TALL BUILDINGS

• Tall buildings, also known as high-rise buildings or skyscrapers, are large buildings that
can house offices, residences, hotels, and retail establishments among other uses.
• National Building Code (NBC) of India defines a tall or high-rise building as – “all the
buildings of 15 m or above in height”.
• The distinction between a tower block and a skyscraper, however, is frequently
imperceptible. In India, the high-rise buildings are classified as –

1. Buildings higher than 50 m is termed as Tall

Building

2. Buildings higher than 100 m is termed as

Skyscraper.

3. Buildings higher than 300 m are termed as

Super-tall.

4. Buildings higher than 600 m are termed as

Mega-tall.

5. Tall buildings are constructed as framed

structures - that is a construction method which
comprises a network of columns and beams to
transfer the loads coming onto the structure to
the foundation successfully.

• Three are two types of frame structure they are -

1. Rigid Frame Structure:

• These frames are built at the site and may or may not be poured monolithically.
• They provide more stability and resist rotations effectively.
• The advantage of a rigid frame is that they feature positive and negative bending
moments throughout the structure due to the interaction of walls, beams, and
slabs.
2. Braced Frame Structure:
• This frame structure resists lateral forces by the bracing action of diagonal.
members used to resist the sideways forces.
• The structure is braced by inserting diagonal structural members into the
rectangular areas of a structural frame.
• Braced structural frames are more efficient than the rigid structural frame.
 SYSTEMS IN TALL BUILDINGS

1. Tube System –

The tubular structural system evolved from the concept of the rigid frame system.
A tubular
o Structural systems are used in high-rise buildings to resist lateral loads like
wind and seismic forces.
o The system consists of an internal core arrangement surrounded by
exterior columns.
o The exterior perimeter columns are closely spaced and tied together with
deep beams forming a rigid frame. The interior columns are few and
located around the core structure.
o The exterior framing is designed to be strong enough to resist the lateral
loads acting on the
o building, thereby letting the interior of the building resist gravity loads.
o The major types of tubular structural systems are:

a. Framed Tube System:

• The framed tube can be used for various floor plan shapes like square,
circular, rectangular, and freeform.
 • The framed tube structural system consists of closely spaced exterior
columns that are rigidly connected with deep spandrel beams running
continuously along each facade and around the building corners.
• This arrangement increases the beam and column stiffness by
decreasing the clear span dimensions and increasing the member
depth.
• This type is efficient for buildings with a height from 38 to 300 m.

b. Framed Tube-in -tube System:

• Tube-in-tube structural system is also known as “hull and core”
arrangement.
• Here, a core tube is surrounded by an exterior tube.
• The core tube holds the critical elements of a high-rise building like lifts,
ducts, stairs, etc.
• The exterior tube is the usual tube system that takes most of the gravity
and lateral loads.
• In this system, the inner and outer tubes interact horizontally as shear
and flexural components.

c. Trussed Tube-in-tube System:

• Trussed tube structural systems like frame tube systems consist of
exterior columns fewer in number compared to framed tube systems
that are placed far apart.
• These columns are connected using steel bracing or concrete shear
walls. This interconnection of exterior columns makes a rigid box
capable of resisting lateral shear by axial force in members.
• The provision of broad column spacing in the trussed tube system
allows clear space for windows.

d. Bundles Tube System:

• In bundled tube structural system, there are several interconnected
tubes to form a multi-cell tube.
• This arrangement together resists lateral loads and overturning
moments.
• The tube-in-tube system is the most economical and versatile building
design that helps to create interesting shapes.
2. Bracing System –

• A bracing system is a structural element to resist lateral forces like wind,

seismic, and other loads that can cause the building to sway or collapse.
• Braced frames often use members constructed of structural steel because of
the material’s high strength in both tension and compression.
• Bracing can also be used to distribute vertical bending effects between the
main beams, ensuring lateral effects (wind and collision loading) are shared
among all beams.
• As far as structural bracing types are concerned, these are given below:
a. Single Diagonals: Uses a single diagonal member to stabilize the frame.
Must be resistant to tension and compression.
b. Cross-Bracing: Uses two diagonal members crossing each other.
Resistant to tension.
c. K-Bracing: Connects to columns at mid-height. Allows for more flexibility
in the façade and results in less bending in floor beams. Not
recommended in seismic regions due to the potential for column failure.
d. V-Bracing: Two diagonal members form a V-shape. Can considerably
lessen the buckling capacity of the compression brace. Used in seismic
regions with centric bracing structures.
3. Shear Wall System –

• Shear wall is a structural member in a reinforced concrete framed structure to

resist lateral forces.
• such as wind, seismic, and gravity loads.
• They are typically made of reinforced concrete or masonry and are designed to
transfer loads to the foundation.
• Shear walls are essential in high-rise buildings as they provide stability and
prevent the building from collapsing during earthquakes or strong winds.
• Shear walls absorb and transfer the horizontal force and pressure of a load from
its source to the ground foundation, shear walls keep a building from collapsing
sideways by resisting horizontal forces.
• Shear walls can be classified based on various criteria, including:
a. The material used: Shear walls can be made of concrete, masonry, steel,
wood, or a combination of materials.
b. Configuration: Concrete shear walls are continuous and have no openings,
and framed
c. shear walls have a frame structure with infill panels.
d. Load-bearing capacity: Shear walls can be classified based on their load-
bearing ability, including light-duty, intermediate-duty, and heavy-duty shear
walls.
e. Orientation: Shear walls can be vertical, inclined, or horizontal.
f. Function: Shear walls can be used as a structural element or as a cladding
element. Structural shear walls provide the necessary strength to resist lateral
loads, while cladding shear walls only serves an aesthetic purpose and does
not provide significant strength.
g. Location: Shear walls can be located at the perimeter or interior of a building,
or they can run vertically or horizontally.
 COMPONENTS OF A TALL FRAME STRUCTURE

1. COLUMNS:
• Columns are the vertical members of a structure which carry the loads from
the beam, slabs, and other structural members to transfer it to the foundation
and then the strata.
• The loads carried may be axial or eccentric.
• The design of columns is more important than the design of beams and slabs
because, if one beam fails, it'll be a local failure of one floor, but if one column
fails, it can lead to the collapse of the whole structure.

2. BEAMS:
• Beams are the horizontal load-bearing members of the framed structure.
• They carry the loads from slabs and the direct loads of masonry walls and
their self-weights.
• The beams may be supported on the other beams or may be supported by
columns forming an integral part of the frame.
• These are primarily the flexural members.

They are classified into 2 types:

• Primary Beams - Transmitting floor and secondary beam loads to the

• columns.
• Secondary Beams - Transmitting floor loads to the primary beams.

3. SLABS:
• A slab is a flat horizontal plate that is used for covering the building from
above and providing shelter for the inhabitants.
• These are the structural elements and carry the loads primarily by flexure.
• They usually carry vertical loads.
• Under the action of horizontal loads, due to a large moment of inertia, they
can carry large wind and earthquake forces, and then transfer them to the
beam.

4. FOUNDATION:
 • A foundation is the base level of a building that supports and anchors the
superstructure.
• The sole function of the foundation is to transmit the load coming from the
above columns and beams to the solid ground.
• The main functions of the foundation can be known as follows:
· Provides the general lateral stability of a structure.
· Evenly distributes the load.
· The intensity of the load is reduced for it to be within the safe tolerance
capacity of the soil.
· It resists in front of soil movement and holds the building still.
· Scouring (because of water flow) and other issues related to the land’s
humidity are partly solved by implementing a foundation.

5. SHEAR WALL:
• These are important structural elements in high-rise buildings.
• Shear walls are actually very large columns because of which they appear
like walls rather than columns.
• They take care of horizontal loads like wind and earthquake loads.
• It’s important to understand that they only work for horizontal loads in one
direction, which is the axis of the long dimension of the wall.

6. ELEVATOR SHAFT:
• The elevator shaft is a vertical concrete box in which the elevator is
provided for vertical transport purposes.
• These shafts help in resisting horizontal loads and carry the vertical loads.

CONSIDERATIONS TAKEN FOR TALL BUILDINGS

Following are the primary construction considerations that will help to know the
construction methodology for tall buildings –

a. Assessment of the site and compliance with regulations: It is important to get

knowledge of the local compliance requirements and geological realities of your
building location, one must collect survey data (e.g., soil stress-strain,
groundwater dynamics, etc.) on the area’s ability to withstand the loads on high-
rise buildings.
b. Structural Integrity: To ensure structural integrity, double-check elements such as
your building’s spatial rigidity and load-bearing capacity. Validating the vertical
and horizontal load bearing of the structure is critical.

c. Energy efficiency: Energy efficiency can be optimized by an appropriate design of

MEP (Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing). If you oversee achieving LEED
certification for your high-rise, you will need to identify ways to reduce your
building’s electricity and water consumption.

d. Life-safety: Stairways serve as vertical emergency exits in life-safety systems that

are like those found in low-rise buildings; in the event of a fire, all elevators are
automatically shut down to prevent people from becoming trapped inside.

e. Vertical Transportation: Systems for vertical transportation are crucial in high-rise

structures. Escalators are used to move large groups of people over short
distances on lower floors. In tall buildings, the roped elevator serves as the main
means of vertical transportation. A direct current electric motor drives the
elevator, which raises and lowers the cab in a shaft using wire ropes that cross
several sheaves at the motor and the cab.

JAPAN EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT

TECHNOLOGY FOR HIGH-RISE
Japan’s five seismic construction devices that help to mitigate (make the effect less
severe or harmful) an earthquake's effects on the high-rise structures are –

1. Lead rudder bearings-

• Lead rubber bearings are a base isolation system, that are installed on a
building's foundation to essentially decouple the structure from the ground
itself.
• They’re constructed from rubber grommets with a lead core and allow the
building to sway more easily - as a unit - with the force of the seismic wave.
• These are the most effective means of passive structural vibration control and
are used heavily in seismic retrofits.

2. Tuned Mass Dampers-

• Tuned Mass Damper to minimize the effects of an earthquake's shakes.
• If a building oscillates excessively during an earthquake, it may fail structurally.
• To counteract these oscillations, tuned mass dampers often huge concrete.
• blocks mounted in upper floors of the building are employed.
• They move in opposition to the resonance frequency oscillations of the
structure.

3. Friction Pendulum Bearings-

• Friction pendulum bearings work similarly to Lead rubber bearings however,
instead of a solid lead core, the friction pendulum uses a bearing on a curved
inner plate to keep a building level as it moves back and forth like a pendulum.
• This allows the structure to ride out the strongest earthquake forces with a
mild, dipping motion.

4. Roller Bearing-
• Roller bearings are like friction pendulum bearings but lack dip. Two sets of
isolated rollers are stacked atop one another and installed in a building’s
foundations.
• As the Earth moves, the building simply rolls back and forth. And, since the
rollers operated independently, they can account for any directional shakes.

5. Hysteretic Dampers-
• Hysteretic dampers are shock absorbers for buildings.
 • Unlike the rest of the devices mentioned, don't make the structure move with
the quake, they simply absorb it.
• The most common form of Hysteretic damper is the fluid viscous damper
pictured.
• It employs thick oils to dissipate the incoming seismic load in the same way
the shocks on your car dissipate the impact of potholes.

MATERIALS

High-rise buildings are typically constructed using steel or reinforced concrete

frameworks, with glass or polished stone curtain walls. The frame of the structure
is made of columns and beams, and cross-bracing or shear walls can be used to
provide more lateral rigidity.
However, some common materials frequently used in the construction of tall
buildings include -
1. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):
• Reinforced concrete is a primary material for tall buildings due to its strength
and durability.
• High-strength concrete and precast concrete elements are often used to
support the vertical load.
• RCC buildings are more durable and require less maintenance cost than steel
structures.
• They also have better fire resistance properties.
2. Structural Steel:
• Structural steel is another essential material, providing flexibility, strength, and
the ability to create large open spaces.
• Steel is often used for framing systems, beams, and columns.
 • Steel is used because it binds well to concrete, has a similar thermal
expansion coefficient, and is strong and relatively cost-effective.
• Steel structures are more resistant than RCC structures due to their lower
weight.
3. Aluminum: The great advantage of aluminum is its combination of good
mechanical characteristics and the ease, thanks to the extrusion process, to
obtain any shape of profile that would suit the specifications of the facade in term
of aesthetics as well as performance. The most important advantages of
Aluminum are as
follow -
• Air and water tightness
• Energy saving (thermal performance)
• Energy generation (photovoltaic>electricity generation or solar>hot water
production)
• Lighting (sun control and shading)
4. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP): This advanced composite material
is known for its exceptional strength and lightweight properties. CFRP is five
times stronger than steel and weighs only one-fourth of its weight. Advantages of
CFRP:
• High strength-to-weight ratio.
• Enhanced durability.
• Corrosion resistance.
• Improved seismic performance.
• Reduced construction time.