Development of the atomic theory

and atomic structure

Atomic theory
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

• Atomic theory developed from

▪ Many models/theories
▪ Hypothesis and experiments
• Ideas and theories in science changes as new information
are gathered.
• Models and theories are based on each other and further
developed.
• Our theory about the atom has changed over time as new
studies are done.
 Early theories
• Democritus was an ancient Greek philosopher (Scientist) who
lived from 460 - 370 B.C.
• He claimed that there are various basic elements from which
all matter is made.
• Proposed that if we continue to cut a matter, a time comes
when we eventually end up with the “uncuttable” particle.
• Named that particle “atom”. The Greek word “atomos” means
not able to be divided or “indivisible”.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE

What did Democritus conclude about cutting matter in half?

There was a limit to how far you could divide matter.
You would eventually end up with a piece of matter that
could not be cut.
There are various basic elements from which all matter is
made.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE

What did Democritus propose about the atom?

• Atoms are small hard particles.
• Made of a single material that’s formed into different
shapes and sizes.
• They are always moving
• They form different materials by joining together.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE

❖Aristotle (384 – 322 B. C.), Greek Philosopher

Disagreed with Democritus
That matter never end up with indivisible particle.
They can be divided forever.
His idea became more popular at the time than the idea
of Democritus.
Democritus ideas rejected by leading
philosophers/scientists for thousands of years.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE

John Dalton 1776-1844, British chemist and teacher

Two thousand years later a British chemist and school
teacher brings back Democritus’s idea of the atom
Late 1700’s, scientists learned that elements combined
in specific ratios (based on mass) to form compounds.
Dalton used actual experiments to study how elements
join together to form new substances.
He introduced his idea in 1803.
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE-
John Dalton
What four new ideas did John Dalton propose about the
atom?
• All substances are made up of atoms which are small
particles that cannot be created, divided, or destroyed.

• Atoms of the same element are exactly alike and atoms of

different elements are different.
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE-
John Dalton
Atoms of different elements combine in simple
whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds
(explanation of law of definite proportion)
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined,
separated, or rearranged – but never changed into
atoms of another element (explanation of law of
conservation of mass).
This explanation also allows us to use chemical
equations to describe chemical reactions.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
John Dalton's atomic theory was generally accepted because it
explained the laws of
conservation of mass,
definite proportions,
multiple proportions,
and other observations.
Although exceptions to Dalton's theory are now known, his theory
has endured reasonably well, with modifications, throughout the
years.
 Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

◼Dalton was wrong about all elements of the same type being
identical.
◼Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of
neutrons.
◼Thus, different mass numbers.
◼These are called isotopes.
◼Frederick Soddy (1877-1956) proposed the idea of isotopes
in 1912.
◼This was close to 30 years after Dalton’s original idea
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
◼Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different
masses, due to varying numbers of neutrons.

◼Soddy won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921 for his work
with isotopes and radioactive materials.

◼Approximately fifty years after John Dalton's proposal of the

atom, evidence began to accumulate which suggested that the
atom might not be the solid sphere that Dalton had envisioned.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
This evidence came in the form of the discovery of
electrically charged particles and radioactive materials.
Becquerel: 1896. Discovered radioactivity
Maria Curie Sklodowska: discovered radium and polonium (1898)
Based on these new discoveries, Dalton's proposal of a
solid, indestructible atom was abandoned.
The discovery of electrically charged particles gave clues that
led to the development of the modern theory of the atom.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic
structure
In the 1830's, Michael Faraday, a British physicist, made one
of the most significant discoveries that led to the idea that
atoms had an electrical component.
Faraday placed two opposite electrodes in a solution of
water containing a dissolved compound.
He observed that one of the elements of the dissolved
compound accumulated on one electrode, and the other
element was deposited on the opposite electrode.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

In 1879, Sir William Crookes studied the effects of sending an

electric current through a gas in a sealed tube.
 The tube had electrodes at either end and a flow of
electrically charged particles moved from one of electrodes.
This electrode was called the cathode, and the particles were
known as cathode rays.
The particles were first believed to be negatively charged
atoms or molecules
 The Discovery of Electrons
• J. J. Thomson(1856-1940) - English physicist.
• Used cathode ray tube.
• It is a vacuum tube - all the air has been pumped out.
• Discovered the electron (1897) and the proton (1923)
• Calculated the ratio between the charge of the
electron and its mass: e/m

16
Development of the atomic theory and atomic
structure
• What particle did Thomson discover?
• Electrically Charged Particles
• J.J. Thomson discovered that atoms are made of smaller
negatively-charged particles called electrons.
• Thomson’s discovery was the result of doing experiments with
“cathode ray tubes”
Stream of electrons is attracted to positively charged plate
here.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
J.J. Thomson 1856-1940
• Electrically Charged Particles
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
Thomson discovered small particle inside the atom.
He called them corpuscles now called electrons.
Knew atoms had neutral charge.
Must also be a positive charge.
He didn’t know the location of the + or – particles.
He proposed electrons in a soup of positive charges.
He also discovered isotopes in 1904.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

In 1897, J.J. Thomson used a cathode ray tube to deduce

the presence of a negatively charged particle: the electron
The Plum Pudding Model
Thomson did not know how the electrons in an atom were
arranged. He believed they were mixed throughout an atom.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
He proposed that the atom was a sphere of positively
charged material.
Spread throughout the atom were the negatively
charged electrons similar to plums in a pudding or
chocolate chips in ice cream.
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiments

Robert Milikan (1909)

• Oil Drop Experiment
• Measured the electrical charge on the electron
• Mass can be calculated (Thomson determined the
e/m ratio)
• Mass is 1/1840 the mass of a hydrogen atom
• electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-28 g

22
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937)

• Awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of
alpha particles, positively charged particles emitted from
radioactive elements
• Was a student of J.J. Thomson but disagreed with the “Plum
Pudding Model”.
• Devised an experiment to investigate the structure of positive
and negative charges in the atom.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937).
Used the gold foil experiment to discover the nucleus.
He proposed a particle that is small, dense, with a positive
charge. He called that the nucleus.
An atom’s mass is mostly in the nucleus.
Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment calculated that the
diameter of nucleus is 100,000 times smaller than the
diameter of the gold atom.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
• Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment
 Ernest Rutherford Conclusions
Observation Conclusion
Most of the alpha The atom is mostly
particles went through he empty space
concluded…
Few particles were The alpha particle came
deflected at small angles close to something small
he concluded… and positive (nucleus)

Very rarely particles were The alpha particles hit a

deflected at large angles small, very dense, and
he concluded… positively charged center
(nucleus)
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

What did most of the particles shot at the gold foil do?
Most of the particles traveled straight through the gold
foil
What was the surprising behavior of a few of the
particles?
A few of the particles were deflected and some even
bounced back
 Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

Rutherford’s Revised Atomic Theory (1911)

Result: Most of the positively charged particles went straight
through the gold foil.

Atomic Theory: Most of the matter of the atom is found in a

very small part of the atom. This is called the nucleus of the
atom. It is very tiny and extremely dense.

Result: Some of the positively charged particles were deflected

or even bounced back.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

Rutherford’s Revised Atomic Theory (1911)

Atomic Theory: Like charges repel so the nucleus must
have a positive charge. If electrons have a negative
charge they could not be in a positively charged nucleus.
Electrons must surround the nucleus at a distance.

Result: The diameter of the nucleus is 100,000 times

smaller than the diameter of the entire gold atom.
Atomic Theory: Atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny,
massive nucleus at the center .
 Discovery of the Nucleus
At this point in 1909, we know:
➢p+ = 1.67 x 10-24 g
➢e- = 9.11 x 10-28 g
➢The charges are balance!
➢Size of atom: 1x 10-11m (for hydrogen atom, the smallest in the
periodic table)
➢Size of nucleus: 1 x 10-15 m
But,
➢How are the electrons arranged?
➢There is still mass that is unaccounted for
30
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

❖Niels Bohr, 1885 – 1962, Danish scientist.

• The Bohr Model of the Atom
➢He proposed planetary model in 1913.
➢Nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons at different energy
levels (different distances from nucleus).
• Electrons have definite orbits
• No paths in between.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

• Electrons can “jump” from level to level.

• Showed why different atoms interact and why they are
reactive.
What did Bohr learn about electron movement?
• Bohr proposed that electrons move in paths at certain distances
around the nucleus.
• Electrons can jump from a path on one level to a path on
another level.
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure
• Bohr also suggested that the electrons can only revolve in
certain orbits, or at certain energy levels (ie, the energy levels
are quantized)

no energy level in between steps

Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

• Erwin Schrodinger (1887 – 1961)

• Werner Heisenberge (1901 – 1976)
• They both explained nature of electrons.
• Electron Cloud Model
• Electron don’t travel in specific paths but in a general area.
• Can only predict probability of an electrons location. Electrons
travel in regions called “electron clouds”
• You cannot predict exactly where an electron will be found,
MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
Development of the atomic theory and atomic structure

• In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, took the Bohr atom

model one step further.
• Schrödinger used mathematical equations to describe the likelihood
of finding an electron in a certain position.
• This atomic model is known as the quantum mechanical model of the
atom.
• The exact path of electrons cannot be predicted.
• The region referred to as the electron cloud, is an area where
electrons can likely be found
 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
Erwin Shrodinger
1926 - Austrian physicist; developed the electron cloud model

◼ HisTheory:
▪ The exact path of electrons cannot be predicted.

▪ The region referred to as the electron cloud, is an area

where electrons can likely be found.
 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
◼JamesChadwick,English physicist; 1932 - English
physicist; discovered neutrons
◼ His Theory:
▪ Neutrons have no electrical charge.
▪ Neutrons have a mass nearly equal to the
mass of a proton.
▪ Unit of measurement for subatomic particles
is the atomic mass unit (amu).
 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
◼The current understanding of the atom is based on Quantum
Mechanics

◼This model sees the electrons not as individual particles, but

as behaving like a cloud - the electron can be “anywhere” in a
certain energy level.
◼Unlike the Bohr model, the quantum mechanical model does
not define the exact path of an electron, but rather, predicts the
odds of the location of the electron.
 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

electrons can
be found note: the electrons
anywhere in are still quantized
these “shells”
no electrons can
be found here
 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
◼Atoms are composed of three main subatomic
particles: the electron, proton, and neutron.

◼Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the

nucleus of the atom.
◼The protons and neutrons are located within the
nucleus, while the electrons exist outside of the
nucleus.

◼Instable atoms, the number of protons is equal to

the number of electrons.
 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
◼The type of atom is determined by the number of protons it
has.

◼The number of protons in an atom is equal to the atomic

number.
◼The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a
particular atom is called the atomic mass.

◼Valence electrons are the outermost electrons.

 THE WAVE NATURE OF THE ELECTRON
In 1924, Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) postulated that if
light can act as a particle, then a particle might have wave
properties.
De Broglie took Einstein’s equation λ = h/mc
And rewrote it as

λ = h/mv
where m = mass of an electron, v = velocity of an
electron
• Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)
–The Uncertainty Principle, 1927
–“The more precisely the position is determined, the less
precisely the momentum is known in this instant, and vice
x  p 
4
h

versa.” h
 x p
4
–As matter gets smaller, approaching the size of an electron, our
measuring device interacts with matter to affect our
measurement.
–We can only determine the probability of the location or the
momentum of the electron
 Quantum Mechanics
Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961)
•The wave equation, 1927
•Uses mathematical equations of wave motion to
generate a series of wave equations to describe
electron behavior in an atom
•The wave equations or wave functions are designated
by the Greek letter ψ
wave function mass of electron potential energy at x,y,z

d2 d2 d2 82m

2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
(E-V(x,y,z)(x,y,z) = 0
dx dy dz h

how  changes in space total quantized energy of

the atomic system
Quantum Mechanics
• The square of the wave
equation, ψ2, gives a
probability density map of
where an electron has a
certain statistical likelihood
of being at any given
instant in time.
Quantum Numbers
• Solving the wave equation gives a set of wave functions, or
orbitals, and their corresponding energies.
• Each orbital describes a spatial distribution of electron
density.
• An orbital is described by a set of three quantum numbers.
• Quantum numbers can be considered to be “coordinates” (similar
to x, y, and z coodrinates for a graph) which are related to where
an electron will be found in an atom.
 Solutions to the Schrodinger Wave Equation
Quantum Numbers of Electrons in Atoms
Name Symbol Permitted Values Property

principal n positive integers(1,2,3,…) Energy level

angular l integers from 0 to n-1 orbital shape (probability

momentum distribution)
(The l values 0, 1, 2, and 3
correspond to s, p, d, and f
orbitals, respectively.)

magnetic ml integers from -l to 0 to +l orbital orientation

spin ms +1/2 or -1/2 direction of e- spin

 Looking at Quantum Numbers:
The Principal Quantum Number, n

• The principal quantum number, n, describes the

energy level on which the orbital resides.

• The values of n are integers ≥ 0.

n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
Looking at Quantum Numbers:
The Azimuthal Quantum Number, l
• The azimuthal (or angular momentum) quantum number tells the electron’s
angular momentum.
• Allowed values of l are integers ranging from 0 to n − 1.
For example, if n = 1, l = 0
if n = 2, l can equal 0 or 1

Value of l Angular momentum

0 None
1 Linear
2 2-directional
3 3-directional
Looking at Quantum Numbers: The Azimuthal Quantum Number, l
• The values of l relate to the most probable electron distribution.
• Letter designations are used to designate the different values of l
and, therefore, the shapes of orbitals.

Value of l Orbital (subshell) Orbital Shape Name*

Letter designation *From
0 s sharp
emission
1 p principal spectroscopy
2 d diffuse terms
3 f fine
Looking at Quantum Numbers: The Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

• Describes the orientation of an orbital with respect to a magnetic

field
• This translates as the three-dimensional orientation of the orbital.
• Values of ml are integers ranging from -l to l:
 −l ≤ ml ≤ l.

Values of l Values of ml Orbital designation Number of orbitals

0 0 s 1
1 -1, 0, +1 p 3
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 d 5
3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 f 7
Quantum Numbers and Subshells
• Orbitals with the same value of n form a shell
• Different orbital types within a shell are called subshells.
• Otto Stern (1888-1969) and
Walther Gerlach (1889-1979)
–Stern-Gerlach experiment, 1922
Spin Quantum Number, ms

• This led to a fourth

quantum number, the spin
quantum number, ms.
• The spin quantum number
has only 2 allowed values:
+1/2 and −1/2.
• Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958)
–Pauli Exclusion Principle, 1925
–“There can never be two or more
equivalent electrons in an atom for which in
strong fields the values of all quantum
numbers n, k1, k2, m1 (or, equivalently, n, k1,
m1, m1) are the same.”
Hund’s Rule
• Friedrich Hund (1896 - 1997)
• For degenerate orbitals, the lowest
energy is attained when the
electrons occupy separate orbitals
with their spins unpaired.
 Counting Atoms
• Nuclear Symbol Notation
 Atoms
• Protons have a positive (+) charge and electrons have a negative (-
) charge

• In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of

electrons, so the overall charge is zero (0)

• Example/ Helium, with an atomic number of 2, has 2 protons

and 2 electrons when stable
 Ions
• In a neutral atom
• Atomic number = # of protons = #of electrons

• Sometimes atoms will gain or lose electrons and form IONS

• Because an electron has a negative charge:
• When an atom GAINS electrons it becomes NEGATIVE
• When an atom LOSES electrons it becomes POSITIVE
 Ions

Cation = a positive ion

Anion = a negative ion

Let’s Practice
• Aluminum (Al) (no periodic table)
• Protons = 13
• Electrons =
• Neutrons = 14
• Atomic Number =
• Atomic Mass =
Let’s Practice w/ nuclear symbol notation
Nuclear Symbol notation (no
periodic table)
Protons =
Electrons =
108
Ag
Neutrons =
Atomic Number =
Atomic Mass = 47
Let’s Practice w/ isotopes
use the periodic table
Protons =
Electrons = Uranium-235
Neutrons =
Atomic Number =
Atomic Mass =
Let’s Practice with Ions
Use the periodic table

K
Charge = 39 1+
Protons =
Electrons =
Neutrons =
Atomic Number =
Atomic Mass =