2.

1: Elicits the significant changes occurred in the computers from

generation to generation with more emphasis on the evolution of
processors.

Era Year mechanism Inventor other

Pre before Calculating considered as the first
mechanical 1450 aids calculating device in the
era Abacus world used by Chinese
around 5000 BC.

Mechanical 1642 Pascaline Blaise Pascal Add and subtract two

era numbers
1450-1840
1694 Stepped German scientist operations add,
Reckoner Gottfried Wilhelm subtract, multiply and
Leibniz divide
Difference Charles Babbage The first mechanical
engine Father of the computer
computer”.
Concept of Input,
Process and Output
Electro 1906. Electronic valve Forest
mechanical (vacuum tube)
era
1840–1940
1939. Automatic Professor Howard First automatic
sequence Aiken computer
controller
(Mark 1)
Electronic 1st ENIAC John Mauchly and First electronic digital
Era generation (Electronic J. Presper Eckert computer
Computers Numerical in 1946
(1940- Integrator and
1956) Calculator)

Vacuum
tubes

EDSAC Maurice Wilkes in First full size stored

(Electronic 1947 program computer
Delay Storage
Automatic EDSAC was built
Calculator) according to the von
Neumann machine
principles.

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 EDVAC Store program was First digital computer
(Electronic built in 1948.
Discrete
Variable
Automatic
Computer)
UNIVAC Electrical computer
(Universal containing thousands of
Automatic vacuum tubes that
Computer) utilized punch cards and
switches to input data
and punch cards to
output and store data.

2nd IBM 1620, IBM Used as the

generation 7094, CDC fundamental building
Computers 1604, CDC block
(1956 – 3600, UNIVAC
1963) 1108
,
Transistors
3rd IBM-360 series,
generation PDP (Personal
computers Data Processor),
(1964 – TDC-316
1975)

Integrated
Circuits
(ICs)
4th DEC 10, STAR A single chip made it
Generation 1000, PDP 11 possible to have
(1975 – microcomputers.
1989)

VLSI (Very
Large Scale
Integrated)
5th Desktop, Production of
Generation Laptop, microprocessor chips
Computers Notebook, having millions
(1989 – Ultrabook transistors and other
present) electronic components.
ULSI
(Ultra
Large Scale
Integration)

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Classification of Computers

1. Based on the Technology

(i) Analog Computer

An analog computer is a form of computer that handles continuous
values such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities.

(ii) Digital Computer

A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with
quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system.

2. Based on the Purpose

(i) Special purpose computer - Computers are designed to handle a
specific problem or to perform a specific task.

(ii) General purpose computer – These are designed to perform a

range of tasks.

3. Based on Size

(i) Super Computer –

The fastest and most powerful type of computers Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require
immense amounts of computing power. (Eg: TIANHE-1)

(ii) Mainframe Computer

A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds,
or even thousands, of users simultaneously.

(iii) Mini Computer

Mid size computers mainly used as small or mid-range servers
operating business and scientific applications.

(iv) Micro Computer

Desktop – A personal computer sufficient to fit on a desk

Laptop – A portable computer
Palmtop – A hand size computer
Notebook - A portable computer small and thinner than Laptop.
Smart phone – This is a mobile phone used for mobile communication with an operating
system and other advanced facilities.
Tablet - A tablet is a wireless, portable personal computer with a touch screen interface. The
tablet is typically smaller than a notebook computer, but larger than a smartphone.
Phablet - A phablet is a small pocket sized mobile device that is a bit larger than the size of
an average smartphone and smaller than tablet. (Eg: Apple 6Plus, Galaxy Note, etc)

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2.2: Explores the functionality of a computer in relation to the hardware
and their interfaces.

4
5
Example 4 Video Camera

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VI. Direct entry input Devices

VII. Graphic Tablet and Digitizer

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Advantages of direct entry input device over key board entry input device
1. Automatically capture data, images or videos. No need human involvement to input
data into the system. Therefore, data entry cost is reduced.

2. Accurate – The data can be input without any human errors.

3. Less time – Data input process is more efficient.

Output devices

Monitor
1. CRT Monitor (Cathode Ray Tube Monitor)

In cathode ray tube monitor, images are produced when an electron beam strikes a
phosphorescent surface

2. LCD Monitor (using Thin Film Transistor-TFT)

A display screen made with TFT technology is a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) that has a
transistor for each pixel, LCD monitors are widely used in notebook and laptop computers.

3. LED Monitor (Light Emitting Diode Monitor)

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Flat screen monitor used as a computer monitor or television.

Advantages of LED Monitor

 Less expensive
 More reliable
 Generate low heat and consume less power
 Higher dynamic contrast ratio
 Longer lifespan and less environmental impact

Printer

Printer is used to produce a hard copy output.

1. Dot matrix printer

It uses a print head that moves back-and-forth, or in an up-and-down motion, on the page and
prints by striking an ink ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a
typewriter.

2. Inkjet printer

In the inkjet printing mechanism, the print head has several tiny nozzles, also called jets. As
the paper moves past the print head, the nozzles spray ink onto it, forming the characters and
images.

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 3. Laser printer

When a document is sent to the printer, a laser beam draws the document on a selenium-
coated drum using electrical charges. After the drum is charged, it is rolled in toner, a dry
powder type of ink. The toner adheres to the charged image on the drum. The toner is then
transferred onto a piece of paper and fused to the paper with heat and pressure.

4. Graphic plotter

A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on
paper with one or more automated pens.

Sound

The device which gives a sound output is called speaker. Speaker devices are designed for
personal and common purpose.

CPU and its compatibility with motherboard

1. Socket support.
The CPU has to be compatible with your motherboard's socket.
2. Chipset support.
Need to know about the chipset to find the CPUs compatible with that chipset.
Chipset manufacturers include AMD, Intel and Nvidia.
3. Motherboard wattage support must support the Thermal Design Power (TDP) of a given
CPU.
Need to find out the wattage of the motherboard to determine the support from that to
the CPU
4. BIOS support.
If necessary BIOS need to be upgraded to support the CPU

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Storage Devices

1. Fixed internal magnetic hard disk

Hard disk is a data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital
information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with some magnetic
material.

2. External hard disk

An external hard drive is a portable storage device that can be attached to a computer through a
USB Port

3. Magnetic tape

Magnetic tape is one of the oldest technologies for electronic data storage on a magnetic surface.
Tape has largely been displaced as a primary and backup storage medium, but it remains well-
suited for archiving because of its high capacity, low cost and long durability. It is a sequential
recording system that is not good for random access. With tape archiving, there is no online copy
for quick retrieval, as everything is vaulted for the long term.

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4. Optical discs

An optical disc is an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and read using a low-
powered laser beam.

DVD-RAM - DVD-RAM is like ordinary Random Access Memory (RAM), it can be repeatedly
read, written to, and erased. DVD-RAM discs can be rewritten 100 times more than a DVD-RW.
5. Flash drive

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 6. Memory card

memory cards use Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
technology to store data on one or more semiconductor chips.

7. Flash Drive

Flash drives use Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
technology to store data on one or more semiconductor chips.

Parallel computing

Parallel computing is a type of computation in which many programs or processes are done
simultaneously. Large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved
at the same time.

In simple terms, parallel computing is breaking up a task into smaller pieces and executing those
pieces at the same time, each on their own processor or on a set of computers that have been
networked together.

The following example displays the difference between single processor and parallel processor
Y = (4 x 5) + (1 x 6) + (5 x 3)

On a single processor, the steps needed to calculate a value for Y might look like:
Step 1: Y = 20 + (1 x 6) + (5 x 3)
Step 2: Y = 20 + 6 + (5 x 3)
Step 3: Y = 20 + 6 + 15
Step 4: Y = 41

In a parallel computing scenario, with three processors or computers, the steps look something
like:
Step 1: Y = 20 + 6 + 15
Step 2: Y = 41

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The main performance characteristic is the increase in speed. If you use a single computer, and it
takes X amount of time to perform a task, then using two similar computers should cut the time
taken to perform that same task in half. If you use three, then it should take a third of the time for
the same task, and so on.

However, in practical terms, this is not always true. Because:

 Some task might not be divisible.

 Some task may not be able divide equally.
 It is necessary to take overhead associated with splitting the task up also into account.

So, while there is usually a performance increase, that increase does not follow any set formula.

Grid computing

Grid computing is a distributed architecture of large numbers of computers connected to solve a

complex problem. In the grid computing model, servers or personal computers run independent
tasks and are loosely linked by the Internet or low-speed networks. Computers may connect
directly or via scheduling systems. In Grid computing inter-connected computer systems utilize
the same resources collectively. Grid computing usually consists of one main computer that
distributes information and tasks to a group of networked computers to accomplish a common
goal. Grid computing is often used to complete complicated or tedious mathematical or scientific
calculations.

Examples of Grid Applications

 Application partitioning that involves breaking the problem into discrete pieces
 Discovery and scheduling of tasks and workflow
 Data communications distributing the problem data where and when it is required
 Provisioning and distributing application codes to specific system nodes
 Results management assisting in the decision processes of the environment
 Autonomic features such as self-configuration, self-optimization, self-recovery, and self-
management

The following is an example for a grid application and its usage patterns.

Schedulers

Schedulers are types of applications responsible for the management of jobs, such as allocating
resources needed for any specific job, partitioning of jobs to schedule parallel execution of tasks,
data management, event correlation, and service-level management capabilities. These
schedulers then form a hierarchical structure, with meta-schedulers that form the root and other
lower level schedulers, while providing specific scheduling capabilities that form the leaves.
These schedulers may be constructed with a local scheduler implementation approach for
specific job execution, or another meta-scheduler or a cluster scheduler for parallel executions.

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2.3: Explores the Von- Neumann Architecture.

Von-Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann Architecture consists of a CPU, memory and input output devices. The program is
stored in the memory. The CPU fetches an instruction from the memory at a time and executes it.

Major components of this architecture:

1. Central processing unit

(i) Control unit (CU)

This unit controls signals of all devices of a computer system.

(ii) Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

It carries out mathematical and logical operations.

(iii) Memory register

A CPU register is one of a small set of data holding places which is part of the
computer processor. A register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any
kind of data

2. Memory

(i) Primary memory

(ii) Secondary memory

3. Input device

4. Output device

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Daa bus -A data bus is a system within a computer or device, consisting of a connector or set of
wires, that provides transportation for data.

Control bus -Control bus is used to transmit a variety o f control signals to components and
devices.

Multi-core processors

A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual
processing units (cores), which are units that read and execute program instructions. Therefore,
the single processor can run multiple instructions on separate cores at the same time.

Need of multi-core processor

1. Can be run a program by dividing some parts. So it gets executed fast.

2. It enables parallel programming.

3. To get the high performance from a single machine.

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2.4: Examines PC memory system to identify different types of memory and
their main characteristics.

Volatile memory

Volatile memory is a computer storage that only holds the data while the device is powered.

Eg: Register, Cache memory, RAM

Cache memory

The cache memory is used to store program instructions that are frequently accessed by software
during operation.

Types of cache memories

 Level 1 (L1) cache is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually embedded in the
processor chip (CPU).
 Level 2 (L2) cache is often more capacity than L1. It may be located on the CPU or on a
separate.
 Level 3 (L3) cache is typically specialized memory that works to improve the
performance of L1 and L2. It can be significantly slower than L1 or L2, but is usually
double the speed of RAM.

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RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is the main memory of the computer that holds data for running applications and required
data for a computer. Types of RAM

(i) SRAM – Static RAM SRAM is random access memory that retains data bits in its
memory as long as power is being supplied. SRAM is used for cache memory and
register memory.
(ii) (ii) DRAM – Dynamic RAM This type of RAM is continuously refreshed or it will
lose its contents.
(iii) (iii) SDRAM - Synchronous DRAM It is a type of memory that synchronizes itself
with the computer's system clock.

Non-volatile memory

This is a type of computer memory that has the capability to hold saved data even if the power is
turned off. Eg: ROM, Hard disk etc.

ROM – Read Only Memory

ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. ROM stores essential programs
such as the program that boots the computer.

Types of ROM

PROM (Programmable ROM)

It is a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written
onto a PROM, it remains there forever.

EPROM (Erasable PROM)

EPROM is a special type of memory that retains its contents until it is exposed to ultraviolet
light. The ultraviolet light clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the memory.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM)

IT can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

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Secondary storage

1. Magnetic storage device

Magnetic storage is the manipulation of magnetic fields on a medium in order to record

audio, video or other data. In main computer storage mechanisms have generally involved a
spinning disc or platter and read write heads on an armature. Many types of magnetic storage
involve a tape medium ether on a real or in a cassette that is moved by read and write heads.

Eg: Hard disk, Floppy disk, Magnetic tape

2. Optical storage device

Optical storage is any storage method in which data is written and read with a laser for
archival or backup purposes. Typically, data is written to optical media, such as CDs and DVDs.
For several years, proponents have spoken of optical storage as a near-future replacement for
both hard drives in personal computers and tape backup in mass storage. Optical media is more
durable than tape and less vulnerable to environmental conditions. On the other hand, it tends to
be slower than typical hard drive speeds, and to offer lower storage capacities.

Eg: CD, DVD, Blu-Ray disc

3. Solid state storage Solid-state storage (SSS)

sss is a type of computer storage media made from silicon microchips. SSS stores data
electronically instead of magnetically, as spinning hard disk drives (HDDs) or magnetic oxide
tape do. Solid-state storage can be found in three form factors: solid-state drives (SSD), solid-
state cards (SSC) and solid-state modules (SSM). An important advantage of solid-state storage
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is that it contains no mechanical parts, allowing data transfer to and from storage media to take
place at a much higher speed and providing a more predictable lifespan for the storage media.
Because there are no moving parts, SSDs produce far less heat than HDDs. E
g: Flash drive, Memory card

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