BCS1102 – COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND

ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER 1
Introduction

Bachelors of Networking and Cyber Security

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Introduction
Computer Architecture is a functional description of the
design implementation and requirements of different
components of a computer, while Computer
Organization provides information about the linking of
different operational attributes of the computer system.

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Differences between Computer Architecture and
Computer Organization
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What is Computer Architecture?

Computer Architecture is a blueprint for design and
implementation of a computer system. It refers to the
overall design of a computer system, including the
hardware and software components that make up the
system and how they interact with each other

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Computer architecture provides the functional details

and behavior of a computer system. It involves the
design of the instruction set, the microarchitecture, and
the memory hierarchy, as well as the design of the
hardware and software components that make up the
system.

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Computer architecture refers to those attributes of the

system that are visible to the software programmer
and have a direct impact on the logical execution of a
program, like the number of bits used to represent
various data types, the instruction set of the computer,
technique for addressing memory, method used for
input, output, etc. It basically defines the system in an
abstract manner and deals with the concepts that the
programmer deals with directly.

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The following 3 main categories are considered while

considering the design of architecture:
 System Design (contains hardware components that
are used for building the system)
 Instruction Set Architecture (includes all the
instructions provided to the computer system)
 Micro Architecture( give minute detail about storage
element)

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NB:- Computer architecture plays a critical role in

determining the overall performance, power efficiency,
and scalability of a computer system.
Design choices in architecture impact a system's ability
to handle various workloads, support future
technologies, and deliver a satisfactory user
experience.
- In the designing process of a computer system, the
computer architecture is to be defined before the computer
organization.
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What is Computer Organization?

Computer Organization refers to the way in which the
hardware components of a computer system are
arranged and interconnected. It implements the
provided computer architecture and covers the "How to
do?" part.
Computer Organization is to be defined after the
decision of the computer architecture.

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Computer organization includes the physical connection

component, like circuits with adder, subtractor. If we talk
about CPU organization, its three types are:
Ø Single Accumulator Organization

Ø General Register Organization

Ø Stack Organization

NB: Computer organization plays a crucial role in determining the overall

performance and efficiency of a computer system. Designing efficient
interactions between hardware components is essential for achieving optimal
processing speeds and responsiveness

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It just provides information that how operational

attributes of a computer system are linked together
and help in realizing the architectural specification of
the computer.
It involves the design of the interconnections between
the various hardware components, as well as the
design of the memory and I/O systems.
The following table highlights how Computer Architecture is
different from Computer Organization −

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Differences between Computer Architecture and
Computer Organization
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Key Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Computer architecture explains what a computer Computer organization explains
Purpose should do. how a computer works.
Computer architecture provides functional Computer organization provides
Target behavior of computer system. structural relationships between
parts of computer system.
Computer architecture deals with high level Computer organization deals with
Design
design. low level design.
Computer architecture assists in understanding Computer organization helps to
Role the functionality of the computer. understand the exact arrangement
of component of a computer.
Actors in Computer architecture are hardware Actor in computer organization is
Actors
parts. performance.
Computer architecture is designed first. Computer organization is started
Order after finalizing computer
architecture.
Computer architecture involves the relationship Computer organization involves
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the
11/2/2023
among logical attributes of the system like relationship among physical parts
Involves
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NOTE: The most important point that you should note

here is that Computer Architecture explains what a
computer should do, whereas Computer Organization
explains how a computer works.

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 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
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Ø Input: Whatever is put into a computer system.

Ø Data: Refers to the symbols that represent facts,
objects, or ideas.
Ø Information: The results of the computer storing data
as bits and bytes; the words, umbers, sounds, and
graphics.
Ø Output: Consists of the processing results produced
by a computer.
Ø Processing: Manipulation of the data in many ways.

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Ø Memory: Area of the computer that temporarily

holds data waiting to be processed, stored, or
output.
Ø Storage: Area of the computer that holds data on a
permanent basis when it is not immediately needed
for processing.
Ø Assembly language program (ALP) –Programs are
written using mnemonics
Ø Mnemonic –Instruction will be in the form of English
like form
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Ø Assembler –is a software which converts ALP to MLL

(Machine Level Language)
Ø HLL (High Level Language) –Programs are written
using English like statements
Ø Compiler -Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by
reading source program at once
Ø Interpreter –Converts HLL to MLL, does this job
statement by statement

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Ø System software –Program routines which aid the

user in the execution of programs eg: Assemblers,
Compilers
Ø Operating system –Collection of routines
responsible for controlling and coordinating all the
activities in a computer system
Ø Word: In computer architecture, a word is a unit of
data of a defined bit length that can be addressed
and moved between storage and the computer
processor
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# Computers has two kinds of components:

Hardware, consisting of its physical devices (CPU, memory,
bus, storage devices, ...)
Software, consisting of the programs it has (Operating
system, applications, utilities, ...)

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 FUNCTIONAL UNITS
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A computer consists of five functionally independent main

parts input, memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output and
control unit.

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 Input devices
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Input device accepts the coded information as source

program i.e. high level language. This is either stored in
the memory or immediately used by the processor to
perform the desired operations.
The program stored in the memory determines the
processing steps. Basically the computer converts one
source program to an object program. i.e. into machine
language. Finally the results are sent to the outside world
through output device. All of these actions are coordinated
by the control unit
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The source program/high level language

program/coded information/simply data is fed to a
computer through input devices keyboard is a most
common type. Whenever a key is pressed, one
corresponding word or number is translated into its
equivalent binary code over a cable & fed either to
memory or processor.
Joysticks, trackballs, mouse, scanners etc are other input
devices

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 Memory unit: -
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Its function into store programs and data. It is basically

to two types
1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory

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Word:
In computer architecture, a word is a unit of data of a
defined bit length that can be addressed and moved
between storage and the computer processor. Usually,
the defined bit length of a word is equivalent to the
width of the computer's data bus so that a word can be
moved in a single operation from storage to a
processor register. For any computer architecture with
an eight-bit byte, the word will be some multiple of
eight bits.

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A word can contain a computer instruction, a storage

address, or application data that is to be manipulated (for
example, added to the data in another word space). The
number of bits in each word is known as word length. Word
length refers to the number of bits processed by the CPU in
one go. With modern general purpose computers, word size
can be 16 bits to 64 bits.
The time required to access one word is called the memory
access time. The small, fast, RAM units are called caches.
They are tightly coupled with the processor and are often
contained on the same IC chip to achieve high performance
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1. Primary memory: - Is the one exclusively associated

with the processor and operates at the electronics
speeds ,programs must be stored in this memory while
they are being executed. The memory contains a large
number of semiconductors storage cells. Each capable
of storing one bit of information. These are processed
in a group of fixed site called word. To provide easy
access to a word in memory, a distinct address is
associated with each word location. Addresses are
numbers that identify memory location.
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Number of bits in each word is called word length of the

computer. Programs must reside in the memory during
execution. Instructions and data can be written into the
memory or read out under the control of processor. Memory
in which any location can be reached in a short and fixed
amount of time after specifying its address is called random
access memory (RAM).
The time required to access one word in called memory
access time. Memory which is only readable by the user
and contents of which can’t be altered is called read only
memory (ROM) it contains operating system.
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Caches are the small fast RAM units, which are coupled with
the processor and are often contained on the same IC chip to
achieve high performance. Although primary storage is
essential it tends to be expensive.
2. Secondary memory: - Is used where large amounts of
data & programs have to be stored, particularly information
that is accessed infrequently. Examples: - Magnetic disks &
tapes, optical disks (ie CD-ROM’s), floppies etc.,

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 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU):-
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Most of the computer operators are executed in ALU of the

processor like addition, subtraction, division, multiplication,
etc. the operands are brought into the ALU from memory
and stored in high speed storage elements called register.
Then according to the instructions the operation is performed
in the required sequence. The control and the ALU are many
times faster than other devices connected to a computer
system. This enables a single processor to control a number
of external devices such as key boards, displays, magnetic
and optical disks, sensors and other mechanical controllers.

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 Output unit:-
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These actually are the counterparts of input unit. Its

basic function is to send the processed results to the
outside world. Examples:- Printer, speakers, monitor
etc. Control unit:- It effectively is the nerve center that
sends signals to other units and senses their states. The
actual timing signals that govern the transfer of data
between input unit, processor, memory and output unit
are generated by the control unit.

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 BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS
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To perform a given task an appropriate program

consisting of a list of instructions is stored in the
memory. Individual instructions are brought from the
memory into the processor, which executes the
specified operations. Data to be stored are also stored
in the memory.

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Examples: - Add LOCA, R0 This instruction adds the

operand at memory location LOCA, to operand in register
R0 & places the sum into register. This instruction requires the
performance of several steps,
1. First the instruction is fetched from the memory into the
processor.
2. The operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the
contents of R0
3. Finally the resulting sum is stored in the register R
NB: The preceding add instruction combines a memory access
operation with an ALU Operations
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Transfers between the memory and the processor are

started by sending the address of the memory location
to be accessed to the memory unit and issuing the
appropriate control signals.
The data are then transferred to or from the memory

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The fig above shows how memory & the processor can
be connected. In addition to the ALU & the control
circuitry, the processor contains a number of registers
used for several different purposes.

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 Register:
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It is a special, high-speed storage area within the CPU.

All data must be represented in a register before it
can be processed.
For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both
numbers must be in registers, and the result is also
placed in a register.
(The register can contain the address of a memory
location where data is stored rather than the actual
data itself.)
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Ø The number of registers that a CPU has and the size

of each (number of bits) help determine the power
and speed of a CPU.
Ø For example a 32-bit CPU is one in which each
register is 32 bits wide.
Ø Therefore, each CPU instruction can manipulate 32
bits of data.
Ø In high-level languages, the compiler is responsible for
translating high-level operations into low-level operations
that access registers.
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 Some important registers
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The instruction register (IR):- Holds the instructions that are

currently being executed. Its output is available for the control
circuits which generates the timing signals that control the
various processing elements in one execution of instruction.
The program counter PC:- This is another specialized register
that keeps track of execution of a program. It contains the
memory address of the next instruction to be fetched and
executed.
Besides IR and PC, there are n-general purpose registers R0
through Rn-1.

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The other two registers which facilitate communication

with memory are: -
1. MAR – (Memory Address Register):- It holds the
address of the location to be accessed.
2. MDR – (Memory Data Register):- It contains the
data to be written into or read out of the address
location.

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 Instruction Format:
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What are Computer Instructions?

 A computer has programs stored in its RAM in the
form of 1s and 0s that are interpreted by the CPU as
instructions. One word of RAM includes one instruction
in the machine language.
 These instructions are loaded to the CPU one at a
time, where they are received, decoded and
implemented.

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NOTE: Computer instructions are the basic components

of a machine language program. They are also known
as macro operations, since each one is comprised of
sequences of micro operations.
Each instruction initiates a sequence of micro operations
that fetch operands from registers or memory, possibly
perform arithmetic, logic, or shift operations, and store
results in registers or memory

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Instructions are encoded as binary instruction codes.

Each instruction code contains of a operation code, or
opcode, which designates the overall purpose of the
instruction (e.g. add, subtract, move, input, etc.).
The number of bits allocated for the opcode
determined how many different instructions the
architecture supports.

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In addition to the opcode, many instructions also contain one

or more operands, which indicate where in registers or
memory the data required for the operation is located. For
example, and add instruction requires two operands, and a
not instruction requires one.

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The opcode and operands are most often encoded as

unsigned binary numbers in order to minimize the
number of bits used to store them. For example, a 4-bit
opcode encoded as a binary number could represent
up to 16 different operations. The control unit is
responsible for decoding the opcode and operand bits
in the instruction register, and then generating the
control signals necessary to drive all other hardware in
the CPU to perform the sequence of micro operations
that comprise the instruction.
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A basic computer has three instruction code formats

such as:
Ø the memory reference instruction,

Ø the register reference instruction,

Ø the input-output instruction format.

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 Memory Reference Instruction
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A memory-reference instruction uses 12 bits to specify

an address and one bit to determine the addressing
mode I. I is the same as 0 for direct address and to 1
for indirect address.

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 Register Reference Instruction
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The register reference instructions are identified by the

operation code 111 with a 0 in the leftmost bit (bit 15) of
the instruction. It determines an operation on or a test of the
AC register. An operand from memory is not required
because the additional 12 bits are used to determine the
operation or test to be implemented.

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 Input-Output Instruction
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An input-output instruction does not require a reference

to memory and is identified by the operation code 111
with a 1 in the leftmost bit of the instruction.
The remaining 12 bits can determine the type of input-
output operation or test implemented.

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 Identifying the type of instruction
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 The type of instruction is identified by the computer

control from the four bits in positions 12 through 15
of the instruction. If the three opcode bits in positions
12 through 14 are not similar to 111, the instruction
is a memory-reference type and the bit in position
15 is taken as the addressing mode I.
 If the 3-bit opcode is similar to 111, the control then
examines the bit in position 15. If this bit is 0, the
instruction is a register-reference type. If the bit is 1,
the instruction is an input-output type.
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 THE VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
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Programming process can be easy if the program

could be represented in a form suitable for storing in
memory alongside the data.
Then, a computer could get its instructions by reading
them from memory, and a program could be set or
altered by setting the values of a portion of memory.
This idea is known a the stored-program concept.

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 It consists of:
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v main memory, which stores both data and instruction

v An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of
operating on binary data
v A control unit, which interprets the instructions in
memory and causes them to be executed
v Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the
control unit

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 BUS STRUCTURES:
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In computer architecture, a bus is a communication

system that transfers data between components inside
a computer, or between computers
Bus structures in computer plays important role in
connecting the internal components of the computer.
The bus in the computer is the shared transmission
medium. This means multiple components or devices use
the same bus structure to transmit the information
signals to each other.

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At a time, only one pair of devices can use this bus to

communicate with each other successfully. If multiple devices
transmit the information signal over the bus at the same time,
the signals overlap each other and get jumbled.

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 Bus Structure in Computer Architecture
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A system bus has typically from fifty to hundreds of

distinct lines where each line is meant for a certain
function. These lines can be categorized into three
functional groups i.e., data lines, address lines, and
control lines. Let us discuss them one by one each.

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 1. Data Lines
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 Data lines coordinate in transferring the data

among the system components. The data lines are
collectively called data bus. A data bus may have
32 lines, 64 lines, 128 lines, or even more lines. The
number of lines present in the data bus defines
the width of the data bus.
 Each data line is able to transfer only one bit at a
time. So the number of data lines in a data bus
determines how many bits it can transfer at a time.
The performance of the system also depends on the
width of the data bus
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 2. Address Lines
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 The content of the address lines of the bus determines the

source or destination of the data present on the data bus.
The number of address lines together is referred to as the
address bus. The number of address lines in the address
bus determines its width.
 The width of the address bus determines the memory
capacity of the system. The content of address lines is also
used for addressing I/O ports.
 Whenever the processor has to read a word from
memory, it simply places the address of the corresponding
word on the address line.
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 3. Control Lines
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The address lines and data lines are shared by all the
components of the system, so there must be some
means to control the use and access of data and
address lines. The control signals placed on the control
lines control the use and access to the address and
data lines of the bus. The control signal consists of
the command and timing information. Here the command
in the control signal specifies the operation that has to be
performed. And the timing information over the control signals
specifies when the data and address information is valid.
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 Computer - Software
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Software is a set of programs, which is designed to

perform a well-defined function. A program is a
sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.
There are two types of software −
Ø System Software
Ø Application Software

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 System Software
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 The system software is a collection of programs designed to

operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of
the computer itself. System software is generally prepared
by the computer manufacturers. These software products
comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which
interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System
software serves as the interface between the hardware and
the end users.
 Some examples of system software are Operating System,
Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

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Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a

system software −
Ø Close to the system

Ø Fast in speed

Ø Difficult to design

Ø Difficult to understand

Ø Less interactive

Ø Smaller in size

Ø Difficult to manipulate

Ø Generally written in low-level language

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 Application Software
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 Application software allows end users to accomplish one or

more specific (not directly computer development related)
tasks.
 Application software products are designed to satisfy a
particular need of a particular environment. All software
applications prepared in the computer lab can come under
the category of Application software.
 Application software may consist of a single program, such as
Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also
consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package,
which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet
package .
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Examples of Application software are the following −

 Payroll Software

 Student Record Software

 Inventory Management Software

 Income Tax Software

 Railways Reservation Software

 Microsoft Office Suite Software

 Microsoft Word

 Microsoft Excel

 Microsoft PowerPoint
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Features of application software are as follows −

Ø Close to the user

Ø Easy to design

Ø More interactive

Ø Slow in speed

Ø Generally written in high-level language

Ø Easy to understand

Ø Easy to manipulate and use

Ø Bigger in size and requires large storage space

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 PERFORMANCE
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The most important measure of the performance of a

computer is how quickly it can execute programs. The
speed with which a computer executes program is
affected by the design of its hardware.
For best performance, it is necessary to design the
compiler, the machine instruction set, and the hardware
in a coordinated way.

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The total time required to execute the program is a

measure of the performance of the entire computer
system. It is affected by the speed of the processor, the
disk and the printer.
The time needed to execute a instruction is called the
processor time.

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Just as the elapsed time for the execution of a

program depends on all units in a computer system, the
processor time depends on the hardware involved in
the execution of individual machine instructions.
This hardware comprises the processor and the memory
which are usually connected by the bus as shown in the
fig. below.

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Thank you

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