Jumpstart

Direction: Write the letter of the term or phrase that best completes the statement
or answers the question.

_____1. As in the case of unlike magnetic poles, what happens to the unlike electric
charges?
A. attract B. repel C. exist in pairs D. do not interact

_____2. What do you call the region around a magnet where the magnetic force is
Exerted?
A. magnetic pole B. iodestone C. magnetic fie D. magnetic domain

_____3. Where does one part of a freely swinging magnet always point?
A. east
B. to Earth's magnetic north pole
C. toward Earth's core
D. to Earth's magnetic south pole in the Northern Hemisphere

_____4. What happens when a temporary magnet keeps its magnetism for a long
time?
A. easily loses its magnetism B. realigned domain
C. has two north poles D. cannot be destroyed

_____5. Earth's magnetism is related to the circulation of molten material within

Earth's ___.
A. core B. ocean C. crust D. mantle

_____6. Where is the pushing and pulling force of a magnet strongest?

A. In the middle of the magnet B. At the ends of the magnet
C. Same all the way through the magnet D. None of these

_____7. The magnetic force of a material comes from the spinning of what atomic
particle?
A. Proton B. Electron C. Neutron D. Nucleus

_____8. What would you detect by using a compass, iron filings, and iron objects?
A. Electricity B. Gravity c. Magnetic field D. Directions

_____9. The closer together a magnet's magnetic field lines are, ________.
A. the weaker the magnetic field
B. the closer they are to the magnet's center
C. the closer they are to disappearing
D. the stronger the magnetic field

_____10. Magnetism is an example of a type of ___________.

A. matter B. force C. compound D. light
 Discover

MAGNETISM

The history of magnetism begins thousands of years ago. In a region of Asia

Manor known as Magnesia (now Manisa, in western Turkey), rocks were found that
could attract each other. These rocks were called “magnets” after their place of
discovery.

Not until the nineteenth century, however, was it seen that magnetism and
electricity are closely related. A crucial discovery was that electric currents produce
magnetic effects (we will say “magnetic fields”) like magnets do. All kinds of
practical devices depend on magnetism, as we shall see: from compasses to motors,
loudspeakers, computer memory, and electric generators.
 1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields

1.1 Magnetism
We have observed a magnet attract paper clips, nails and other objects made
of iron. Any magnet, whether it is in the shape of a bar or a horseshoe, has two
ends or faces, called poles, which is where the magnetic effect is strongest.

If a bar magnet is suspended from a fine thread, it is found that one pole of
the magnet will always point toward the north. It is not known for sure when this
fact was discovered., but it is known that the Chinese were making use of it as an
aid to navigation by the eleventh century and perhaps earlier. This is the principle
of a compass. A compass needle is simply a bar magnet which is supported at its
center of gravity so that it can rotate freely. The pole of a freely suspended magnet
that points toward geographic north called the north pole of the magnet. The other
pole points toward the south and is called the south pole.

Before the relationship of magnetic interactions to moving charges was

understood, the interactions of permanent magnets and compass needles were
described in terms of magnetic poles. If a bar-shaped permanent magnet, or bar
magnet, is free to rotate, one end points north. This end is called a north pole or N
pole; the other end is a south pole or S pole. Opposite poles attract each other, and
like poles repel each other (Fig.1). An object that contains iron but is not itself
magnetized (that is, it shows no tendency to point north or south) is attracted by
either pole of a permanent magnet (Fig. 2). This is the attraction that acts between
a magnet and the unmagnetized steel door of a refrigerator. By analogy to electric
interactions, we describe the interactions in Figs. 1 and 2 by saying that a bar
magnet sets up a magnetic field in the space around it and a second body responds
to that field. A compass needle tends to align with the magnetic field at the needle’s
position.
Figure 1. (a) Two bar magnets
attract when opposite poles (N and Figure 2. (a) Either pole of a bar magnet
S, or S and N) are next to each other. attracts an unmagnetized object that contains
(b) The bar magnets repel when like iron, such as a nail. (b) A real-life example of
poles (N and N, or S and S) are next this effect.
to each other.

Photo credit: University Physics with Photo credit: University Physics with Modern
Modern Physics 13 th edition Physics 13 th edition

Earth’s Magnetic Field

The earth itself is a magnet. Its north geographic pole is close to a magnetic south
pole, which is why the north pole of a compass needle points north. The earth’s
magnetic axis is not quite parallel to its geographic axis (the axis of rotation), so a
compass reading deviates somewhat from geographic north. This deviation, which
varies with location, is called magnetic declination or magnetic variation. Also, the
magnetic field is not horizontal at most points on the earth’s surface; its angle up
or down is called magnetic inclination. At the magnetic poles the magnetic field is
vertical. Figure 3 is a sketch of the earth’s magnetic field. The lines, called magnetic
field lines, show the direction that a compass would point at each location. The
direction of the field at any point can be defined as the direction of the force that
the field would exert on a magnetic north pole.

Figure 3. A sketch of
the earth’s magnetic
field. The field, which is
caused by currents in
the earth’s molten core,
changes with time;
geologic evidence
shows that it reverses
direction entirely at
irregular intervals of
104 to 106 years.

Photo credit:
University Physics with
Modern Physics 13th
edition

1.2 Magnetic Field

To introduce the concept of magnetic field properly, let’s review our formulation of
electric interactions in the previous lessons, where we introduced the concept of
electric field. We represented electric interactions in two steps:
1. A distribution of electric charge at rest creates an electric field 𝐸 ⃗ in the
surrounding space.
⃗ = 𝒒𝑬
2. The electric field exerts a force 𝑭 ⃗ on any other charge 𝑞 that is present
in the field.
We can describe magnetic interactions in a similar way:
1. A moving charge or a current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding
space (in addition to its electric field).
2. The magnetic field exerts a force 𝑭 ⃗ on any other moving charge or current
that is present in the field.

Like electric field, magnetic field is a vector field—that is, a vector quantity
associated with each point in space. We will use the symbol 𝑩 ⃗⃗ for magnetic field.
⃗⃗ is defined as the direction in which the north pole
At any position the direction of 𝑩
of a compass needle tends to point. The arrows in Fig. 3 suggest the direction of
the earth’s magnetic field; for any magnet, points out of its north pole and into its
south pole

The Definition of 𝑩 ⃗⃗
We determined the electric field ⃗𝑬 at a point by putting a test particle of charge 𝑞
at rest at that point and measuring the electric force ⃗𝑭𝑬 acting on the particle. We
then defined 𝑬⃗ as
⃗
𝑭
⃗ = 𝑬.
𝑬 (𝐸𝑞. 1)
𝒒

If a magnetic monopole were available, we could define 𝑩 ⃗⃗ in a similar way. Because

such particles have not been found, we must define 𝑩 ⃗⃗ in another way, in terms of
⃗ 𝑩 exerted on a moving electrically charged test particle.
the magnetic force 𝑭

Moving Charged Particles. In principle, we do this by firing a charged particle

through the point at which 𝑩 ⃗⃗ is to be defined, using various directions and speeds
for the particle and determining the force ⃗𝑭𝑩 that acts on the particle at that point.
After many such trials we would find that when the particle’s velocity 𝒗 ⃗ is along a
⃗
particular axis through the point, force 𝑭𝑩 is zero. For all other directions of 𝒗 ⃗ , the
magnitude of 𝑭 ⃗ 𝑩 is always proportional to 𝑣 sin 𝜙, where 𝜙 is the angle between the
zero-force axis and the direction of 𝒗 ⃗ . Furthermore, the direction of ⃗𝑭𝑩 is always
perpendicular to the direction of 𝒗 ⃗ . (These results suggest that a cross product is
involved.)

The Field. We can then define a magnetic field 𝑩 ⃗⃗ to be a vector quantity that is
directed along the zero-force axis. We can next measure the magnitude of 𝑭 ⃗ 𝑩 when
⃗⃗
⃗ is directed perpendicular to that axis and then define the magnitude of 𝑩 in terms
𝒗
of that force magnitude:
⃗𝑭𝑩
𝑩= , (𝐸𝑞. 2)
|𝒒|𝒗

where 𝑞 is the charge of the particle.

We can summarize all these results with the following vector equation:

⃗𝑭𝑩 = 𝒒𝒗 ⃗⃗ ;
⃗ 𝒙𝑩 (𝐸𝑞. 3)
that is, the force ⃗𝑭𝑩 on the particle is equal to the charge 𝒒 times the cross product
of its velocity 𝒗
⃗ and the field 𝑩⃗⃗ (all measured in the same reference frame). Using
the cross product, we can write the magnitude of 𝑭 ⃗ 𝑩 as
⃗𝑭𝑩 = |𝒒|𝒗𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓, (𝐸𝑞. 4)
where 𝝓 is the angle between the directions of velocity ⃗𝒗 and magnetic field 𝑩 ⃗⃗ .

SI Unit for Magnetic Field

The SI unit for that follows from Eq. 3 and 4 is the newton per coulomb-meter per
second. For convenience, this is called the tesla (T):
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
1 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1 𝑇 = 1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 .
(𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏)( )
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Recalling that a coulomb per second is an ampere, we have

𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑁
1𝑇=1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1 .
(𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏)( ) 𝐴∙𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑊𝑏
An older name for the tesla is the “weber per meter squared” (1 2 = 1𝑇)
𝑚
⃗ , still in common use, is the gauss (G), and
An earlier (non-SI) unit for 𝐵
1 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 104 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠

1𝐺 = 10−4 𝑇
A field given in gauss should always be changed to teslas before using with other
SI units.

1.3 Electric Field vs. Magnetic Field

Figure 4. An Electric field and Magnetic field lines

Photo credit: Byjus.com

An object with a moving charge always has both magnetic and electric fields.
They have some similarities and also have two different fields with the same
characteristics. Both fields are inter-related called electromagnetic fields, but they
are not dependent on each other.

The magnetic field is an exerted area around the magnetic force. It is

obtained by moving electric charges. The direction of the magnetic field is indicated
by lines. While the electric fields are generated around the particles which obtain
electric charge. During this process, positive charges are drawn, while negative
charges are repelled.

The area around a magnet within which magnetic force is exerted, is called
a magnetic field. It is produced by moving electric charges. The presence and
strength of a magnetic field is denoted by “magnetic flux lines”. The direction of
the magnetic field is also indicated by these lines. The closer the lines, the stronger
the magnetic field and vice versa. When iron particles are placed over a magnet,
the flux lines can be clearly seen. Magnetic fields also generate power in particles
which come in contact with it. Electric fields are generated around particles that
bear electric charge. Positive charges are drawn towards it, while negative charges
are repelled.

A moving charge always has both a magnetic and an electric field, and that’s
precisely the reason why they are associated with each other. They are two different
fields with nearly the same characteristics. Therefore, they are inter-related in a
field called the electromagnetic field. In this field, the electric field and the magnetic
field move at right angles to each other. However, they are not dependent on each
other. They may also exist independently. Without the electric field, the magnetic
field exists in permanent magnets and electric fields exist in the form of static
electricity, in absence of the magnetic field.

1.3a. What are Electric and Magnetic Fields?

Magnetic fields are created whenever there is a flow of electric current. This
can also be thought of as the flow of water in a garden hose. As the amount of current
flowing increases, the level of magnetic field increases. Magnetic fields are measured
in milliGauss (mG).

An electric field occurs wherever a voltage is present. Electric fields are

created around appliances and wires wherever a voltage exists. You can think of
electric voltage as the pressure of water in a garden hose – the higher the voltage,
the stronger the electric field strength. Electric field strength is measured in volts per
meter (V/m). The strength of an electric field decreases rapidly as you move away
from the source. Electric fields can also be shielded by many objects, such as trees
or the walls of a building.

1.3b. Nature
An electric field is essentially a force field that’s created around an
electrically charged particle. A magnetic field is one that’s created around a
permanent magnetic substance or a moving electrically charged object.

1.3c. Movement
In an electromagnetic field, the directions in which the electric and magnetic
field move, are perpendicular to each other.

1.3d. Units
The units which represent the strengths of the electric and magnetic field
are also different. The strength of the magnetic field is represented by either gauss
or Tesla. The strength of an electric field is represented by Newton per Coulomb or
Volts per Meter.

1.3e. Force
The electric field is actually the force per unit charge experienced by a non
moving point charge at any given location within the field, whereas the magnetic
field is detected by the force it exerts on other magnetic particles and moving
electric charges.

However, both the concepts are wonderfully correlated and have played
important roles in plenty of path breaking innovations. Their relationship can be
clearly explained with the help of Maxwell's Equations, a set of partial differential
equations which relate the electric and magnetic fields to their sources, current
density and charge density.

Difference Between Electric Field and Magnetic Field

Electric Field Magnetic Field
It creates an electric charge Creates an electric charge
Nature
in surrounding around moving magnets
Measured as newton per Measured as gauss or tesla
Units
coulomb
Proportional to the electric Proportional to charge and
Force
charge speed of electric charge
Movement in Perpendicular to the electric
Perpendicular to the
Electromagnetic field
magnetic field
field
An electric field is measure The magnetic field is
Measuring
is measured using an measured using the
device
electrometer magnetometer

1.4 Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through
an area (the product of the average magnetic field times the perpendicular area
that it penetrates). The symbol we use for flux is the Greek letter capital phi, Φ
.The equation for magnetic flux is:
Φ = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃,

where 𝜃 is the angle between the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ and the area vector 𝐴
⃗⃗⃗ . The area
vector has a magnitude equal to the area of a surface, and a direction
perpendicular to the plane of the surface. The SI unit for magnetic flux is the weber
(Wb). 1 Wb = 1 T m2.

Faraday’s law states that an induced current is produced whenever the flux
changes. The flux depends on the magnetic field B, area A, and the angle θ. A
change in any of these three factors constitutes a change in flux.
Fig. A. To maximize the magnetic flux through a flat
area, orient the area so the plane of the area is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
(a) shows a perspective view, while (b) shows the view
looking along the field lines. In this case, the area
vector is in the same direction as the field lines. (Full
faced area perpendicular to the magnetic field gives a maximum magnetic flux)

Fig. B. There is no flux when the plane of the area

is parallel to the field. (a) shows a perspective view,
while (b) shows the view looking along the field lines.
In this case, the area vector is perpendicular to the
field lines. (An area must be perpendicular to the
magnetic field)

Fig. C. Tilting the loop from the orientation in Figure

A reduces the flux. (a) shows a perspective view,
while (b) shows the view along the field lines. (Lesser
exposure of surface area means lesser flux)

Example
The figure below is a perspective view of a flat surface with area 3.0 cm2 in a
⃗ . The magnetic flux through this surface is +0.90 mWb.
uniform magnetic field 𝐵
Find the magnitude of the magnetic field and the direction of the area vector 𝐴.

Figure D. (a) A flat area A in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ (b) The area vector 𝐴 makes
a 60° angle with 𝐵 ⃗ . (If we had chosen 𝐴 to point in the opposite direction, θ would
have been 120° and the magnetic flux 𝛷𝐵 would have been negative.)

Solution
Identify and Set Up: Our target variables are the field magnitude B and the
direction of the area vector. Because 𝐵 ⃗ is uniform, B and θ are the same at all
points on the surface. Hence, we can use
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Execute: The area A is 3.0𝑥10 𝑚2 ; the direction of 𝐴 is perpendicular to the
−4

surface, so θ could be either 60° or 120°. But Φ𝐵 , B, and A are all positive, so 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
must also be positive. This rules out 120°, so θ = 60°, see figure above. Hence, we
find
 Φ𝐵 0.90 𝑥10−3 𝑊𝑏
𝐵= =
𝐴 cos 𝜃 (3.0𝑥 10−4 𝑚2 )(cos 60°)

Evaluate: In many problems we are asked to calculate the flux of a given magnetic
field through a given area. This example is somewhat different: It tests your
understanding of the definition of magnetic flux.

2 Lorentz Force

Lorentz force is defined as the combination of the magnetic and electric force on a
point charge due to electromagnetic fields. It is used in electromagnetism and is
also known as the electromagnetic force.

The force that a magnetic field exerts affects another material at the atomic level.
Recall that an electric field exerts a force of
⃗ 𝑬 = 𝒒𝑬
𝑭 (𝐸𝑞. 1)

on a charge. This is the electrostatic force.

Magnetic fields also exert forces on a charged particle but only when that charged
particle is moving. The magnetic force ⃗𝑭𝑩 is defined as the cross product:

⃗𝑭𝑩 = 𝒒𝒗 𝒙 𝑩 (𝐸𝑞. 2)

⃗⃗ is the external
In this equation, q is the charge, v is the velocity of the charge, and 𝑩
magnetic field. To evaluate the cross product, we need to know the angle θ between
v and 𝑩⃗⃗ . Then the magnitude of the magnetic force is:
⃗𝑭𝑩 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 (𝐸𝑞. 3)

The quantity 𝑩⃗⃗ is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field. It is also known
as magnetic flux density or magnetic induction. The SI unit of magnetic field is the
tesla (T), named after the Serbian inventor, Nikola Tesla. A tesla is the amount of
magnetic field that will exert a force of 1 N on a charge of 1 C moving at 1 m/s
perpendicular to that field. The equivalent units are:

𝑁
𝐶 = 1𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
1𝑇 = 𝑚
𝐴
𝑠

Another commonly used but not nonstandard unit of magnetic field is the gauss
(G), named after Carl Friedrich Gauss, known for formulating Gauss’s law.
Remembering to convert any magnetic field given in gauss to tesla when solving
problems. The conversion is:
1𝐺 = 10−4 𝑇
The magnetic field of refrigerator magnets is in order of about 100 gauss. The
magnetic field of Earth in some places is about 0.5 G.

It is possible for a charged particle to experience both an electrostatic force and a

magnetic force at the same time. The net force is given as:
𝑭 = 𝒒𝑬 + 𝒒𝒗 𝒙 𝑩 (𝐸𝑞. 4)

This known as the Lorentz force, named after Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon
Lorentz.

The Right-Hand Rule

Sometimes, when we multiply two vectors, we get a scalar. This is

accomplished by taking the dot product of the vectors, and one familiar example
of this is work. Work is the dot product or scalar product of force and displacement.
At other times, when we multiply two vectors, the product is also a vector. The
magnetic force is an example.

Once the result of Eq. 3 is calculated, the direction is needed. For this, we will
use the right-hand rule (RHR).

First, we need a way to draw three-dimentional problems. To draw the problem,

we are going to use the notations ⨀ and ⨂. Think of a vector, such as force, as an
arrow (Fig. 5). It is easy enough to draw arrows when they are flat on a paper. But
when an arrow is going into the paper, imagine that you are looking at the backend
of the arrow, and you will see something like this: ⨂. For an arrow coming out of
the paper is its tip, and then we draw this: ⨀. After the vectors are drawn, label
the angle θ which is the smaller angle between v and B.

Figure 5. (a) An arrow is used to represent vectors. (b) The right-hand rule.

Photo credit: Breaking Through General Physics 2

To apply the right-hand rule (RHR), follow these steps:

1. With your right hand, point you fingers in the direction of v (the first vector
in the cross-product v x B).
2. Curl your hand toward B (the second vector in v x B). Your fingers should
sweep the angle θ.
3. Which way is your thumb pointing? That is the direction of the force ⃗𝑭𝑩 if
the charge is positive. If the charge is negative, follow the same steps, but
then flip the direction 180°.
 3 Motion of Charge Particles in Electric and
Magnetic Fields

We have seen that when a charged particle moves within a magnetic field, a
force acts on the particle perpendicular to the velocity. When a force acts
perpendicular to the velocity, that force is not able to do any work. Thus, the force
does not increase nor decrease the speed of the particle. Instead, it can deflect its
motion such that it moves on an arc or even a circle. The resulting motion is called
uniform circular motion for which an object moves
around in a circular path at a constant speed. Let
us say that a positively charged particle is moving
at a velocity v to the right as shown in Fig. 6. And
then, the magnetic field is turned on such that it is
perpendicular to the particle’s velocity.

Figure 6. A charged particle moving perpendicular

to a magnetic field moves around in a circle.

Photo credit: Breaking Through General Physics 2

The result is that the path of the particle gets deflected into a circle of radius R
that is dependent on how fast the particle is moving. Since θ = 90°, the magnitude
of the magnetic force is:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 (𝐸𝑞. 1)

This is the force that accelerates the particle. From Newton’s second law, the
centripetal force 𝐹𝐶 is:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝐶 = (𝐸𝑞. 2)
𝑅

Since 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐶 , we get:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑅

We simplify this and solve for R.

 𝑚𝑣
𝑅= (𝐸𝑞. 3)
𝑞𝐵

In this equation, R is the radius of the circular path, m is the mass of the particle,
v is the particle’s speed, q is the absolute value of the charge of the particle, and B
is the magnitude of the magnetic field. The result of using this equation is the same
for both positive or negative charges. The only difference is whether the particle
turns in a counterclockwise direction as shown. If the particle is negative, then the
force is in the opposite direction; the particle moves clockwise.

3.1 Frequency in Circular Motion

Now that the charged particles is going around in circles, it undergoes periodic
motion. Its frequency id constant. Recall that frequency is the number of cycles
that an object completes in every second. From its definition, frequency f is
expressed in hertz (Hz), which is the same as cycles per second (cps). It is related
to the angular frequency 𝜔 (also known as angular velocity) of the object which is
defined by the equation:
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (𝐸𝑞. 4)

where the 2𝜋 changes the unit to radians per second (rad/s).

the angular velocity is related to the linear frequency by the radius:

𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔

We will use Eq. 3 again and replace the v above in terms of linear frequency:
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑟𝜔
𝑅= =
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵

The radius will cancel out, then we can simplify and isolate the angular velocity:
𝑞𝐵
𝜔= (𝐸𝑞. 5)
𝑚

From this equation, we can conclude that for a charged particle moving in
circles in a magnetic field, the frequency depends only on the fundamental
properties of the particle: its charge and mass. We can change its frequency of
rotation simply by changing the magnetic field. Increasing the magnetic field makes
the particle go around faster.

Plugging in Eq. 4 into Eq. 5 will give us:

𝑞𝐵
2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑚

𝑞𝐵
𝑓= (𝐸𝑞. 6)
2𝜋𝑚

This is called the cyclotron frequency. The cyclotron is a device invented by

E.O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston in 1934 to accelerate particles such as protons
to high kinetic energies by moving them around and around in circles. Equation 6
shows that the frequency of the particles inside a cyclotron is independent of the
radius of the path.

Example

A proton (𝑚 = 1.67𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔) is moving in circles of radius 15 cm in a transverse

magnetic field of magnitude 2500 G. Find the following:
1. Frequency of the motion
2. Speed of the proton

Solution:

We are given the mass of the proton. We also know its charge, 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶. Other
given details are 𝑟 = 0.15 𝑚 and 𝐵 = 2500 𝐺 = 0.25 𝑇.

1. The frequency of the proton is given by Eq. 6.

𝑞𝐵 (1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶)(0.25 𝑇)
𝑓= = = 3.81𝑥106 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑚 2𝜋(1.67𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔)
2. The speed of the proton can be found using Eq. 3. We just isolate v:
𝑞𝐵𝑅 (1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶)(0.25 𝑇)(0.15𝑚)
𝑣= = = 3.59𝑥106 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 1.67𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔

3.2 The Velocity Selector

In Figure 7, a positively charged particle enters a region wherein there is an

electric field and a magnetic field. The velocity of the particle, which is horizontally
to the right, is perpendicular to the two fields. In other words, the particle’s velocity,
magnetic field, and electric field are all mutually perpendicular to each other.

As a result, the particle experiences both an electrostatic force and a magnetic

force. If the electric field is directed downward, the force FE on the positive charge
is also downward. The magnetic field is directed into the paper so that the magnetic
force FB is directed upward. The two fields can be adjusted independently until the
two forces cancel out. The particle is then in equilibrium and it moves in a straight
line. The first condition of equilibrium gives us:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐸
𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑞𝐸
The 𝑞 cancels out and we can get 𝑣:
𝐸
𝑣= (𝐸𝑞. 7)
𝐵
 Figure 7. A positively charged particle moves perpendicular to both the magnetic
field and the electric field. The resulting forces are shown on the right.

Photo credit: Breaking Through General Physics 2

The diagram shown in Fig. 7 is called the velocity selector because the ratio
E/B is related to the velocity of particles. When adjusted correctly, only those
particles moving at the corresponding velocity can move through. For the rest of
the particles, the magnetic force and electrostatic force will not quite cancel out.
Every time there is a resultant force, the path of the particles bends away and gets
filtered out. Only those particles that travel in a straight line reach the end of the
path.

3.3 Thomson’s Discovery

Long before the electron was discovered, physicists used a device called a
cathode ray tube or CRT to fire a beam called the cathode ray toward the screen
labeled S in Fig. 8. J.J. Thomson suspected that particles were being emitted by
the CRT. Thomson accelerated the particles across a potential difference V, giving
them kinetic energy to cross the length of the CRT, striking the screen on the front
of the tube. This potential difference is related to the velocity v of the particles.
𝐾=𝒰
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2

Thus, the particles’ speed is:

2𝑒𝑉
𝑣=√ (𝐸𝑞. 8)
𝑚

We combine Eq. 8 with Eq. 7 and we will get:

𝐸 2𝑒𝑉
=√
𝐵 𝑚
𝑒
from which we can get the charge-to-mass ratio :
𝑚
𝐸 2 2𝑒𝑉
=
𝐵2 𝑚
 𝑒 𝐸2
=
𝑚 2𝑉𝐵2

Figure 8. Schematic of a cathode ray tube, or

the picture tube in old TV sets and computer
monitors.

Photo credit: Breaking Through General Physics 2

Remarkably, Thomson found that no matter what E, V, and B are, the ratio of e/m
is constant. We know that this makes sense because both charge and mass are
constant. However, remember that this was a time when it was believed that the
atom was the smallest unit of matter. Later, Thomson would be honored for
discovering the electron, the first elementary particle.

Thomson’s experiment provided no way to find the charge and the mass
independently. It would be 15 years before Robert A. Millikan would determine the
charge of the electron precisely using another experiment (the famous “milk drop”
experiment).

4 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

So far, we have established that a charge moving freely in a magnetic field

experiences a force. If we put a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field, the free
charges in the wire have velocity as well. So, if we put the wire in a magnetic field,
then the wire as a whole should experience a force too.

In Figure 9, we see a wire exposed to a perpendicular magnetic field. In (B),

there is a magnetic field but no current. In (C), the current is directed upward. It
twitches to the left as if there is a force directed toward the left. In (D), the current
direction is changed. Now the force also changes direction.

A B C D
 Figure 9. What happens when a wire is placed in a magnetic field?

Photo credit: Breaking Through General Physics 2

Inside the wire are charge carriers. As usual, let us pretend that the charge
carriers are positive. In Figure 10, we take a close look at a straight segment of
current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field B directed into the paper. The
current I is toward the right, due to the charges moving to the right.

Figure 10. A straight segment of wire carrying

a current while in a magnetic field B

Photo credit: Breaking Through General Physics 2

Figure 11. Magnetic force on a
conducting wire

Photo credit: Breaking Through General

Physics 2

To calculate the force exerted on the wire, consider a segment of wire of length
ℓ and cross-sectional area A, as shown in Figure 11. The magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ points
into the page, and is represented with crosses (X).

The charges move at an average drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 . Since the total amount of
charge in this segment is 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞(𝑛𝐴ℓ), where 𝑛 is the number of charges per unit
volume, the total magnetic force on the segment is
⃗ = 𝑞𝑛𝐴ℓ(𝑣𝑑 𝑥 𝐵
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑑 𝑥 𝐵 ⃗ 𝑥𝐵
⃗ ) = 𝐼(ℓ ⃗)

where 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴, and ⃗ℓ is a length vector with a magnitude ℓ and directed along the
direction of the electric current.

…………………………..
In Figure 10, the charged particles have a velocity v to the right. So, we know that
there should be a force equal to:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣 𝑥 𝐵

And when wen use the RHR, we know that this force is upward.

How many charges are actually moving along the wire? To find out, we
introduce the constant n, the number of charges per unit volume. This is a property
of the metal. If we multiply n by the volume V of the wire, we can get the number
of charges. To get V, we take a small piece of wire of length L (Fig. 10). Multiplying
this length by the cross-sectional area A of the wire will give us its volume.
Therefore, the total force on all the charges in that piece is equal to:
𝐹𝐵 = (𝑛𝐴𝐿)𝑞𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 (𝐸𝑞. 1)
where the 𝑛𝐴𝐿 term gives us the number of charges within that small volume.

Recall that the charges crossing an area per unit time is equal to the current.
The product 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝑣 actually defines the current in the wire. If we substitute 𝐼 in Eq.
1, we get:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 𝐵 (𝐸𝑞. 2)

Note that the original equation is a vector product, so Eq. 2 should also be a
cross product of two vectors. In this case, the length L of the wire, is a vector, whose
direction is the same as that of the current.

What we arrived at is an equation for the force that a current-carrying wire

experiences when placed in a magnetic field. It is a general equation and can be
used no matter the shape of the wire is. And since it is a cross product of the
vectors L and B, we can determine the direction of the force using the RHR. In
doing so, follow the same rules as for v x B, but point your fingers in the direction
of the current.

A composite sketch of the magnetic circles is shown in Figure 12, where the
field strength is shown to decrease as you get farther from the wire by loops that
are farther separated.

Figure 12. (a) When the wire is in the plane of the paper, the field is perpendicular to
the paper. Note the symbols used for the field pointing inward (like the tail of an arrow)
and the field pointing outward (like the tip of an arrow). (b) A long and straight wire
creates a field with magnetic field lines forming circular loops.

Photo credit: Physics Libretexts

In case there will be an integration of an angle in Eq. 2, this will be the given as
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 𝐵 sin 𝜃 (𝐸𝑞. 3)

Which represents the force F that is proportional to the length L of the wire, current
I in the wire, magnetic field B, and the angle θ between the current and the
magnetic field.

The maximum value of the sine function is 1. If the current is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, θ = 90° and sin 90° = 1. The force must be a maximum. If the
current is parallel to the field, θ = 0 and sin 0 = 0. The force is also zero.

A charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field also experiences a force F.

Suppose that a charge covers distance L in time t.
Recall that I = q/t

Replacing L by vt and I by q/t in the Equation 3 (𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 𝐵 sin 𝜃), the force on a
moving charge is given by
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃.

Example
A 100 m long power line stretching in a north-south direction has current I=200m
A directed north. If Earth’s
magnetic field at that
location is 0.4 T directly
downward, what is the
magnetic force acting on the
power line?

Figure 12. Power line

Photo credit: Breaking Through General Physics 2

Solution:

We are given the length L = 100 m of the wire, I = 2000 A, and its direction to
the north. We also know that B = 0.4 T, downward. From Figure 12, we can see
that the angle θ between I and B is 90°. The magnitude of the magnetic force is:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑥 𝐵 sin 𝜃 = (2000 𝐴)(100 𝑚)(0.4 𝑇) sin 90° = 8𝑥104 𝑁

Now we apply the RHR. Using your right hand, point your fingers toward the
right of the page. Make sure your palm is facing downward so you can curl your
fingers toward B. Which way is your thumb pointing? It is pointing toward the
paper, so the wire experiences a force toward the west.

Some applications of electromagnetism

One major goal of physics is the study of how an electric field can produce an
electric force on a charged object. A closely related goal is the study of how a
magnetic field can produce a magnetic force on a (moving) charged particle or on a
magnetic object such as a magnet. You may already have a hint of what a magnetic
field is if you have ever attached a note to a refrigerator door with a small magnet
or accidentally erased a credit card by moving it near a magnet. These magnet acts
on the door or credit card via its magnetic field. The applications of magnetic fields
and magnetic forces are countless and changing rapidly every year.

Here are just a few examples. For decades, the entertainment industry
depended on the magnetic recording of music and images on audiotape and
videotape. Although digital technology has largely replaced magnetic recording, the
industry still depends on the magnets that control CD and DVD players and
computer hard drives; magnets also drive the speaker cones in headphones, TVs,
computers, and telephones. A modern car comes equipped with dozens of magnets
because they are required in the motors for engine ignition, automatic window
control, sunroof control, and windshield wiper control. Most security alarm
systems, doorbells, and automatic door latches employ magnets. In short, you are
surrounded by magnets. The science of magnetic fields is physics; the application
of magnetic fields is engineering. Both the science and the application begin with
the question “What produces a magnetic fiel

Explore

Activity 1: Use your right hand!

1. What is the direction of the magnetic force on the current in each of the six
cases in the figures below.
Note: Think of it as using a paper and use the point and end of the arrow to
understand the ⨀⨂ in Fig. 5.

2. What is the direction of the magnetic

field that produces the magnetic force
shown on the currents in each of the
three cases in the figure below,
assuming B is perpendicular to I?

Activity 2: What the flux!

Magnetic Flux

A coil of wire is situated in a 0.5 T uniform magnetic field. The area of the coil is
2.0 m2. (a) What is the magnetic flux if the angle between the magnetic field and
the normal to the surface of the coil is 60°? (b) After 5 s, the magnetic field is now
parallel to the normal to the surface, (at 0°).
 Deepen

Activity: What’s the problem?

Problem 1
Calculating Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire: A Strong Magnetic Field
Calculate the force on the wire
shown in the figure, given B=1.50 T, L=5.00
cm, and I=20.0 A.

Strategy
The force can be found with the given
information by using 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and noting
that the angle θ between I and B is 90°, so
that sin θ=1.

𝑁
The units for tesla are 1𝑇 = .
𝐴∙𝑚

Problem 2
Magnetic force on a proton
A proton having a speed of 5.0 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠 in a
magnetic field feels a force of 8.0 𝑥 10−14 𝑁 toward the
west when it moves vertically upward (see Fig. at the
right). When moving horizontally in a northerly
direction, it feels zero force (see Fig. b). Determine the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field in this
region. (The charge on a proton is 𝑞 = +𝑒 =
1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶).

Approach
Since the proton feels no force when moving north, the field must be in a north-
south direction. In order to produce a force to the west when the proton moves
upward, the right-hand rule tells us that 𝐵⃗ must point toward the north. (Your
thumb points west and the outstretched fingers of your right-hand point upward
only when your bent fingers point north.) The magnitude of 𝐵⃗ is found using this
formula, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃.

Problem 3
Electron’s path in a uniform magnetic field
An electron travels at 2. 0 𝑥 107 𝑚/𝑠 in a plane perpendicular to a uniform
0.010 T magnetic field. Describe its path quantitatively. (Mass of an electron is
9. 1 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔, the charge in an electron is 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶.)

Approach
The electron moves at speed v in a curved path and so must have a centripetal
𝑣2
acceleration 𝑎 = . We find the radius of curvature using Newton’s second law. The
𝑟
force is given by equation, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃 with sin 𝜃=1, 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵.

We insert F and a into Newton’s second law:

∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
We solve for r and find 𝑟=
𝑞𝐵

Since 𝐹 is perpendicular to 𝑣 , the magnitude of 𝑣 doesn’t change. From this

⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, then 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, and the curve must be a
equation we see that if 𝐵
circle as we claimed above.

Gauge

Directions: Read carefully each item. Write only the letter of the best answer before
the number.

1. How is magnetism produced?

A. An excess of north monopoles
B. An excess of south monopoles
C. Moving charges
D. Separation of positive and negative charges

2. In calculating for the magnetic field, what is the SI unit being used?
A. newton B. coulomb C. gauss D. tesla

3. What do you call the measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing
through an area?
A. electric flux B. magnetic flux C. both A and B D. none of these

4. It is the combination of the magnetic and electric force on a point charge

due to electromagnetic fields. It is used in electromagnetism and is also
known as the electromagnetic force. What force is this?
A. Gravitational force B. Gaussian force
C. Lorentz force D. Frictional force

5. The north pole of a suspended or floating bar magnet currently points

directly toward the earth’s ________.
A. north magnetic pole B. north geographic pole
C. south magnetic pole D. south geographic pole

6. What can you make visible by sprinkling iron filings around a magnet?
A. the areas called domains B. the magnetic forces
 C. the magnetic field lines D. the north and south poles

7. Physicists use a hand mnemonic known as the ____________ to help

remember the direction of magnetic forces. To form the mnemonic, first
make an L-shape with the thumb and first two fingers of your right hand.
Then, point your middle finger perpendicular to your thumb and index
finger.
A. Right-hand rule B. Gauss law
C. Left-hand rule D. Lorentz force

8. Why does a current-carrying wire has a magnetic field around it?

A. A moving charge produces a magnetic field on its own
B. The current aligns the magnetic domains in the metal of the wire
C. The metal was magnetic before the currrent was established, and the
current enhanced the magnetic effect
D. None of the above is correct

9. Why does the earth’s magnetic field is believed to originate?

A. By a separation of north and south monopoles due to currents within
the earth
B. With electric currents that are somehow generated in the earth’s core
C. From a giant iron and cobalt bar magnet inside the earth
D. From the process that are not understood

10. Since there is a relationship between electric and magnetic field, complete
the statement, “An electromagnet uses _______”
A. a magnetic field to produce an electric current
B. an electric current to produce a magnetic field
C. a magnetic current to produce an electric field
D. an electric field to produce a magnetic current

11. Which of the following statements best describe the difference between
electric and magnetic fields?
I. An electric field is essentially a force field that’s created around an
electrically charged particle. A magnetic field is one that’s created
around a permanent magnetic substance or a moving electrically
charged object.
II. The strength of the magnetic field is represented by either gauss or
Tesla. The strength of an electric field is represented by Newton per
Coulomb or Volts per Meter
III. Magnetic fields are created whenever there is a flow of electric
current. An electric field occurs wherever a voltage is present
A. I and II B. II and III C. I, II, and III D. I and III

12. The magnetic field of Earth is 0.5 G at a certain point is space. What is the
equivalent magnetic field in tesla? (Note: 1G = 10-4 T)
A. 5 x 10-5 T B. 5 x 10-4 T C. 50 mT D. 5 mT

13. There are several modern uses of magnets. A ________ can have million of
magnets. Each magnet points in its own direction, making a code. This
allows an individual to make purchases.
A. Driver's License B. Credit Card
 C. Cheque Book D. Television

14. A force 4.6 x 10 -14 N acts on a particle of unknown charge moving

perpendicularly through a magnetic field of 9 mT. if the speed of the particle
is 2x104 m/s, what is the charge of the particle? Note: 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣 𝑥 𝐵
A. 2.56x10-19 C B. 2.56x10-16 C
C. 8.28x10-12 C D. 8.28x10-9 C

15. A wire of length 0.75 m carries a current of 20.0 A. The wire experiences a
force of 5.8 N in the presence of a magnetic field of 0.50 T. What is the angle
between the magnetic field and the wire? Note: 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼ℓ𝐵 sin 𝜃
A. 47° B. 53° C. 49° D. 51°