ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
CHAPTER FOUR
Bending stress in Beams
PRESENTATION OUTLINE
4.1. INTRODUCTION

4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA

4.4. UNSYMMETRIC LOADING

4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS

4.1. INTRODUCTION
 Beams are long straight members that are subjected to loads
perpendicular to their longitudinal axis.
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER
 In this section, we will discuss the deformations that occur
when a straight prismatic beam, made of homogeneous
material, is subjected to bending.
 The discussion will be limited to beams having a cross-
sectional area that is symmetrical with respect to an axis, and
the bending moment is applied about an axis perpendicular
to this axis of symmetry as shown in the figure below.
 Assumptions in theory of bending
 The material of the beam is isotropic and homogeneous and
follows Hook’s law.
 The stress induced is proportional to the strain and the stress
at any point does not exceed the elastic limit.
 Transverse sections of the beam that were plane before
bending remains plane even after bending.
 The beam is initially straight and having uniform cross
section.
 The modulus of elasticity is same for the fibers of the beam
under tension or compression.
 Assumptions in theory of bending

 The beam is subjected to pure bending and therefore bends

in an arc of a circle.
 The radius of curvature is large compared to the dimensions
of the section.
 There is no resultant pull or push on the cross section of the
beam.
 The loads are applied in the plane of bending.
 The transverse section of the beam is symmetrical about a
line passing through the centre of gravity in the plane of
bending.
 4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT
MEMBER
 The bending moment causes the material within the bottom
portion of the bar to stretch and the material within the top
portion to compress. Consequently, between these two
regions there must be a surface, called the neutral surface, in
which longitudinal fibers of the material will not undergo a
change in length.
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

From these observations we will make the following three

assumptions regarding the way the stress deforms the material.
1. The longitudinal axis x, which lies within the neutral
surface does not experience any change in length.
2. All cross sections of the beam remain plane and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis during the
deformation.
3. Any deformation of the cross section within its own plane,
will be neglected.
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

In order to show how this distortion will strain the material,

lets consider a beam subjected to an arbitrary transverse load.

X
Bending deformation of beam
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

 The deformations can be related to the strains by considering

a small element of the beam Δx.
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

 As shown above, before bending:

AB = CD = EF = Δx
 After bending, line segments AB shortened, line
segment CD lengthened and line segment EF does not
change.
 Line segment EF is the edge of the surface extending
over the width and length of the beam and is referred
to as the neutral surface.
 4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

 As shown above,
O = Center of curvature
ρ = Radius of curvature

 From calculus and analytic geometry

 Therefore:
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

 Now, the normal strain in the longitudinal direction along

line segment AB may be determined as follows:
4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

 The strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral

axis and, as shown below is the greatest at the top and
bottom of the beam.
 4.2. BENDING DEFORMATION OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER

 Here the maximum strain occurs at the outermost

fiber, located a distance of y = c from the neutral
axis.
 Since , then by division,
4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA

 In this section, we will develop an equation that relates

the stress distribution in a beam to the internal resultant
bending moment acting on the beam’s cross section.
Assumptions
 The material behaves in a linear – elastic manner and
therefore a linear variation of normal strain must then be
the result of a linear variation in normal stress.
4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA

Recall By Hooke’s law:

σ = Eɛ and

Hence, substituting the equation for strain

4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA
 The distribution of stress is identical to the
distribution of strain shown on the previous
slides. The maximum values occur at the top and
bottom surfaces of the beam.
 4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA
From the stress distribution, there are two equilibrium
equations that should be satisfied.
1. The resultant force produced by the stress distribution over
the cross sectional area must be equal to zero.
 Nothing that the force dF = σdA acts on the arbitrary
element dA, we require

The first moment of the

member’s cross-sectional
area

Since, σmax/c is not equal to zero

 4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA
 In other words, the first moment of the member’s cross-
sectional area about the neutral axis must be zero. This
condition can only be satisfied if the neutral axis is also
the horizontal centroidal axis for the cross section.
 Consequently, once the centroid for the member’s cross
sectional area is determined; the location of the neutral
axis is known.
 4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA

2. The resultant internal moment M must be equal to the

moment produced by the stress distribution about the

neutral axis.

The moment of dF about the neutral axis is dM = ydF,

since, dF = σdA,
we have for the entire cross section,
4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA

The integral represents the moments of inertia(I) of the cross

sectional area about the neutral axis.

Hence σmax can be written as

The ratio I/c is called the section modulus(S in mm3) a

The radius of curvature is M/EI.
 4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA
Hence,
σmax = The maximum normal stress in the member, which occurs at a point on
the cross sectional area farthest away from the neutral axis.
M = The resultant internal moment, determined from the methods of sections
and equations of equilibrium, and calculated about the neutral axis of
the cross section.
C = The perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to a point farthest away
from the neutral axis.
I = The moment of inertia of the cross sectional area about the neutral axis.
S = Section modulus
4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA
 Since σmax/c = -σ/y, the normal stress at the intermediate
distance y can be determined from an equation as

General flexural formula: 𝑬 𝝈 𝑴

= =
𝑹 𝒚 𝑰

 Note that the negative sign is necessary since it agrees with the
established x, y, z axes.
 By the right hand rule, M is positive along the +z axis, y is
positive upward, and therefore must be negative(compressive)
since it acts the negative x direction.
4.3. THE FLEXURE FORMULA
 Either of the above two equations is often referred to as the
flexure formula.
 It is used to determine the normal stress in a straight
member, having a cross section that is symmetrical with
respect to an axis and the moment is applied perpendicular
to this axis.
 Summery
Basic concept
• A straight member
• Having a cross section that is symmetrical with respect to an
axis
• The moment is applied perpendicular to this axis.
• Bending moment
• Moment of inertia
• Neutral axis depth
• The relation of E, R, M and I

𝑬 𝝈 𝑴
= =
𝑹 𝒚 𝑰
 Example - 1
 A cast-iron machine part is acted upon by the 3 kN.m couple
shown. Knowing that E = 165 GPa and neglecting the effect of
fillets, determine
(a) The maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the casting,
(b) The radius of curvature of the casting.
Example -2
a. Determine the flexural stress for the simple supported
beam.

b. Determine the flexural stress for the simple supported

beam.
Examples- 3

Determine the minimum height h of the beam shown in Fig.

below if the flexural stress is not to exceed 20 MPa.
Example - 4
Knowing that the couple shown acts in a vertical plane,
determine the stress at (a) point A, (b) point B.

Dimensions in mm
4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
o Beams constructed of two or more different materials are referred to
as composite beams.
o Since the flexure formula was developed only for beams having
homogeneous and isotropic material.
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
 This formula cannot be applied directly to determine the normal

stress in a composite beam.

 In this section however, we will develop a method for

modifying or ‘’transforming’’ a composite beam’s cross

section into one made of a single material.
Transformed Area Method
 How it is possible transformed one section into another? ( e.g.
Reinforced concrete section).
 The concept of modular ratio make it possible.
 Modular ratio is the ratio of two moduli of elasticity. m = E2/E1
E2= mE1
4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
Consider a composite beam made of two materials, 1 and 2,
which have the cross sectional areas shown in the figure below.

E-1

E-2
4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
If a bending moment is applied to this beam, then, like one that is
homogeneous, the total cross sectional area will remain plane after
bending and hence the normal strains will vary linearly from zero at
the neutral axis to a maximum in the material located farthest from
this axis.
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS

 Provided this material is linear elastic, then at any point the

normal stress

ε
 For material 1 the stress distribution is found from σ = E1 , and

ε
 For material 2 the stress distribution is found from σ = E2 .

 Assuming material 1 is stiffer than material 2, then E1 > E2 and

so the stress distribution will look like that shown in the figures
below.
4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
 In particular, notice the jump in stress that occurs at the
juncture of the two materials.
 Here the strain is the same, but since the modulus of
elasticity for the material suddenly changes, so does the
stress.
 It is possible to determine the location of the neutral axis and
the maximum stress based on a trial and error procedure.
 This requires satisfying the conditions that the stress
distribution produces a zero resultant force on the cross
section and the moment of the stress distribution about the
neutral axis must be equal to M.
4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
 A simpler way to satisfy these two conditions is to use the
transformed section method, which transforms the beam into
one made of a single material.
 For example, if the beam is thought to consist entirely of the
less stiff material 2, then the cross section will look like that
shown in the figure below.
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
 Here the height h of the beam remains the same, since the strain
distribution must be preserved.
 However, the upper portion of the beam must be widened in
order to carry a load equivalent to that carried by the stiffer
material 1.
 The necessary width can be determined by considering the force
dF acting on an area
dA = dzdy of the beam.
ε
 It is dF = σdA = (E1 )dzdy.
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS
 Assuming the width of a corresponding element of height dy is
mdz, the
dF' = σ'dA = (E2ɛ)mdzdy
 Equating these forces, so that they produce the same moment about
the z(neutral) axis, we have
E1ɛdzdy = E2ɛmdzdy
or
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS

 The dimensionless number m is called the

transformation factor. It indicates that the cross
section, having a width b on the original beam must
be increased in width to b2 = mb in the region where
material 1 is being transformed into material 2.
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS

 Once the beam has been transformed into one

having a single material, the normal-stress
distribution over the transformed cross section will
be linear.
 Consequently, the centroid (neutral axis) and the
moment of inertia for the transformed area can be
determined and the flexure formula applied in the
usual manner to determine the stress at each point
on the transformed beam.
 4.5. COMPOSITE BEAMS

 The stress in the transformed beam will be equivalent to the

stress in the same material of the actual beam;
 The stress found the transformed material has to be
multiplied by the transformation factor m (or m'),
 The area of the transformed material, dA' = mdzdy, is m times
the area of actual material dA = dzdy.
dF = σdA = σ'dA'

σdzdy = σ’mdzdy

That is σ = mσ'
 Example
For tension steel
 Area of tensile steel Ast transformed into equivalent concrete
area mAst.
 This transformation valid is for both flexural (bending) and
direct tension members.
 Example
Two steel plates have been welded together to form a beam in the shape
of a T that has been strengthened by securely bolting to it the two oak
timbers shown. The modulus of elasticity is 12.5 GPa for the wood and
200 GPa for the steel. Knowing that a bending moment M = 50 kN.m is
applied to the composite beam, determine (a) the maximum stress in the
wood, (b) the stress in the steel along the top edge.
 Exercise
 A wood beam is reinforced with steel straps at its top and bottom as shown.

Determine the maximum bending stress developed in the wood and steel if
the beam is subjected to a bending moment of M = 5kN·m. Sketch the stress
distribution acting over the cross section. Take , Ew = 11 GPa and Est = 200
GPa.
Solution
 Assignment
 A steel bar and an aluminum bar are bonded together to form the
composite beam shown. The modulus of elasticity for aluminum is 70
GPa and for steel is 200 GPa. Knowing that the beam is bent about a
horizontal axis by a couple of moment M = 1500 N.m, determine the
maximum stress in (a) the aluminum, (b) the steel.
 Assignment
 A concrete slab is reinforced by 16-mm-diameter steel rods
placed on 180-mm centers as shown. The modulus of elasticity
is 20 GPa for the concrete and 200 GPa for the steel. Using an
allowable stress of 9 MPa for the concrete and 120 MPa for the
steel, determine the largest bending moment in a portion of slab
1 m wide.
4.6- Combined Stress
 Flexural Rigidity (EI):

 Stiffness of the material (measured by E)

 Proportions of the c/s area (measured by I )

 Axial Rigidity = EA
Combined Stresses
 EFFECT OF ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOAD
o Eccentric axial load is equivalent to axial load and constant bending

moment.
 Shear force is zero in this case.
 Load acting eccentrically to one axis
Axial load plus uniaxial moment

𝑃 𝑃𝑥𝑒 𝑦
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ± where e is the eccentricity at which p is act.
𝐴 𝐼
 An eccentric axial load can be replaced by a concentric force
and a couple.
Bending stress due to additional Axial thrust (P)

 The direct stress (σd ) = P / A (stress due to axial load)

 In case of compressive Load:

𝑃 𝑃𝑥𝑒 𝑦
 At top fiber σ= − +
𝐴 𝐼

𝑃
 At mid fiber σ = −
𝐴

𝑃 𝑃𝑥𝑒 𝑦
 At bottom fiber σ = − −
𝐴 𝐼
Bending stress due to additional Axial thrust (P)

 The direct stress (σd ) = P / A (stress due to axial load)

 In case of Tensile Load:

𝑃 𝑃𝑥𝑒 𝑦
 At top fiber σ= +
𝐴 𝐼

𝑃
 At mid fiber σ =
𝐴

𝑃 𝑃𝑥𝑒 𝑦
 At bottom fiber σ = −
𝐴 𝐼
 Load acting eccentrically to two axis
Axial load plus biaxial moment
When a column is subjected to eccentric load, the where the maximum stress (σmax) will be
occurred at point A, B, C or D.
 Load acting eccentrically to two axis
 If the axial load p is placed eccentric to both x-axis and y-axis as
shown in fig. Then the system can be consist of
a. A direct compressive force p acting at the centroid.
b. a couple p*ex about the x-axis and
c. a couple p*ey about the y-axis.

𝑃 𝑃𝑥𝑒𝑦 𝑦 𝑃𝑥𝑒𝑥 𝑥
σ= ± ±
𝐴 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦

𝑃 𝑀𝑥 𝑦 𝑀𝑦 𝑥
σ= ± ±
𝐴 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦
Example 2:
A cast iron column of 200 mm diameter carries a vertical load
of 400kN, at a distance of 50mm from the Centre. Determine
the maximum and minimum stress developed in the section,
along the diameter passing through the point of loading.
 Example
 The wide-flange shape w14x68 is used as a simple beam of 10m
span. The beam is subjected to a uniform load w of 4kN.m(including
the weight of the beam) and axial tensile force p of 20kN.
Determine the normal stresses at points A and B, and plot the
normal stress distribution(variation) between A and B.
 Example(combined stress)
 For the component loaded with a force F as shown in the figure,
the axial stress at the corner point P is:

Total Stress = Direct stress + Stress due to Moment

 Quize
Two beams, one having square cross section and another circular cross-
section, are subjected to the same amount of bending moment. If the cross
sectional area as well as the material of both the beams are the same then
A. Maximum bending stress developed in both the beams is the same.
B. The circular beam experiences more bending stress than the square one.
C. The square beam experiences more bending stress than the circular one.
D. As the material is same both the beams will experience same
deformation.
 Quize
Two beams of equal cross-sectional area are subjected to equal
bending moment. If one beam has square cross-section and the
other has circular section, then
A. Both beams will be equally strong
B. Circular section beam will be stronger
C. Square section beam will be stronger
D. The strength of the beam will depend on the nature of
loading
 Quize
 Consider the cantilever loaded as shown below:

Cross-section of
the Cantilever

What is the ratio of the maximum compressive to the maximum tensile stress?
Example 1: for ch-5 Torsion
 A solid circular shaft of 100 mm diameter is subjected to

a bending moment of 15000 N-m, a twisting moment of

25000 N-m and an axial tensile load of 500000 N. Find
the principal stresses and the factor of safety for each of
the five theories of failure, if the yield strength of the
material is 500 pa and the poison's ratio is 0.3.