AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

3.1The soil

Is the upper part of the crust, where all human activities take place.

Soil components:

A. In organic (Mineral) particles. (45%)

B. Organic contents.)5%)

C. Air from atmosphere. (25%)

D. Water from precipitation. (25%)

Percentages vary from place to another due to climate, type of soil, size of mineral
particles.

A. Mineral particles (in organic components)

They include sand, silt, and clay. They come from rocks, they are formed due to
the process of weathering and erosion.

Weathering: the process of breaking down rocks into small fragments.

Erosion: the process of moving of fragments from place to another.

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Types of weathering:

1.Physical caused by: (heat, pressure, water, (ice), wind).

- during day or summer high temperature expands mineral in rocks, however at

night or winter low temperature contracts or shrinks mineral in rocks, the
continuous process results in making cracks and rocks fragmentation.

The high friction between water\sand and rocks results in eroding the rocks.

2. Chemical (acid rain and salts)

Salts and chemicals in acid rain react with rocks result in rocks eroding.

3. Biological (Effect of plant roots and animal’s claws)

Roots of plants make cracks on rocks as they grow, as well as the physical effect
of claws of animals when digging borrows ex. Rats and foxes.

Characteristics of particles

Particle type Size of particle Texture Characteristics

2.0-0.02 mm Feels gritty -Large pore size

Sand -Drains well
-Contains large air gaps
0.02-0.002 mm Feels silky or -Less friction than sand
Silt soapy -Particles slippery.
Less than Sticky when wet -Particles held together
Clay 0.002mm tightly
-Poor air spaces or
drainage
-Forms a hard mass when
dried

B. Organic content

It includes living things and their remains:

1.Plant roots.

2.Soil organisms (Decomposers bacteria ,fungi, producing enzymes breakdown

dead bodies and turn them into nutrients.) worms mix organic matter and make
pores for air.

3.Organic matter or decomposed dead bodies (Humus).

Importance of organic matter ( Humus) :

Increase water holding capacity (absorbers more water).

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 Increase air pores. (more oxygen).

Increase number of decomposers.( more nutrients).

Enrich the soil with nutrient ( last for long time-slow acting, sustainability of
nutrients)

Sandy soils vs. Clay soil

3.2 Soils for plant growth

Successful plant growth requires:

Availability of nutrients.

Anchorage to fix plant roots.

Water supply.

Oxygen.

According to these requirements loam soil (mixed of three particles) the optimum
soil for plants growth.

34% sand, 33% clay, 33% silt.

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Minerals ions

Plants need variety of minerals in form of soluble ions:

N,P,K high quantity (N,P make proteins, K taking water).

Mg, S, Ca small quantity

Zn, Fe , B Traces

Lack of these minerals ions results in reducing growth, and productivity.

Signs of nutrients deficiency in plants table 3.3 pg 56

The most important substances the plant need from soil to photosynthesizes are
water and minerals

Word equation of photosynthesis:

Carbon dioxide + water glucose + Oxygen.

Soil pH

Is how soil acidity/ alkaline is.

Factors affecting soil pH.

-Parent rocks, chemicals drainage in the soil, water from rivers( acid rain),
fertilizers.

Soil pH is extremely important because ions solubility depends on it.

The optimum pH of the soil is (5.5-8.0), at which all ions are available.

extreme low pH (acidic) affect the soil by accumulation of Al ions which is toxic
for plants.

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3.3 Agriculture

Agriculture is the cultivation of plants and animals to use their product to sustain
life.

There are some Factor affecting agriculture:

Climate, economics, and social.

Types of agriculture

-According to the purpose:

Subsistence: farmer aims to feed his family.

Commercial: to sell crops and get cash.

-Type of product:

Arable(plantation): looking for plant products only.

Pastoral: looking for animal products only.

Mixed: looking for both plant animal products.

Size of land to amount of product:

Extensive: large area with few amount of output.

Intensive: small area with high amount of output.

The table below shows the differences between intensive and extensive
agriculture:

Extensive Intensive

Size of land Large Small

Amount of product Few High

Use of techniques Less High

Capital Small Big

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3.4 Increasing agriculture yield

There is a high pressure on food production for many reasons:

-population growth (more demand of food, water shortage), climate change,

reduction of farm size (settlement).

According to this pressure a problem of world hunger has developed, how to solve
world hunger?

-Reduction population size.

-Growing more staple food.

-Eat less meat.

-Ensuring equal distribution.

Green revolution

Varity of activities aim to increase crop yield, which includes:

-Crop rotation.

-fertilizers.

Irrigation.

-Controlling of competing organisms.

-Mechanization.

-Selective breeding.

Controlling the crop environment.

Crop rotation

Principle of growing different types of crop in different plots every year.

Adv:

-Less diseases (left behind).

-Migration of pests, less using of pesticides.

-New plot is more likely to plentiful of nutrients.

-Old plot will have more time for nutrients recovery.

-Less labour, less machines, less wastes (harvesting at different times). Fig 3.8 pg 60

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Fertilizers

Fertilizers increase soil nutrients content, there 2 types of fertilizers:

1-Organic fertilizers are derived from living things (remains of plants, animal
manure, hooves, dried blood)

Enrich the soil with organic matter.

2- Inorganic fertilizers are manufactured in factories.

The table below shows the differences between organic and inorganic fertilizers.

Organic Inorganic

Source Remains of organisms Factories

Cost Cheap Expensive

Hard, and unpleasant to Easy
Storage and handle.
transportation
Rate of acting Slow Fast

Applying fertilizers safely

Depends on quantity and time of application:

Farmers need to check soil contents of nutrients before applying fertilizers, Too
much fertilizers causing damage to the environment (eutrophication), and lush
growth (rapid growth of plants).

- farmers should take climate into consideration when applying fertilizers, during
heavy rain season water can leach fertilizers. Strong winds can also blow
fertilizers.

Irrigation

Provision of providing water to plant is extremely important.

Supplying of water to plants involves 3 stages:

-Storage.

-transporting.

-application to plant.

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Irrigation methods

1.Overhead sprinkles:

A system uses special sprinkles with a small aperture that forces the water out
under pressure.

Advantages and disadvantages of overhead sprinklers

Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to set up. Large droplets cause soil cap ( upper

become hard.

Cover large area. Small droplets don’t reach root and

blow by wind.

No need for attachment pipes for each Not very precise.

plant.

2. Clay pot system:

This method uses porous clay pots are buried in the soil next to the roots of plants.

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple technology Only suitable for larger plants.

Easy t check the amount of water More labour is needed.

Little loss of water, very precise.

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3. Trickle drip system ( leaky pipes):

Serious of flat polythene hoses laid on the surface of the soil between crops rows.

Advantages Disadvantages

Very precise Expensive

Controlled automatically by computer Small particles(grits) can block tubes.

High efficient of water Inflexible.

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4.Flood irrigation:

Simple method based on free flow of water on soil surface throughout the crops.

Advantages Disadvantages

Inexpensive Very inefficient (high loss of water).

Cover large area. Damage soil structure.

Not precise.

-farmers try to reduce water loss from their crops by some techniques aim to
reduce the evaporation, these methods include:

Building shelters around crops such as tress or artificial roofs, or by using mulches
(materials are used to prevent water evaporation, such as plastic bags.)

Controlling competing organisms

- Competing organisms include weeds and pests.

Weed: a plant grows in an inappropriate place.

weeds need to be controlled because:

-Compete crops (light, space, water).

-Reduce crop quality.

-Make cultivation harder.

-Block drainage system.

-Might be toxic for crops and livestock.

-Source of pests and diseases.

Weeds may have controlled either by herbicides or alternatives.

Herbicides: are chemicals (toxic) substances are used to control weeds and
harmful herbs.

They are either liquids applied by sprayers or solid granules when water is added
dissolve to release effective materials.

Impacts of weather:

wind and rain affect the same as applying fertilizers.

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Alternatives to herbicides:

Cultural control: removing of weeds by hands. (more labor).

Flame guns.

Weed barriers.

farmers prefer chemical control than alternatives because:

Effective (rapid, predicable, less risk of failure).

Easy to manage (no need to apply many times).

Cheap and requires less labours.

Controlling of pests and diseases

Pest: An animal (insect) that attacks or feeds upon crops.

Diseases: are caused by pathogens (fungi, bacteria, and viruses).

Pests could be controlled either by pesticides or biological control.

Pesticides: are chemicals (toxic) substances are used to control pests.

Biological control:

Idea of introducing predators to the farm.

Adv:

-Less toxic substances.

-No negative impacts on surrounding ecosystems.

-Once introduced no need for reapplication.

-When preys decrease, predators decrease.

Disadv:

-Control is not instant and effective as pesticides.

-Preys may reproduce faster than predators.

-Predators may not feed on intended pest.

-Predators may not stay at the farm.

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Mechanization

Using of machines make cultivation:

-Easer (in extreme conditions, application of fertilizers, pesticides, harvesting).

-Cheaper (Less labour).

-Effective (large area in less time).

Selective breeding

-Traditional method aims to improve yield and productivity in plants and livestock
by trait transformation in nature.

The method involves the following steps:

-Identify the important characteristics.

-Choose parents showing these characteristics.

-Raise the offspring.

-Repeat the process.

Genetic modification

Modern method of selective breeding.

This process involves gene transformation from DNA of one organism to another.
(in laboratory).

Organisms are produced by this process are called :GMOs( Genetic Modified
Organisms).

Gene: part of DNA that control the characteristic.

This method is argumentative, some scientists seek to develop it, while others
raising concerns about it.

Development of GM:

-Diseases and pest resistance ( less use of pesticides and herbicides).

-High yield.

-More nutrient value.

-Extreme conditions resistance (drought and temp)

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Concerns about GM

-Products are not natural.

-Unknown impacts for long term.

-Influence of genes if GMOs interbreed with wild species.

-Relationship between GMOs and cancer.

Controlling the crop environment

Environment can be controlled simply by:

-Providing shade (to avoid high temp, reduce evaporation).

-Wind breakers (less damage to crops).

-Removing obstacles (more light).

Greenhouse is an advance technology for controlling the environment.

Greenhouse (not glasshouse):

A building made up of glass or similar transparent materials (polythene,

polycarbonate, aluminum) to manage most environment conditions for plant
growth.

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Modern greenhouse use range of sensors –linked with the computer-to control and
manage most environmental condition.

Growth factor How it might be increased How it might be decreased

Temperature Heating system Open roof ventilation.

Light level\day Use supplementary lighting. Use shading material in the roof.
length.
Humidity Use misting units to add Open roof ventilation
moisture
Water Use sprinklers Drainage pipes.

Growing blueprint:

The ideal environmental conditions and requirements growth needed by a plant

for maximizing the yield.

Controlling the whole environment:

Hydroponics:

Growing plants without soil, with nutrients plant needs dissolved in water, in
conjunction with growing blueprint. Fig 3.13 pg 70.

Adv:

-No need for soil.

-Can be grown everywhere (in space).!!!

-High productivity.

-Easy to harvest.

-Efficient use of water (water is recycled; nutrients are given in irrigation water).

-No weeds, pests, and diseases.

Disadv:

-Expensive (need more technology).

-Not suitable for large areas.

-Rapid spread of diseases if present.

-Plant can die quickly if conditions are fixes at optimum level.

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3.5 The impacts of agriculture on people and the environment

Over using of pesticides and herbicides results in :

-Development of new resistance strains.

-Non selective (kill un targeted organism, beneficial)

-Accumulation of toxics in soil.

-Affects the food wed.

-Risk of spreading to another ecosystems.

Misuse (over using) of fertilizers:

-Eutrophication (excess amount of nutrients).

-Large quantities alter the pH.

-Accumulation of trace elements can be toxic to the plants.

-Too much fertilizers affects up taking of water by osmosis.

-Lush growth: rapid growth of plant (can’t support its self, more vulnerable to
pests and diseases.)

-Imbalance of K and N causes lots of foliage growth ( less fruit).

-Too much fertilizers affects water quality and pH.

-Development of blue baby syndrome.

Misuse of irrigation (over irrigation):

Damage soil structure.

Water logging ( water replaces oxygen, roots will not respire ( death).

Soil erosion.

Soil capping (soil surface became harder).

Prevent soil cultivation( soil became heavier).

Desertification.( fertile soil changes into desert).

-Salinisation: increasing of salt soil content

Too much water water seeps under ground more solubility of salts
water evaporates salts left behind

-High concentration of salts affects up taking of water by osmosis.

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Mechanization:

-Releasing of toxic gases (burning of fossil fuel).

-Expensive.

Change soil structure (Heavy machines put more pressure, soil compaction, less
air pores, bad drainage).

Less job opportunities (relocation of people, migration).

Overproduction and wastes:

High production may lead into over supply and less demand, that results in
overproduction and wastes.

Overproduction and wastes cause economic failure in different ways:

-Too much crops might not be sold.

-Need for space for storage (some need special conditions).

-Need for transportations.

-More labors are needed.

3.6 Causes and impacts of soil erosion

Soil erosion is the removal of top layer of the soil. It takes place when soil losses
its structure and the physical effects of wind and water.

Main causes of soil erosion?

1-Removing of vegetation cover(deforestation), vegetation provides the

following benefits:

-Trees act like wind breakers and reduce surface run-off.

-Roots keep soil structure.

-Debris enrich the soil with organic matter.

2-Over grazing:

Put more pressure on natural vegetation.

Animal hoofs compact the soil (less air, less respiration).

Animal hoofs damage soil structure.

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3-Over cultivation:

ploughing losses soil structure.

Over irrigation. (more surface run-off).

4-Water erosion:

Physical impact of water (heavy rain, rain water runoff, gully and streams).

Impacts: of soil erosion

1-Soil un able to support plant growth (less vegetation, less nutrients, less
productivity, less food, malnutrition, famine).

2-Fertile soil changes into a desert (desertification).

3-Habitat loss.

4-Eroded sediments affect water bodies and results in:

Water quality, less sunlight, less photosynthesis, less oxygen.

Deposited sediments cause flooding, damage sea bed, reduce effectiveness of

gills.

3.7 Methods to reduce soil erosion

Terracing:

1-Change (reforming) of slope (hill) landform into steps ( reduce surface run-off).

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2-Bunds:

Artificial lakes (banks) at horizontal steps. (reduce surface run-off, deposit

sediments from upper layers).

3-Contour ploughing:

Practice of ploughing at perpendicular axis to slope steep (gradient).

It reduces surface run-off, provides large surface area for agriculture.

4-Wind breakers:

Obstacles are used to reduce the effect of wind. They may be living things (
vegetation) or artificial.

Natural vegetation provide habitat; roots keep soil structure.

5-Adding organic matter:

Improves soil structure, because:

-Act like sponge, absorb more water make soil heavier.

-Add more air pores.

-Increases the number of decomposers.

-Enrich the soil with the nutrients (more fertile).

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6-Maintaining crop cover:

Land should not be bare for long time, that increases the risk of soil erosion,
instead:

-Plant legumes(clover) could left after harvesting the crop.

-Leave the residue of plants up to next season. (no dig method)

7-A multi layer approach to cropping:

A-Reforestation.

B-Agroforesty.

Is the practice of growing trees in between of crops, that provides the following
benefits:

-Trees form windbreakers.

-Provide a shade for less light plants ( coffee).

-Natural habitat for some animals ( biological control).

-Debris enrich soil with organic matter.

8-Mixed cropping. ( intercropping).

-Growing of more than one crop in same area to use soil resources more efficiency
( less competition).

-Crop rotation.

Helps in soil management by using of resources effectively.

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3.8 An integrated approach for sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture aims to increasing yield without causing damage to the

environment.

Sustainable agriculture is needed for:

-Make the need of population.

-Sustainable use of non- renewable resources.

-Make sure of farmers independency.

Mainly sustainable agriculture based on number of organic techinques.

A-Use of organic fertilizers:

-Slow acting ( last for long time , no need for reapplication).

-Waste products ( less cost).

-Enrich the soil with organic matter.

B-Use less (appropriate)quantities of herbicides and insecticides ( pollinating

insects will not be affected).

-Using of non persistent chemicals. ( do not last for long time).

C-Grazing(not OVER GRAZING):

Grazing should take into consideration the carrying capacity, timescale for
grazing.

Benefits of managing the grazing:

-Maintain vegetation cover.

-Maintain soil fertility by moving livestock at different areas.

-Maintain good drainage ( prevention from compaction).

D-Crop rotation

E-Choice of varieties:

Despite the controversy arguments about GMOs, they could by one of the
approaches for sustainable agriculture, because:

-Reduce the using of pesticides (pest- resistance strains), and herbicides

-Ability to resist the diseases and viruses.

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-Reduce the need for irrigation (drought resistant strains).

-Shorter life cycle, allow more than one crop.

F-Irrigation:

In term of irrigation, sustainable agriculture focused on the targeted use of water

(Trickle drip system) which provides the following benefits:

-Less water is used.

-Targeted delivery of water to the plants.

-Less risk of salinization, soil erosion.

-Sustainable agriculture uses alternative water supply ex: rain water harvesting.(
collecting the rain water from roofs, standing objects in reservoirs until needed).

Some systems use large amount of water, exceed amount can be collected and re
use again.

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