Atomic Structure

☼ Atomic Models
☼ The Nuclear Atom
☼ Electron Orbits
☼ Atomic Spectra
☼ Quantization of Atomic Energy Levels and Spectra
☼ Correspondence Principle
☼ Nuclear Motion and Atomic Excitations
 Models of the Atom
• The impact of modern physics is most evident in the development of the atomic
model of matter.
• Atom: the smallest particle of an element that retains all the properties of that
element, is composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
❑ Ancient Greeks
➢ Matter is made up of particles, but not the elements as we know them today
➢ Four elemental substances.
Air, Fire, Earth, and Wind
❑ Robert Boyle (1600’s)
✓ Identified gold and silver as being elemental.
✓ In other words, they weren’t made up of air, earth, fire, or wind.
 Dalton’s Theory
• In 1700’s he theorized that the basic unit of matter is a tiny particle called an atom.

✓All elements are composed of indivisible atoms.

✓All atoms of a given element are identical.

✓Atoms of different elements are different.

✓Compounds are formed by the combination of atoms of different elements.

❖Experimental studies of the atom soon showed that it (the atom) was not indivisible…
it has smaller parts!
 Thomson’s Model

• Just over 100 years ago, J. J. Thomson discovered that electrons are relatively
low mass, negatively charged particles present in atoms.

• Because he knew that atoms were electrically neutral, he concluded that part of
the atom must posses positive charge equal to the total charge of the electrons.

• He proposed a model in which the atom consists of a uniform distribution of

positive charge, in which electrons are embedded (like raisins in plum pudding).

• “The Plum Pudding” Model

Rutherford’s Model
In 1909 Ernest Rutherford conducted what is now a famous experiment
where he bombarded gold foil with alpha particles (Helium nuclei). A
source which undergoes alpha decay is placed in a lead box with a small
hole in it.
Observations
✓ Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold foil.
✓ Some of the alpha particles get deflected by very small
amounts.
✓ A very few get deflected greatly.
✓ Even fewer get bounced off the foil and back to the left.
Rutherford’s Model

Conclusions
✓ The atom is 99.99% empty space.
✓ The nucleus contains a positive charge and most of
the mass of the atom.
✓ The nucleus is approximately 100,000 times smaller
than the atom.
 The Bohr Model
➢An atom is made up of three particles, electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons have a
negative charge and protons have a positive charge whereas neutrons have no charge. Due to
the presence of equal number of negative electrons and positive protons, the atom as a whole
is electrically neutral.
➢The protons and neutrons are located in a small nucleus at the center of the atom. Due to the
presence of protons, the nucleus is positively charged.

➢The electrons revolve rapidly around the nucleus in fixed circular paths called energy levels or
shells. The 'energy levels' or 'shells’ or 'orbits' are represented in two ways: either by the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 or by letters K, L, M, N, O and P. The energy levels are counted
from center outwards.
 The Bohr Model
• Each energy level is associated with a fixed amount of energy. The shell nearest to the nucleus
has minimum energy and the shell farthest from the nucleus has maximum energy.
• There is no change in the energy of electrons as long as they keep revolving with the same
energy level. But, when an electron jumps from a lower energy level to a higher one, some
energy is absorbed while some energy is emitted.
• When an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower one, the amount of energy
absorbed or emitted is given by the difference of energies associated with the two levels.
Thus, if an electron jumps from orbit 1 (energy 𝐸1 ) to orbit 2 (energy 𝐸2 ), the change in
energy is given by 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 .
• The energy change is accompanied by absorption of radiation energy of 𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝑓.
where, ℎ is a constant called 'Planck’s constant' and
𝑓 is the frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted.
The absorption and emission of light due to electron jumps are measured by use of spectrometers.
•
 Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
➢Electrons revolve round the nucleus with definite velocities in concentric circular orbits
situated at definite distances from the nucleus. The energy of an electron in a certain orbit
remains constant. As long as it remains in that orbit, it neither emits nor absorbs energy. These
are termed stationary states or main energy states.
➢Bohr proposed that the angular momentum of an electron is quantized. Thus, the motion of an
electron is restricted to those orbits where its angular momentum is, ℓ = 𝑛ℎ/2𝜋.
✓ Thus we have the relationship 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛ℎ/2𝜋, where 𝒎 is mass of electron, 𝒗 is velocity of electron of
said orbit, r is radius of that orbit, 𝑛 is integer.
➢The stationary states or allowed energy levels are only those where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … . This is
called Bohr quantum condition.
➢The energy of an electron changes only when it moves from one orbit to another. An
electronic transition from an inner orbit to outer orbit involves absorption of energy. Similarly,
when an electron jumps from an outer orbit to inner orbit it releases energy, which is equal to
the difference between the two energy levels.
 Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model
➢ The energy thus released in the form of a radiation of a certain frequency appears in the form
a line in the atomic spectrum. If the energy of an electron in the outer orbit (𝑛2 ) is 𝐸2 and
energy of electron in the inner orbit (𝑛1 ) is 𝐸1 then 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = Δ𝐸 = ℎ𝑓.
➢The value of n could be small integers 1, 2, 3 and these correspond to the first, second, third,
and so on. Quantum states are shells for the electron; 𝑛 is termed as principal quantum
number.
➢Based on the Bohr theory ,Bohr calculated the radii of the various orbits and the energies
associated with the electrons present in those shells.
 Successes of Bohr’s Model
➢ When electron jumps from lower energy level to higher energy level, it absorbs relevant
amount of energy and this results in the absorption spectrum
➢When an electron drops to higher level from lower level, it emits some amount of energy and
emission spectrum is observed.
➢Since there is only one electron in hydrogen atom, there should be one line in hydrogen
spectrum. But in Bohr theory, there are infinite number of orbits, so more than one line is
observed in spectrum.
➢
Structure of The Atom
 Subatomic Particles
Subatomic Mass (kg) Relative mass Charge (c)
particles
Proton 1.67 × 10−27 1 +1.602 × 10−19

+
Electron 9.11 × 10−31 1 −1.602 × 10−19
- 1480

Neutron 1.67 × 10−27 1 0

 Electron Orbits
• Let us look at the classical dynamics of the hydrogen atom, whose single electron makes
it the simplest of all atoms. We assume a circular electron orbit for convenience, though it
might as reasonably be assumed to be elliptical in shape. The centripetal force holding the
electron in an orbit r from the nucleus is provided by the electric force between them.
The centripetal force
𝑚𝑣 2 Electron velocity
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟 𝑒
𝑣=
The electric force 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑟
1 𝑒2
𝐹𝑒 =
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
The condition for a dynamically
stable orbit is
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
 Electron Orbits
1
➢ The total energy 𝐸 of the electron in a hydrogen atom is the sum of its kinetic, 𝑚𝑣 2 and potential energies,
2
1 𝑒2
− which are
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟

Total energy of hydrogen atom

1 2
1 𝑒2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 −
2 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
𝑒 𝑒2
Upon substituting, 𝑣 = in the above equation we obtain 𝐸=−
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑟 8𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
The total energy of the electron is negative. This holds for every atomic electron and reflects the fact that it is
bound to the nucleus. If E were greater than zero, an electron would not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
Example
1. Experiments indicate that 13.6 eV is required to separate a hydrogen atom into a proton and an electron; that
is, its total energy is 𝐸 = −13.6 𝑒𝑉. Find the orbital radius and velocity of the electron in a hydrogen atom.
 Electron Orbits
According to Niels Bohr, we can find atomic orbital radii. 𝑒
We know that 𝜆 = ℎ (De Broglie relation for non-relativistic mechanics), but we know that 𝑣=
𝑚𝑣 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑟
ℎ 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 Orbital electron wavelength
Equating the above equation, we obtain 𝜆=
𝑒 𝑚
To stay the electron (circulate around the nucleus) on its orbit only if its orbit contains an integral number
of de Broglie wavelengths. 𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑛
Therefore one can write Squaring both sides, we have
𝑛2 ℎ2 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟𝑛
𝑛ℎ 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟𝑛 2
= 4𝜋 2 𝑟𝑛2
= 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 𝑒 𝑚
𝑒 𝑚
ℎ2 𝜖𝑜 2 Orbital radii in Bohr atom
Finally one can solve for 𝑟𝑛 and obtain 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
ℎ2 𝜖𝑜
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎𝑜 𝑛2 Where 𝑎𝑜 = = 5.292 × 10−11 𝑚 is called Bohr radius of hydrogen atom.
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
 Electron Orbits and Energy Levels
❖ The electron energy 𝐸𝑛 is given in terms of the orbit radius 𝑟𝑛 as
ℎ2 𝜖𝑜 2
𝑒2 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
8𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟𝑛
Up on substituting the above expression for 𝑟𝑛 in the above equation, we have
𝑚𝑒 4 1 𝐸1
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 2 2 = 2 The energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
8𝜖𝑜 ℎ 𝑛 𝑛

Where 𝐸1 = −2.18 × 10−18 𝐽 = −13.6𝑒𝑉

❖ The lowest energy level 𝐸1 is called the ground state of the atom, and the higher levels 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , 𝐸4 , . . . are
called excited states.
❖ As the quantum number 𝒏 increases, the corresponding energy 𝑬𝒏 approaches closer to 0. In the limit
of 𝒏 = ∞, 𝑬∞ = 𝟎 and the electron is no longer bound to the nucleus to form an atom.
❖ Ionization energy:- is the amount of energy needed to remove an electron from an atom.
 Quantization of Atomic Energy Levels
❖ If the quantum number of the initial (higher-energy) state is 𝑛𝑖 and the quantum number of the final
(lower-energy) state is 𝑛𝑓 , we are asserting that
1 1 1 1
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸1 2 − 2 = −𝐸1 2 − 2
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

• This formula can be used to determine the energy of the photon emitted (+) or absorbed(-).
❖ The frequency of the photon released in this transition is therefore
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 𝐸1 1 1
𝑓= =− −
ℎ ℎ 𝑛𝑓2 𝑛𝑖2

Therefore, we have 1 𝐸1 1 1
=− −
𝜆 ℎ𝑐 𝑛𝑓2 𝑛𝑖2
Location of Electrons - Energy Levels

𝑚𝑒 4 1 𝐸1
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 2 2 = 2
8𝜖𝑜 ℎ 𝑛 𝑛
 Location of Electrons - Energy Levels

When the electron returns to a lower level it emits energy in the form of infrared, ultraviolet, or visible light.
 Continued
• In the animation, you will see a model of a Hydrogen atom and to
the right of it, a Bohr energy level diagram.
• In the animation you will notice that if the energy of the photon of
light is just right, it will cause the electron to jump to a higher
level.
• When the electron jumps back down, a photon is created for each
jump down.
• A photon without the right amount of energy (the pink one) passes
through the atom with no effect.
• Photons with too much energy will cause the electron to be ejected
which ionizes the atom. An ionized electron is said to be in the
n = infinity energy level.
• Keep in mind that these rings are not actually orbits, but are levels
that represent the location of an electron wave. The number n
corresponds to the number of complete waves in the electron.
 Continued
Example
1. An electron collides with a hydrogen atom in its ground state and excites it to a state of 𝑛 = 3. How much
energy was given to the hydrogen atom in this inelastic (KE not conserved) collision?
Solution

2. Hydrogen atoms in states of high quantum number have been created in the laboratory and observed in
space. They are called Rydberg atoms. (a) Find the quantum number of the Bohr orbit in a hydrogen atom
whose radius is 0.0100 mm. (b) What is the energy of a hydrogen atom in this state?
Solution
a. b.
 Continued
Example
1. Calculate the energy of the photon that is emitted when a hydrogen atom changes from energy state 𝑛 = 3
to 𝑛 = 2. What color corresponds with the photon emitted?
Solution
From reference tables…
But we need 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 in Joules, because Planck’s
𝐸3 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = −1.51 𝑒𝑉 constant is in Joules
𝐸 = (−1.89 𝑒𝑉)(1.60 × 10 −19 𝐽 / 𝑒𝑉)
𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = −3.40 𝑒𝑉 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 3.02 × 10−19 𝐽
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓 = (3.02 × 10−19 𝐽) / (6.63 × 10−34 𝐽 ∙ 𝑠
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = −3.40 𝑒𝑉 – −1.51 𝑒𝑉 𝑓 = 4.56 × 1014 𝐻𝑧
From reference tables, this frequency corresponds
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = −1.89 𝑒𝑉
with red light.
𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑓 ====➔ 𝑓 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 / ℎ
 Summary
• Each electron has its own distinct amount of energy that corresponds with the energy level it
occupies.
• Electrons can gain or lose energy and move to a different energy level, but they do so in a
unique way.
• Electrons can only absorb a “correct” amount of energy that allows it to move to a higher
energy level
• Each allowed orbit in the atom corresponds to a specific amount of energy. The orbit nearest
the nucleus represents the smallest amount of energy that the electron can have.
• When the electron is in the lowest energy level (n=1), it is said to be in the ground state.
• An electron in any level above the ground state is said to be in an excited state.
 Atomic Spectra
• Bohr built upon spectroscopic observations
of atoms. Spectroscopists noticed that an
atom can only absorb certain energies
(colors) of light (the absorption spectrum) Emission Spectrum

and once excited can only release certain

energies (the emission spectrum) and these
energies happen to be the same. Bohr used Absorption Spectrum
A spectral line is a particular frequency of absorbed or
these observations to argue that the energy of emitted energy characteristic of an atom.
a bound electron is "quantized."
 Atomic Spectra
➢ When a ray of white light falls on a prism we observe that it experiences refraction twice. Example:- when it
travels from the rarer medium (air) to a denser medium (glass) and again from the denser medium (glass) to a
rarer medium (air).
➢ Finally, we observe a band of colors, called spectrum, formed out of a ray of white light. If we observe this
spectrum more closely, the color having a smaller wavelength deviates the most and vice versa.
➢ Thus, a spectrum of colors ranging from red to violet is observed where red having the longest
wavelength suffers the least deviation. This kind of spectrum is called continuous spectrum as violet
merges into blue, blue into green and so on.
➢ However, the emission spectrum of atoms in the gas phase, do not exhibit a continuous spread of
wavelength from one color to another. Rather, the emitted light consists of a specific wavelength having
dark spaces existing between them. Such kind of spectra is known as atomic spectra or line spectra.
 Atomic Spectra
❑ Classical physics is not explain the following:-
➢ Atomic stability.
➢ The existence of spectral lines of the atom.
Atomic Spectra
➢ In 1885, Johann Balmer discovered a pattern
for the visible emission spectra of hydrogen.

His formula was:

Later, Rydberg reformulated the Balmer formula as:

 Emission Spectra
◼ When a high voltage is applied to a gas at low pressure, it emits light characteristic of the gas.
◼ When the emitted light is analyzed with a spectrometer, a series of discrete bright lines
is observed - emission spectrum
◼ Each line has a different wavelength and color
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
◼ The Balmer Series has lines whose wavelengths are
given by 1 = 𝑅H 12 − 12 n = 3, 4, 5, 6, …
𝜆𝑛 2 𝑛
−1
𝑅𝐻 = 1.09 𝑥 107 𝑚 is the Rydberg constant
◼ Examples of spectral lines
◼ n = 3, λ = 656.3 nm ◼ n = 5, λ = 434.1 nm
◼ n = 4, λ = 486.1 nm ◼ n = 6, λ = 410.2 nm
6 5 4 3
 Absorption Spectra
• An element can also absorb light at specific wavelengths.
• An absorption spectrum can be obtained by passing a continuous radiation spectrum through
a vapor of the gas.
• The absorption spectrum consists of a series of dark lines superimposed on the
otherwise continuous spectrum.
✓The dark lines of the absorption spectrum coincide with the bright lines of the emission
spectrum.
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
Whenever a transition occurs from a state, 𝑛𝑖 to another state, 𝑛𝑓 (where
𝑛𝑖 > 𝑛𝑓 ), a photon is emitted
The photon is emitted with energy ℎ𝑓 = (𝐸𝑖 – 𝐸𝑓 ) with a
wavelength 𝜆 given by
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 2 − 2
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖
 Atomic Transitions -Absorption
Stimulated Absorption
• When a photon with energy Δ𝐸 is absorbed, one electron jumps to a higher energy level.
• These higher levels are called excited states
Δ𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸2 – 𝐸1
• In general, Δ𝐸 can be the difference between any two energy levels
 Atomic Transitions – Emission
Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
• Once an atom is in an excited state, there is • An atom is in an excited stated and a photon is incident on it.
a constant probability that it will jump back The incoming photon stimulates the excited atom to return to
to a lower state by emitting a photon. This the ground state.
process is called spontaneous emission. • There are two emitted photons, the incident one and the
emitted one. The emitted photon has the same wavelength
and is in phase with the incident photon.
 Spontaneous emission Vs Stimulated Emission

Stimulated Emission Spontaneous emission

1. An atom in the excited state is induced to 1. An atom in the excited state returns to the
return to the ground state, thereby ground state thereby emitting a photon,
resulting in two photons of same without any external inducement is called
frequency and energy is called Stimulated Spontaneous emission.
emission 2. The emitted photons move in all directions
2. The emitted photons move in the same and are random
direction and is highly directional 3. The radiation is less intense and is
3. The radiation is highly intense , incoherent.
monochromatic and coherent. 4. The photons are not in phase (i.e.) there is no
4. The photons are in phase, there is a phase relationship between them.
constant phase difference.
 Correspondence Principle
➢ According to electromagnetic theory, an electron moving in a circular orbit radiates electromagnetic waves
whose frequencies are equal to its frequency of revolution and to harmonics (that is, integral multiples) of that
frequency. In a hydrogen atom the electron’s speed is
𝑒
𝑣=
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑟
where 𝑟 is the radius of its orbit. Hence the frequency of revolution 𝑓 of the electron is
𝑣 𝑒
𝑓= =
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑟 3
The radius 𝑟𝑛 of a stable orbit is given in terms of its quantum number n as
ℎ2 𝜖𝑜 2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
Therefore, the frequency of revolution is

The Frequency of revolution

 Correspondence Principle
➢ There were difficulties in reconciling the new physics in the Bohr model and classical
physics.
➢ Bohr developed a principle to try to bridge the gap.
◼ The predictions of quantum theory must agree with the predictions of classical physics in
the limit where the quantum numbers n become large.
◼ A selection rule holds true over the entire range of quantum numbers n (both small and
large n).
◼ Bohr’s Correspondence Principle states that quantum mechanics is in agreement with
classical physics when the energy differences between quantized levels are very small.

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 Correspondence Principle
➢ Consider the frequency of emitted radiation by atomic electrons
▪ Classical ▪ Quantum
1/2 𝐸0 1 1
𝑉 1 𝑒2 𝑓𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 = −
𝑓𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = = ℎ 𝑛2 𝑛+1 2
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑟 3
𝐸0 2𝑛 + 1
𝑓𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 =
𝑛 2 ℏ2 ℎ 𝑛2 𝑛 + 1 2
Using 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝑎0 = which for 𝑛 large becomes
𝑘𝑚𝑒 2
2𝑛𝐸0 2𝐸0
𝑚𝑒 4 1 𝑓𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 ≈ = 3
ℎ𝑛4 ℎ𝑛
we find 𝑓𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2 3 2 𝑚𝑒 4
4𝜀0 ℎ 𝑛 substituting for 𝐸0 = 2
2ℏ 4𝜋𝜀0 2
𝑚𝑒 4 1
𝑓𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 = 2 3 3 = 𝑓𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
4𝜀0 ℎ 𝑛

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 Example
1. (a) Find the frequencies of revolution of electrons in 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑛 = 2 Bohr orbits. (b) What is the frequency of
the photon emitted when an electron in an 𝑛 = 2 orbit drops to an 𝑛 = 1 orbit? (c) An electron typically spends
about 10−8 𝑠 in an excited state before it drops to a lower state by emitting a photon. How many revolutions
does an electron in an 𝑛 = 2 Bohr orbit make in 1.00 × 10−8 𝑠?
Solution
𝐸 2 2.18×10−18 𝐽
𝑓1 = − 1 3 = 2 = 6.58 × 1015 rev/s (c) The number of revolutions the electron
(a) ℎ 1 6.63×10−34 𝐽.𝑠
makes is
𝐸1 2 𝑓1
𝑓2 = − = = 0.823 × 1015 rev/s 𝑁 = 𝑓2 Δ𝑡 =(0.823 × 1015 rev/s) 1.00 × 10−8 𝑠
ℎ 23 8
𝑁 = 8.23 × 106 rev
𝐸1 1 1 2.18 × 10−18 𝐽 1 1
(b) 𝜈=− − = −
ℎ 𝑛𝑓2 𝑛𝑖2 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠 12 22

𝜈 = 0.247 × 1015 𝐻𝑧
This frequency is intermediate between 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 .
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Fine Structure
• It is the splitting of a spectral line into two or more closely spaced
components as a result of interaction between the spin and orbital
angular momenta of the atomic electrons.

• It is the splitting of atomic spectral lines into closely spaced groups

around a single wavelength, caused by the magnetic moments of
orbiting electrons in the nuclei.

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 Zeeman Effect
• Zeeman Effect describes the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of a strong external magnetic field.
• It is the result of the interaction of magnetic moments of an atom with the external strong magnetic field.
Types of Zeeman Effect
➢Normal Zeeman effect is caused by the interaction with the orbital magnetic moment.
➢Anomalous Zeeman effect is caused by the interaction with combined orbital and intrinsic magnetic moments.
➢Diamagnetic Zeeman effect is caused by the interaction with the field-induced magnetic moment.

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 Stark Effect
• Stark Effect describes the splitting and shifting of spectral lines in the presence of a strong electric field.
• It is the result of the interaction of electric moments of the atom with the external electric field.
• It is the splitting of spectral lines observed when the radiating atoms, ions, or molecules are subjected to a
strong electric field.
Types of Stark Effect
❖ Linear Stark effect arises due to a dipole moment that arises from a naturally occurring non-symmetric
distribution of electrical charge.
❖ Quadratic Stark effect arises due to a dipole moment that is induced by the external field.

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