is crucial for
creating effective language learning environments, identifying and addressing language learning
difficulties, improving communication and social interaction, and promoting cultural understanding.

- Effective teaching and learning: Knowing children's characteristics in language acquisition

can help teachers and parents create appropriate learning environments and teaching
strategies that support children's natural language learning processes. For example,
understanding that young children learn best through play can help educators design
language-learning activities that are fun and engaging.
- Early identification of language learning difficulties: Knowledge of children's typical
developmental patterns in language acquisition can help identify children who may be
experiencing language learning difficulties, such as language delays or disorders. Early
identification and intervention can prevent future academic and social difficulties for the child.
- Improved communication: Children who are learning a second language may have difficulty
communicating effectively in their new language, which can lead to social isolation and
frustration. Understanding children's characteristics in language acquisition can help
educators and parents develop effective strategies to facilitate communication and social A
- Enhanced cultural understanding: Learning a new language is often closely tied to learning
about a new culture. Understanding children's characteristics in second language acquisition
can help educators and parents promote cultural understanding and appreciation, helping to
break down barriers between different cultures and promote global citizenship.

THE INTERCULTURAL PARADIGM

The intercultural paradigm in second language acquisition emphasizes the importance of
culture in language learning. It recognizes that language and culture are closely intertwined
and that language cannot be fully understood without an understanding of the culture in
which it is used. The intercultural paradigm seeks to help learners develop not only linguistic
competence but also intercultural competence, which includes knowledge of cultural norms,
values, and attitudes.
One key aspect of the intercultural paradigm is the notion of "culture learning" as opposed to
"culture teaching." Culture learning involves helping learners develop an awareness of
their own cultural assumptions and biases, as well as an understanding of the
perspectives and values of the target culture. This is done through activities such as
reflection, dialogue, and immersion in the target culture.
Another important aspect of the intercultural paradigm is the recognition of the diversity
within cultures. Learners are encouraged to develop a nuanced understanding of the target
culture, recognizing that it is not monolithic but rather composed of multiple subcultures and
variations.
Overall, the intercultural paradigm in second language acquisition emphasizes the importance
of developing not only linguistic competence but also intercultural competence, and recognizes
the central role of culture in language learning.

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 The intercultural approach to teaching second language (SL) or English as a foreign
language (EFL) emphasizes the importance of integrating cultural learning and
awareness into language instruction.
Some key principles of the intercultural approach to SL/EFL teaching include:
Promoting Intercultural Communication: The intercultural approach aims to develop
learners' intercultural communicative competence, which involves not only linguistic
competence but also the ability to understand and navigate different cultural norms and
practices.
Incorporating Cultural Content: The intercultural approach involves incorporating cultural
content into language instruction, such as discussing cultural values, practices, and
perspectives related to the language being taught.
Encouraging Critical Reflection: The intercultural approach encourages learners to reflect
on their own cultural assumptions and biases, as well as those of the target language culture,
in order to develop a more nuanced and inclusive understanding of different cultures.
Fostering Intercultural Sensitivity: The intercultural approach seeks to foster intercultural
sensitivity among learners, which involves developing an open-minded and respectful
attitude towards different cultures and a willingness to engage with cultural differences.
Creating Intercultural Learning Opportunities: The intercultural approach involves
creating opportunities for learners to interact with speakers of the target language and
culture, both inside and outside the classroom, in order to develop their intercultural
communicative competence and cultural awareness.

Bibliography

 Lightbown, P. & Spada, N (2013). How Languages are Learned. Oxford University Press. Fourth Edit.

 Genevieve Roth (1998). Teaching Very Young Children. Pre- school and Early Primary: Handbooks. Richmond

Activity 1
Watch the following pictures and videos of different activities (from different classes) and
try to infer some information about the class:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1m5s1xprVCMnAFtD9dUqWr1o8cxlXW_Jn/view?usp=sharing
a) Country:
b) Level:
c) Age:
d) Type of activities: (Taken into considerations those activities. Which students´ characteristics
have you recognized?) https://youtu.be/5_g9HEi2Yr0

HW - Activity 2:
1. Watch the following video and consider the same
Items in activity 1 to infer information about the
activities and stds’ characteristics.

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