DIPLOMA IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING
GENERAL BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION (G.B.C)
MODULE III

Nganga Gicheha

Dip: TechEdu. Dip: Bld Const. Hdip: Bld Const. BTech: Const Mgt. MSc: const mgt

DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (G.B.C)
 COURSE OUTLINE MODULE III

1. Framed construction

- Types of construction

- Situations requiring framed construction

- Materials

- Fire protection

- Claddings

- Facings

- Curtain walling

- Infill panels

- Construction method

- Portal frames

2. Stairs

- Terminologies

- Types of stairs

- Materials

- Kenya building code requirements

- Classification of stairs

- Construction method

3. Temporary works

- Formwork
 - Scaffolding

- Underpinning

- Shoring

- Demolition

4. Finishes

- Wall finishes

- Plastering

- Pointing and jointing

- Facing units

- Painting and decorations

- Floor finishes

- Second fixings

- Fixtures and fittings

- Ceilings

- Granolithic

- Terrazzo

- Floor tiles

- Timber floor

5. Doors, windows and accessories (second fixing)

- Window and glazing

 - Fixtures and fittings

- Ceilings

- Interior design

Reference

- Barry vol. 2, 4 and 5

- Motivate building construction principals and practice

FRAMED CONSTRUCTION

Framing in construction is the fitting together of pieces to give a structure support and shape.
Framing materials are usually, reinforced concrete, engineering wood or structural steel.

Gladding to framed structures

This involves filling or masking of the structural frame and such infilling systems must fulfill the
following;

i. Must be self supporting between the frames

ii. Must be rain resistance

iii. Wind resistance

iv. Give the required degree of thermal insulation

 v. Have good fire resistance

vi. Be constructible to a suitable modular or size

vii. Must have good aesthetic

Cladding to framed structure falls under four categories

a. Panel walling

b. Reinforced concrete precast cladding panel

c. Light weight infilling panels

d. Curtain walling

a. Panel walling

This involves constructing masonry wall (stone, blocks or bricks) within the panel created by
frames. During the construction of the concrete column, rope iron can be closed to form the bond
between the wall and the column

Panel created by the

Column
Structural element

Beam
 X

Section X – X

Masonry wall flush or slightly raised into the panel hence exposing the structural
frame

R/c beam

Window

Cill

R/c floor slab

R/c beam

Stone facing at beam section concealing to structural frame

b. Concrete cladding panel

These are normally made from precast concrete and can be laid in two formats,

i. Spanning between beams; i.e. height of floor

ii. Undercill infill spanning from column to column; these give a high wall to window
ratio. They are made from dense concrete mix suitably reinforced and are designed
with lifting holes or hooks

The following are considered in designing or selecting the panels

 1. Column or beam spacing

2. Lifting capacity of plant available

3. Jointing method adopted

4. Exposure conditions expected

5. Any planning requirements especially as finishing are concerned

Jointing should allow for thermal movement at the sometime be water proof. These would
necessitate the use of suitably systems. Thermal insulation may be achieved by including a cavity
within the panel. Precast concrete panels may also be made in composite forms where say stone or
bricks facings may be attached to give the necessary impression save to conform to regulation

Storey height panel

Precast conc 2coat

asphalt water fascia top panel
proofing hanged over
kerb
Upper end top suitable
panel vapor
barrier

R/C edge roof slab

R/C edge beam

Non- ferrous

fixing With
compression
joint
slotted holes

to allow for adjustment

non
precast conc. panel
load bearing

Inner wall

of

Lightweight

Constructio

Condensation groove

Drained to outside

R/C floor slab

horizontal joint

with mastic seal

compression
joint

Typical

detail Under sill panel

Fascia panel fixed to asphalt
waterproofing top edge beam

Vapour
barrier

R/C roof
slab

Anchor fixing

Timber / metal
window
frame

sill
Column in the
background

Precast conc under

sill cladding panel

bolt connection

Ri light weight inner

b
wall

Non ferrous mastic sill

fixing metal
R/C floor
dowel
slab 25mm clearance

Joint to column

20mmØfixing bolts R/C column light weight

Recessed into internal

lugs walling

Cavit mastic seal

y
 drain joint with water barrier conc panel ribbed face

R/C up stand beam

75mm R/C backing

conc faces
coated with

bitumen paint

Dovetail groove R/C

conc slab

To provide key

natural stone

conc rib bolted to

facing underside

of
edge beam

Light weight
walling inner

Infill panels

Infill panels are light weight and usually glazed. The panel layout can be so arranged to expose
some or all of the structural members creating various optical expression. A wide variety of
material or combination of material can be employed such as timber, steel, aluminum or plastic.
Single and double grazing techniques can be used to achieve the desired sound and thermal
insulation. The panel must provide the necessary resistance to fire, heat loss and sound
penetration. Most of these panels are composite or sandwich construction. The joining problem
with infill panels occurs mainly at it junction with the structural frame and allowance for
moisture and thermal movement is
usually achieved by using a suitable mastic. The panel chosen must fulfill all the required
function and should have a low long term maintenance factor.

Typical infill panel

arrangements a)

Column

Beam

Infill panel with windows

NB/ the panels expose both the columns and beam hence creating a balanced optical impression

b)

Grazing

Exposed
beam

NB/ infill panels expose the beams hence emphasizing on the horizontality

c)

Grazing

Exposed
column

NB/ the infill panel conceals the beam and exposes the column hence creating an illusion on
increased height vertically

Timber infill panel (fitted within the structural frame)

Beam

Plaster

Window frame head member

Grazing
 Horizontal transom/sill piece

Fixing bead internal board/flush insulation

External cladding face

Mastic seal floor finish

Floor slab

Metal infill panel

R/C Beam internal finish RC

Mastic seal timber fixing piece screwed on

the
RC
beam

Grazin

g Column

face

Casement frame and sash

Holding metal tube alloy transom

fixed on the transom

Metal facing column face

Fire resistance board composite insert panel

Bottom holding metal floor screed

fixed on sole

Fixing screw
 Fixing timber embedded into the concrete

One of the maintenance encountered with infill panel and to a lesser extent with concrete
gladding is cleaning of the phacords and in particular the glazing.

All building collects dust the effective of which can vary with material. Concrete and masonry
tend to accept dust in weather naturally where as in previous material such as glass do not accept
dust and can collude and become more inefficient, the number of times that cleaning will be
necessary depend largely upon the area or locality and would range from 3 months in non-
industrial area to 6 weeks in highly polluted envelopment. Access for cleaning may either be
internal or external low and medium rise structure can be reached by ladders or mobile scaffold
and usual presents few problems.

High rise structures however need careful consideration when design. External access to window
is gained by using a clandle suspended from roof level. Permanent systems can be incorporated
as part of building design are more efficient and consists of a track on which a mobile trolley is
mounted and which arms can be projected beyond roof edge to support.

Internal access for cleaning the external glass face can be achieved by using windows such as
horizontal reversible sashes, horizontal and vertical sliding windows.

Cladding joints

Both the vertical and horizontal joints are considered in the design. When two panels join they
leave a gap in between which must be sealed off first and foremost so as to keep off rainwater.
These joint should be designed so as to be wide enough to take in suitable filler but not
excessively wide since if so the filler will tend to grip. the fillers used should accommodate the
minuet movement of the panel caused by various factors e.g. thermal expiation where mastic are
used as fillers they should not be exposed since the sunlight make them dry hence lose their
elasticity, most vertical joints are open drained with flex bevel while horizontal joints slopes
towards outside so
as to effectively drain moisture outside.

Typical gaps

N/B the smaller the panel the more the joint while the larger the panel the larger the gap due and
the fewer the joints due to the larger elongation of the length due to panel expansion.

Gap

Small gaps

Small panel large gaps

Large panel

Vertical joints
Panel

Mastic butted joint lapped joint

Horizontal joints

Recess to stop water from

creping Thro’

capillary action
panel

Mastic mastic filler

Slope to shed off water

Mastic

Panel

Lifting mechanism

reinforcement

Lifting hooks built in lifting

Mastic
 Panel

Open drained joint at column

The face of the cladding panels can be finished in many different ways which include

i. Cement sand rendering

ii. Glazed tiles and mastic

iii. Marbles and stone slabs

iv. Timber and plastic lubber strips

These are done according to taste and economical. The concrete panel surface can be treated in
a suitable way so as not to need any other additional finish treatment e.g. it can be left fair face
concrete, exposed aggregate surface, lip surface e.t.c

Ribbed surface finish

Exposed aggregate surface

Plaster

Mastic

Tiles
 Timber
gladding

Curtain Walling

A curtain wall is generally a non load bearing wall consisting entirely or principally metal or
may be a combination of surfacing material and metal. This type of wall mostly makes use of
extensive class us surfacing material supported by metal frame work.
These components of class and metal frame are factory manufactured and easy transported to
their place of use due to their light weight. Also allow for a rapid installation on building
structure. These factors makes curtain walling both attractive and economical wall system
which allow for an early occupancy of the building due to faster installation rate. Good
performance depends on the design which should take into consideration the material property
in terms of say reaction to heat, wind pressure, gravity, sound e.t.c. the covering of a fill consist
frame with factory fabric wall requiring a degree of dimensional control of coordination and
coordination of contraction with fabricator .

Classification of curtain walls

They may be classified in terms of type and system. The type designating whether or not the
design is unique and the system referring to method of installation the extent of uniqueness could
be;

i. Custom type

ii. Standard type

iii. A combination of the two

Custom walls

These are designed specifically for one project. They are characteristic of large projects typically
commercial, institutional and other monumental build.

Standard type walls

These are components and details which are designed and standardized by their manufacturers
they may be assembled in stock units. Standard design varies from one manufacturer to another
and standard types are generally cheaper than custom type due to economy inherent in quantity
production. However some complex standard designs may cause as much or more than a single
custom designs

Wall systems

Both custom and standard wall may further be classified according to their system or method of
installation. And may or partly be in one of the following

a) The stick system

Where the wall installed piece by piece usually the mullion member is first placed followed by
horizontal members and finally the glazing or window units. Main advantage is its low
transportation cost because of minimal bulk and it also offers some degree of dimensional
adjustment to site conditions

Among disadvantage is the necessity to assemble on site rather than in controlled factory
conditions

The stick system

Partially assembled system

Vision glass panel flesh window

panel
 Cill

Vertical mullions
running
over the edge

beam

Spandrel panel floor slab edge

beam

Spandrel – short wall section between the floor and window sill

b) Unit system

The wall is composed entirely of large framed units pre-assembled at the factory complete with
spandrel panels and sometimes pre-glazed

The vertical edges of the units join to form the mullion member while the top and bottom
members join to form horizontal rails

The units may be one to three storeys high. This system provides assembly under controlled shop
conditions where the work can be carefully suspected and fabricated rapid under one building with
minimum few yield labour and relatively few field joints. However the disadvantage includes the
bulkiness of the units requiring more space for shop assembly, transportation and on site storage.
They also demand elaborated
protective measure in handling prior to installation

Panel top and bottom join to

form horizontal transom beam

Floor slab

Edge beam

Panel frame join to

form

vertical mullion

Panel complete with glazing

And spandrel unit

Unit and mullion system

This system is a compromise of the stick and the unit system and mullion members are separately
installed first then pre-assembled framed units are placed between them.
This unit may be full storey height or may be divided into a standard unit and the vision glass
unit. This method is often utilized where for example the mullion members are unusually deep
or large in X-section hence making it difficult to incorporate them in the pre-assembled unit.
The transportation of units is easier than in the unit system though the field joints are more.
 Mullion independent of

the panel unit and assembled 1st

Floor slab

Edge beam

Mullion attached to the

edge beam

Pre-assembled unit consisting

of the vision glass and spandrel
unit

Panel system

this is similar in concept to the unit system the difference being that the panels are not pre-
assembled units but homogenous ones formed from sheet metal or as casting with few or no
internal joints except at the glass periphery. The panels may be full storey height with or without
openings unlike other systems; here an overall wall pattern is possible rather than agreed pattern
or a designed having strong vertical or horizontal axis

Panel system
 Edge beam

Floor slab

Casted panel complete with window opening

PORTAL FRAMES
A portal frame is a continuous or rigid frame with basic characteristic of rigid or restrained joint
between supporting members or column. The continuity of the portal frame reduces the bending
moment of the spanning member by allowing the frame to act as one structural entity thus
distributing stress throughout the frame. If a conventional simply supported beam is used instead
of a portal frame, an excessive bending moment will occur at the mid span which would
necessitate a dipper heavy beam to give along cross-section at mid span

The stress transfer from beam to column in rigid frames require careful design of the joints
between the members and both the horizontal thrust and rotational moment at the foundation
needs consideration

Method used to overcame excessive forces at the foundation include

i. Introducing a tie beam between opposite foundation

ii. Introducing a pin or hinged joint where the column connects to the foundation

iii. Relaying on the passive pressure of the soil surrounding the foundation

Portal frame of moderate height and span are usually connected directly to foundation bases
forming rigid joints. The latel width force tends to rotate the frame and these together with the
horizontal thrust of loading are resisted by the base. When height gets over 4m and span over 15m
hinged joint should be considered. Such joints allow free rotational to take place while at the same
time transmitting both the load and the shear from one member to another

Hinges can be introduced either at the base of frame or at the apex and therefore there are three
basic types portal frame

a) Fixed or rigid portal frame

Here all the members’ connections are rigid which allows for lower bending moment which is
evenly distributed than other forms. This type is used for small to medium size frame where
forces involved are not excessive
 b) Two pin portal frame

These are hinged at the two points at the base connection to eliminate the tendency of the frame
to rotate. The bending moment resisted will generally be greater than in the rigid frame

c) Three pin portal frame

These has hinged joint at base connecting and at the centre of the spanning member. The effect of
the third hinge is to reduce the bending moment in the spanning member though it also increases
deflection. This is overcome by giving the member a moderate pitch to raise the apex well above
the eve’s level

NB/ hinged frames are easier to erect on site since they can be performed in section Comparison

of the bending moment

a) Simply supported beam

Beam Mid span point of max

BM

Column

Bending moment diagram

Foundation

Column acts only as compression members transmitting

 the load axially to foundation

b) fixed or rigid portal frame

Point of contra flexure

Rigid connection

BM diagram

Supporting member

Foundation rigid joint

The supporting member carries part of

the horizontal component

c) two pin portal frame

Spanning member

Rigid connection

BM diagram

Foundation

Pinned joint isolates the foundation

From the rotational moment

d) three pin portal frame

Pitch member reduces deflection

 Third pin reduces the moment on the

spanning members

BM diagram

Foundation

Pinned joint

Most portal frames are made under factory controlled conditions offsite which gives good
dimensional and quality control although these can create transformational problem. To lessen
this, splices may be used which are put at the points of control flexure or where the members
join. Pinned joint however provides point of discontinuity in the fabrication

Portal frame can be constructed of concrete, steel or laminated wood and generally takes the roof
profiles. The spanning members are connected with the purlins designed to take the roof
covering. The walling materials can as well be attached to the supporting members

Walling material attached to the supporting member

Purlins
 to

Support

PF Roof

Covering

CONCRETE PORTAL
FRAMES

These are manufactured from high quality reinforced concrete. The use or RC is mainly confined
to low pitches 4% to 22¾% and can either be single or multi-span frames hence giving more
design possibilities. They are designed to carry light weight roof sheeting or decking fixed to
purlins. In their design their self weight is taken into account. Wall grading which are non
structural may take many forms depending to the desired characteristic e.g. acoustic or fire
proofing characteristic

Purlins cleat

Spanning member

Supporting member
 Foundation

Splice joint between

the frame components

Foundation

Multi span portal frame

Typical splice detail

Purlins mounted on cleat

Precast con gutter spanning member

Hole for nut access

Pre bored holes for bolts

Supporting member

2D

Bolt and nut hole

Spanning member
 Joining components of the spanning member

Foundation fixing

Foundation for portal frame consists of isolated parts designed to suit various loading and
ground conditions. Frame and foundation connections can take three forms

a. Pocket connection

The foot of the supported member is located and housed in a void form in the base so that
there is all round clearance of 25mm grouted after final connection

Supporting member

R bar

Packing pieces

25mm clearance filled with 1:2 c/s mortar after the frame has
been positioned and adjusted
 b. Steel plate

A steel base plate is welded to the main reinforcement of the support member or it could
be casted to the column using fixing lugs welded to the back of the base plate. Holding
down bolts are casted into the foundation base

Supporting member

Bearing plate column main bars welded to base plate

Fastening nuts

On washer Alternative steel lug welded to base plate &

casted into column

Welds
A

R bar

Bolts built into the foundation pad

Bolt end

Fastening nut

Washer bearing plate fixed to column

R bar foundation pad

Detail A
 c. Pin joint / hinged connection

A special base or bearing plate is bolted to the foundation and another one fixed to the
column then a flexible mechanical connection is made when the frame is constructed

Flexible pin/hinged connection supporting member/ column

Plate welded to the main reinforcement or

connected by means of steel lugs

Bearing plate bolted casted into column

on the foundation

Foundation pad

Typical apex details

a. fixed

RC
 Joining flexible members

b. pin / hinged connection

Spanning member

Plates welded to the spanning member

reinforcement

Advantages of concrete portal frame

a. accurate due to factory production in terms of design quality and workmanship control

b. std range of interchangeable component gives flexibility due to wide rage roof profile
covered

c. does not require maintenance

d. concrete effectively resist fire

e. does not require additional wind bracing

f. it has good aesthetic

g. jointing (bolt and nut) force for splices effect quicker reaction

Disadvantage
 - require heavy rifting equipment

STEEL PORTAL FRAME

This can be fabricated from the universal beam, column and box section all lattice of flats,
angles or tubular. Steel offers a wide range of roof profiles than other materials. Either
welding, bolting or both can be used in the joining of the members; light weight roofing and
walling materials are used.

Typical details

Apex

Purlins cleat

Universal beam spanning member welded gasket

Alternative

Spanning member bolting

Ridge plates welded to members

and bolted together

Knee

i) Beam or spanning member

 Bolting

Fixing plate welded to beam and bolted to the column

Column or supporting member

ii)

Purling cleat

Wall cleat plate welded to both sides

Apex hinge connection

Steel bolt or pin

Hinge plate welded to spanning member

Splice joint for the spanning member

X web plate
 X

Fish plate to top and bottom flanges

Fish plate to both flanges

UB Web plates

Section X - X

2D

Butt weld

Beam

Base hinge

Column
 Bolt or pin bearing plates welded to both sides of the web

Plate welded to base plate

Bolt fixing the base plate to foundation

Foundation

Column

Hinge plates welded to both column and bearing

plate

Bearing plate

Foundation

Latticed steel PF

Pin joint

Beam

Triangular section welded steel tubular lattice

Pin joint

Triangular lattice
 Chords

Lattice members

Foundation fixing

Foundation is usually reinforced concrete isolated base or pad. The connection of frame to
foundation can be one of the following

a. pocket foot connection: foot of the member is inserted and grouted into a pit form in
the concrete

b. base plate connection: gasket is fixed to the lower part of the column and
connected to bolts built into the foundation

c. pin or hinge connection: special bearing plates designed to accommodate rocker devices
are used

Advantages

1. since they are factory produced there exists a std range of manufacturer system giving
more flexibility wide range of use

2. steel frame gives a good wind resistance structure

3. they are easy to assemble

4. they have less dead load when compared to concrete

Demerits

1. Steel is a corrosive material and as such require regular application of protective coating
hence high maintenance costs.
 2. Has a lower fire resistance than concrete structures

TIMBER PORTAL FRAME

These are normally light strong frames of good aesthetics. A Fact that makes them suitable for
places where looks are important e.g. churches, halls gymnasiums e.t.c

They are made in three ways

1. Glued laminated PF

2. Plywood faced PF

3. Timber PF using solid members connected together

Glued laminated PF

The main objective of gluing thin section members together is to increase the overall strength
of the complete component. This type of PF is manufactured by specialist firms. The type of
softwood selected must be of suitable content. They can also be either fixed, 2 pin or 3 pin.
On the site the foot of the supporting member is fixed to a metal shoe or pivot housing bolted
to the concrete foundation. While to apex joint is either fixed or hinged in a suitable device.
They are also fabricated in sections and transported to site.

Laminated PF bolt head pocket

Rafter

Apex jointed and bolted

Knee

R radius to support

Leg
Alternative knee detail

Profile framing can be faced

With plywood
Laminated frame

75mm thick softwood framing

To form profile and provide
Eaves support

Plywood faced portal frame

These are suitable for small walls with a span of less than 9m. the frame are universal boxed
beam consisting of a skeleton core of softwood members faced on both sides with plywood
which takes the bending stress. The hollow construction also allows for some services e.g.
electrical to be inaugurated into the framework

750mm

Solid block at apex

Knee 10mm plywood facing on both sides

 Max 4500

Intermediate studs / bracing

Bearing plate Max span 9000mm

Solid timber with gusset PF in this form and the frames are generally spaced closer to each
other that are in the range of between 600 – 1200mm centres. The finished structure acts as a light
weight building from which is quite rigid and strong

These frames are supplied in section and assembled by fixing either plywood or any other
suitable gussets at the forms of the members either before election or during election. The
foundation for this type consists of a ground beam or raft foundation edge on which a timber
spreader or sole plate on which the frame rest is used along the entire length of the building

This provides a simple and economical timber PF for small clear spans and can be made using
ordinary tools and basic skills. No gluing is necessary

10mm plywood
Roofing material apex gusset Plywood/
nailed to rafter and metal knee
purlins inserted into

Insulation 230 x 220mm structural

softwood @

230 x 110 planned

structural softwood
Noggin for
wall braces
Galvanized Timber sole plate
steel fitting bolted to raft or

Raf
 Detail 01

Detail elevation 01

600mm

Frame

Fixture angle cleat or bracket

Timber sole plate bolted to frames leg and
bolted to foundation

Ground beam

Advantages of timber PF

1. Timber is readily available

2. It is lighter in weight

3. Easy to transport and elect

 4. It can be easily trimmed and adjusted on site

5. Pleasing appearance

6. Easily protected from insects or fungi through either surface application or

impregnation with the suitable chemical

Disadvantage

1. Timber has a limited structural strength

2. Can easily burn i.e. combustible

3. High maintenance cost since it has to be protected against insects and rotting

STAIRS

TIMBER STAIR

Terminology

- Stair well: the space in which the stairs and the landing are housed.

- Stairs: the actual means of accession or deccesion from one level to another

- Tread: upper surface of a step on which the foot is placed

- Nosing: the exposed edge of a tread usually projecting with a square, round or
splayed edge

- Riser: the vertical member between two consecutive treads

- Step: riser plus tread

- Going: the horizontal distance between two consecutive risers or the distance
measured on plan between two consecutive nosing
 - Rise: vertical height between two consecutive treads

- Flight: a series of steps without landing

- Newel: post forming the junction of flights of stairs with landing or carrying the
lower end of strings

- Strings: the members receiving the ends of steps which are generally housed to the
string and secured by wedges called wall or outer strings according to their position

- Handrail: projecting member usually parallel to the string and spanning

between newels

- Baluster: the vertical infill members between a string and handrail

- Pitch line: a line connecting the nosing of all treads in flight

Types of stairway

1. Common stairway: it is an internal or external stairway of steps with straight nosing on

plan, which forms part of a building and is intended for common use in connection with
two or more dwellings

Its maximum pitch is 38º

2. Private stairway: it is an internal or external stairway of steps with straight

nosing on plan, which forms part of a building is intended for use solely in
connection with one dwelling

Its maximum pitch is 42º

Functions of a stair

i. Provide access from one level to another (i.e. from floor to floor)

ii. Provide means of escape in the event of outbreak of fire

Design of stairs

Ref: Kenya building code by law No. 133

Dimensions

a) Dwellings:

- Min width – 760mm

- Max riser – 190mm

- Min tread – 225mm

- Min headroom – 2050mm

- Min length of landing – 675mm

b) Ware house and public building

- Min width – 1135mm

- Max riser – 165mm

- Min tread – 225mm

- Min headroom – 2125mm

- Min length of landing – 1200mm

Design of stairs

Formula – 2 risers + 1 tread = 600mm or (550 – 700mm)

Example

In a building used for domestic purposes, the floor to floor height is 2700mm. design for min
number of treads and risers

Solution:

Consider the height of 1 riser to be 165mm (this is the requirement of K.B.S) No of

risers = 2700 = 16.36

165

Note: all steps are equal

Therefore No of riser (steps) = 16 + 1 = 17 risers New

height will therefore be 2700 = 158.9mm

17

Length of tread = 600 – (2 x 158.9) = 282.2mm

Reinforced concrete stairs

Reinforced concrete stairs are non- combustible, strong, fire resistance and hardwearing. They
may be constructed in-site or pre-cast in sections ready for immediate installation and uses
when derived on site

The designer will treat the stair as being an inclined slab spanning simply between supports, the
steps being treated as triangular loading evenly distributed over the length where intermediate
landing are included in the design. The basic plan is similar to the open well or newel timber stair

The design regulations are the same as for timber stair. The concrete specification is usually
1:2:4 / 20mm aggregate. Concrete cover over the reinforcement of 15mm min or the bar
diameter whichever is greater. The min thickness of concrete required is
dependent on loading and span (min 100mm – 150mm measured across the waist)

Mild steel or high yield steel bar are used as reinforcement. The bars being lapped starter bars
at the ground floor and taken into the landing of floor supporting slab. Handrails and
balustrades are preferably of non combustible material. The surface finish of the tread depends
on the use of the stair. It is also advisable to trowel into the surface some carbondum dust to
provide a hardwearing non-slip surface. Alternatively
rubber or carbondum insert strips could be fixed or cast into the loading edges of treads. Pre-cast

concrete stair

Advantages

1. Better quality control of the finished product

2. Saving in site space

3. Stairway enclosing shaft can be utilized as a space for hoisting or lifting

materials

4. Can usually be positioned and fixed by semi-skilled labourer

 TEMPORARY WORKS

Formwork

Definition; its mould or a box into which wet concrete can be poured and compacted so that it
will flow and finally set to the inner profile of the box or mould’

Functional requirements

i. It should be strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete = 2400kg/ m³

ii. It must have grout tight joints to reduce leakage which courses honey
combing on surfaces

iii. It must not deflect under loads life/ dead

iv. Be so designed so as to necessitate easy assembly and dismantling

v. It must be accurately set out for concrete to take up the shape of the form mould.

vi. Farm sizes to be designed for ease of handling

vii. Suitable materials must be chosen for ease of fixing

Mould oils; applied to the inside surface of formwork to alleviate blow holes and uneven
colour defects. Other defects include the spoiling of the concrete face (plucking) due to the
sticking of concrete to the form
Terminologies

Brace: a member usually diagonal which act in tension or compression and stiffens. A
member act in tension or compression

Carcasing timber: timber used for any structural purpose in the support of forms but not
indirect contact with concrete.

Kicker/ kicker frame: kicker is a small concrete up stand cast above floor level to position
wall and column forms for the next lift and to assist the prevention of grout loss. Kicker form
is formwork to a kicker

Panel: prefabricated form of limited size designed for respected re-use, a number of which
may be fixed together to form a large surface

Plucking: it’s the spoiling of the concrete face due to adhesion of the concrete to the form
the reverse of form electing

Influence of striking order on the design forms

1. Forms to vertical non-load bearing surfaces e.g. column boxes, beam sides and wall
forms

2. Decking to slabs, horizontal and inclined which carry only light load e.g. slabs to roof,
floors and canopies

3. Soffit forms carrying heavy loads e.g. beams and gutter bottoms

Precautions against timber wastage

a. Stresses imposed by the fluid concrete and additional live and dead load should be
analyzed and the minimum safe sizes of timber and maximum spacing of supports
obtained

b. Timber should be ordered to the most convenient lengths to avoid wastage in cutting
 c. All longer lengths should be cut first and short ones cut from short materials

d. Forms should be made to strike easily without damage, thus permitting

maximum re-use

e. All loose boards and panels which are stuck should be immediately cleaned, loose
nails removed and panels stacked in neat piles for re-use

f. Small cleats, wedges, bolts and other loose parts should be thrown into separate boxes as
they become free.

Materials for formwork

Soft wood is often used for formwork

Functional requirements

1. Should be reasonably priced and readily available

2. Easily worked with hand or machine and nail easily without splitting

3. Should not be so soft so as to be damaged easily on the contact faces under normal
conditions of erecting, fixing and placing of concrete

4. Should be as light as possible to permit man handling when made up into large forms

5. Be stiff to avoid undue deflection when loaded during concreting

6. Should not be unduly liable to cast or warp when exposed to sun or rain

7. While the most expensive grade is obviously not needed the timber should be
watched for bad defects such as knot holes which would form an undesirable key on
the concrete face

Use of hardwoods

Hardwoods of the type which are normally hard are heavy such as, beach, birch, ash oak,
e.t.c are not generally suitable for formwork

Why.

- Because they are very expensive

- Too heavy

- Very rarely available

But they have special uses where strength, hardness and durability are an advantage These may be:

a. For folding wedges which have to withstand hammer blows

b. For caps interposed between vertical and horizontal bearing timbers so that the
concentrated pressure from the post may be distributed over a large area of the
relatively weaker side grain of a bearer

c. For moulds for precast work where considerable re-use is expected and where fixing
is by screws and clamps.

d. For small sections moulds such as area used to form grooves and drips where
softwood might be fragile

Timber sheeting: It’s a term applied to boards of any materials used to provide faces to form
for walls, columns e.t.c

Decking: used to describe similar facing to horizontal surfaces such as floor slabs

Plywood

Advantages
 a. Rapidly and economically fixed

b. It is virtually leak proof as most of the joints which are few come on the bearer

c. It provides large level surfaces

d. No local casting or cupping of surfaces

e. It may be nailed close to the edges without spiriting

f. It have high resistance to impact load

g. It is stable does not swell or shrink to the same degree as solid timber

h. When well planned there is small waste

Form linings

Sheets of material applied to the face of the form mainly to give a special surface to the concrete
face

Types

1. Building paper

This is a stout laminated paper consisting of two crossed rayer of sisal fibers sandwiched
between two sheets of Kraft paper by means of bitumen adhesive obtained in rolls of
about 1 – 2m wide and up to 30m long

Advantages

Prevents the escape of grout retains the moisture in the cement helps the curing and keep
the form surface clear for re-use

2. Hard board

It’s a manufactured board made in sheets 1.2 to 1.5 and 1.6m by 1.2 to 5.4m long.
Available in two qualities, standard and super hard board used for formwork in thickness
of 3 and 4mm. not capable of many re-use although the super hard
 board is harder and more moisture resistance

3. Thin plywood

Thin plywood up to 6mm thick is used. As this has appreciable stiffness the supporting
boards if used may be more widely spaced according to the maximum pressure
involved. For concrete slab up to 250mm thick boards may be spaced up to 125mm
apart while for wall forms poured in 1m lifts, they may be spaced at 63mm apart using
6mm plywood in each case

4. Plastic lining

Have successfully been used as lining, they are nailed or glued to the sheeting. They give a
smooth finish to concrete face. They enable the sheet to be used many times

Disadvantages

- It imports a shine to the concrete surface causing crazing

- It has a totally impervious face which prevents the disposition of surface air
collecting on the face creates small cavities which vary in size and easily seen

5. Insulation board

A soft and absorbent material which, when applied to the form sheeting absorbs the
surplus moisture from the face of the concrete minimizes the risk of blow holes and
improves surface texture

Permanent formwork
lining

This is linings which are left permanently as an integral part of the wall when the forms are
striped. Those commonly used are
 - Precast concrete blocks and re-constructed stone

- Separate surface finishes

Ref: Barry vol 1 and 2

Wall formwork

Consists of standard panel tied together over their backs with horizontal members called
walling fulfill the same function as yokes providing resistance to the horizontal force of the wet
concrete. A 75mm high concrete kicker is formed at the base of the proposed wall to:

i. Enable the forms to be accurately positioned

j. Help prevent the loss of grout at base of the form Fig

vii 1 and 2

Climbing formwork

This is a method of casting a wall in set vertical lift heights using the same forms in a repetitive
fashion thus obtaining max usage from a minimum number of forms. The first lift is positioned
against the kicker in the inverted position, the concrete is poured and allowed to cure after which
the forms are removed, reversed and fixed to the newly cast concrete, the forms are removed and
raised to form the next lift until the required lift has been reached

Fig vii 3
Sliding formwork

This is a system of formwork which slides continuously up the face of the wall being cast by
climbing up and being supported by a series of hydraulic jacks operating on jacking rods. The
whole is therefore cast as a monolithic and joint less structure making the method suitable for
structure such as water towers, chimneys and cares of multi storey buildings with repetitive
forms.

SHORING

Shoring is the temporary support required in case of faulty foundation, building walls in case of
overturning or where alteration proves necessary. The requirements for shoring are in each case
individual. The extent and direction of movement to be expected in a wall are highly variable and
the duration for which shoring are needed ranges from weeks to years. Shoring may be carried
out in timber or a combination of timber and steel. These members should be of sound capability
to offer strength to the building the stability of which is threatened by damage or adjacent
building operations

There are three types of shoring

1. Dead shores

2. Raking shores

3. Flying shores

Common situations where shoring may be required

 - During demolition work for support the adjacent building

- Support upper part of wall for formation of opening in the lower wall

- To avoid failure of sound walls near basement construction

- Give support to the building likely to become unstable due to subsidence

building or leaning

- Give support to a floor/roof to enable a support wall to be removed and

replaced by beam

Shoring systems

1. Dead shoring: supports dead loads which act vertically downwards. It consist of the
following

i. Vertical prop or ( shore leg)

ii. Head plate

iii. Sole plate

iv. Some means of adjustment

Sequence of operation

1. Site investigation to ascertain

- Number of shores, possible loading and window positions

- Bearing capacity of soils

- Location of underground services

2. Fix as close to the wall as possible ceiling struts between suitable head and sole plate to
relieve the wall off floor and roof load

3. Strut all window openings within the vicinity of the shores to prevent distortion of
 the opening

4. Cut holes through the wall slightly longer in size than the needles

5. Cut holes through ceiling floors for shore legs

6. Position and level sleeper on a firm base

7. Erect wedge and secure shoring

8. Leave the shoring in position at least 7 days

2. Rake shores: it transfers the floor and wall loads to the ground by means of
sloping struts or rakes

Operation of sequence

- Site investigation as for dead shore

- Mark and cut mortises and housing in wall plates

- Set out and cut holes for needles in external wall

- On a firm base lay grillage platform and sole plate

- Cut and erect rakes beginning with the bottom shore

- Fix cleats, distance blocks, binding e.t.c to the backs of shores

3. Flying shores

Fulfill the same functions as raking shores but have advantage of providing clear working
space under shoring. Used between any parallel wall surfaces up to 12m span Short spans
up to 9m have a single horizontal member while large spans require two horizontal shores
to keep the section sizes within the timber range commercially available
Demolition methods

- Hand demolition

- Winch demolition

- Ball arm demolition

Hand demolition

Involves the progressive demolition of a structure by operatives using hand tools, Crane edge is
often used to lift out members once they have been released. The order of demolition is the reverse
to that of construction.

Ball arm demolition

Involves demolition by swinging a heavy steel ball suspended from jib of a crane, Its limited for
building over 30m in height and should be supplemented by hand demolition in that pitched roof
as well as floors should be removed by hand.

Winch demolition

Steel ropes with a circumference of 38mm or more should be used for demolishing part of the
structure. Frequent inspection of these ropes is encouraged to make sure that their strength has
not been impaired by use. No persons should be standing between the winch and the building
being demolished. Nearer by distance equal to 75% of the distance between winch and structure
on either side of the rope
UNDERPINNING

This is the action of transferring the loading of an existing foundation to a deeper depth. It may
become necessary due to:

a) As a rescue (corrective) measure re-distractive the foundation loading, and may be

caused by:

i) uneven loading of a building

ii) action of the tree roots

iii) action of the ground water (softening)

iv) unequal settlement

v) unequal resistance of the soil (bearing capacity)

b) it may be necessary so as to increase the bearing capacity of the foundation so as to

allow for say extension to an existing building (vertically)

c) Underpinning may be carried out as a preliminary activity which would allow for the
excavation of a basement to an already existing building which would otherwise
interfere with the bearing of the existing foundation level.

Survey (precaution) to be carried out before underpinning

a) Inform the neighbors on the intention to underpin

b) Reduce the loading (imposed) as much as possible

c) Carry out a subsoil survey (study) to determine the most suitable bearing level (strata)

d) Check for the defects e.g. cracks on the existing building to move when the
exercise is being carried out

e) During the underpinning exercise movement checks should be carried out as a

precaution

Methods of underpinning

1) Wall underpinning

This is done by excavating alongside the excising wall in bays not exceeding 1.5m in
length and going as deep as the suitable bearing subsoil level.

When the level is reached, the new bearing foundation strip is casted with steel
dowels embedded at the end so as to provide continuity with the concrete in the next
bay. Adjacent bays must not be casted together as this can destabilize the existing
foundation.

The new foundation walling is built on this strip and this too must be toothed at the
end so as to bond with the walling in the next bay.

The total number and length of bays would depend on:

a) Subsoil conditions (encountered)

b) The total length of the wall to be underpinned

c) The loading on foundation

d) Width of the existing foundation

3
 Wall to be
underpinned

In the above typical schedule, the bay marked the same number are done together in order
from 1to5 GL

Timbering

Existing foundation

Concrete fill New foundation

wall

New bearing strip

2) Pretest method of underpinning

The approach to this method of underpinning is more or less similar to that of wall
underpinning where bays are first excavated and then the new foundation (bearing)
casted. Instead of building the new walling right away, the building is however
supported initially by means of hydraulic jack resting on the existing foundation by
means of say a precast concrete beam. This is carried out in all the bays until finally
the building rest on the jack, then the wall is built in the spaces between the jacks and
when they actively support the
 building the jacks are removed and the walling completed

This method is particularly suitable in situations where underpinning is being done to

arrest settlement of the building since the walling is not done until the load that is
causing the settlement is balanced by the hydraulic jack.

Existing foundation

RC beam

Hydraulic jack

New foundation

3) Mega pile underpinning

This method is particularly suitable where the suitable bearing is much deeper for the
walling to be economical and simply involves sinking piles ( or casting) which are
actually underground columns supporting the existing foundation and transferring the
load to the harder ground. The piles are casted individually and often don’t actually
reach the bottom of the existing foundation. This gap is filled by either a horizontal
beam (in case of weak foundation) on which foundation rests or filled with concrete
to act as part of
the column.

Bay existing foundation

Horizontal beam linking pile/ conc

infill

Mega pile

Ground with high bearing capacity

Pile position foundation strip

Wall position

This spacing of the piles would depend on the imposed load, soil bearing capacity and
the strength of the existing foundation.
 4) Needle and pile underpinning

This is done in the cases of weak existing foundation strip and involves supporting it by
means of short beams (needles) and vertical support (piles) if resembles to shoring
method of supporting building

Existing foundation

Pile needle

FINISHES

Floor finishes

1. Insitu floor finishes : mixed on site, laid in a fluid state and allowed to set and dry to
form a joint less surface

Examples

- Mastic asphalt

- Pitch mastic

- Granolithic
 - Magnesium ox-chloride

2. Applied floor finishes: finishes supplied in tile or sheet form and are laid onto a
suitably prepared base

Examples

- Flexible PVC tiles and sheet

- Thermoplastic tiles

- Rubber tiles and sheet

- Carpet

- Linoleum

- Cark tiles sand and carpet

- Quarry tiles

- Plain clay floor tiles

3. Timber floor finish: boards, sheets and block of timber attached to a suitable
structural frame or base

Examples

- Timber boards

- Timber strips

- Timber sheet

- Wood blocks

- Parquet

Ref: chudley vol I page 174

External rendering
Mixes: sand / cement or cement / lime / sand

Terms

Grazing: net work of small hair line crack

- caused by excessive trowelling

Laitance: scum / layer of rich cement / sand

- Formed as a result of over-trowelling

Workability: ability of mix to flow

- Necessitated by limes, admixtures

Background suction: the sucking of water by the background from the mix Under

coat

- Normally between 10 to 15mm thick

- It’s stracted or combed before hardening

- Mix proportions 1 : 3 – cement sand

2: 1: 8 – 9

1: 1: 5 – 6 cement / lime / sand

1: 2: 8 – 9

1: 2 – 3 hydraulic lime

Final coat

- It’s less than 5 – 7mm thick

- Not stronger than preceding coat

Finishes

1. Floated finish : rough plastering

2. Textured or combed finish : funny figurers on wall

3. Floated textured finish : trowel with marks

4. Scraped finish

5. Brushed finish : wire brush patterns

6. Pebbledash (dry dash) : small stones squeezed on finished wall

7. Rough cast (wet dash) : mixed with mix and grid

8. Tyrolean

Ref: Barry vol 1

INTERNAL PLASTERING

Functions

1. Hide irregularities

2. Provide a face for decoration

3. Resist damage by impact

Lime plasters

Disadvantages

- Drying shrinkage – causing cracking

- Slow drying

- Require several coats (expensive)

Gypsum

Crystalline combination of calcium sulphate and water

Process: crush – screen – heat to dehydrate

Class A: plaster of Paris - heated at 170ºc - ¾ water removes Class B:

retarded hemihydrates gypsum - plaster

Class C: anhydrous gypsum – nearly all water removed Class

D: keen’s plaster

Dry lining techniques

Finishing external, internal walls or partitions with variety of materials ready for direct
decoration

Advantages

- Thermal insulation

- Faster in drying

- Speed in erection

- No water used

- Sound insulation

Material used

- Plaster boards

- Asbestos sheets

- Plywood
 - Chip board

- Hard board

Plaster boards

Aerated gypsum core encased and bonded with paper liners

Types inside (ivory colour direct decoration) fixed using nails / plugs

- Wall board - Lath gypsum

- Base board - Plank

Outside paper (grey colored skin

coat)

EXTERNAL

RENDERING

Definition: it is a surface application of cement: sand or similar mix to an external wall either
to give it a good appearance or make it weather resistant or both. It may comprise one, two or
three coats. The first is termed first or render coat. The second floating coat and the last is
called the final or finishing coat

Terms

Crazing: it is a network of fine hair cracks at the surface formed by excessive trowelling and
smoothing of the rendered surface

Laitance: it is the accumulation of a skin or layer of rich cement mortar of high water content at
the surface caused by excessive trowelling

Workability: the ability of the mix to flow with ease during handling. The material incorporated
to increase workability instead of cement is

- Hydraulic limes

- High calcium lime mixtures

Background suction

The mix should have water retentivity to allow hydration of the cement. Retentivity is increased by
adding lime. In order to achieve retentivity the background suction is reduced by a preliminary
damping of the surface, but no visible water film or droplets should be present at the surface when
the rendering is applied to increase bond

Achievement of a god bond is done by the following

1. The raking out by mortar joints to about 10mm depth

2. Hacking the surface to provide mechanical key

3. The application of a preliminary spatter dash treatment

Undercoat

An undercoat is normally between 10mm and15mm thick. It is combed or scratched before

hardening to provide a key for the subsequent coat. On very irregular background the first
undercoat does not provide a sufficiently good surface to receive the final coat directly hence a
second undercoat (10 – 13mm thick) may be applied. Mix proportions
– (1:3, 2:1:8-9, 1:1:5-6, 1:2:8-9, 1:2-3 hydraulic lime)

Final coat

It is less than (5 – 7mm thick). It should not be stronger than the preceding coat, except where
coarse aggregate is included

Finishes

1. Floated finish 5. Brushed finish

2. Textured or combed finish 6. Pebbled dash (dry dash)

 3. Floated textured finish 7. Rough cast (wet dash)

4. Scraped finish 8. Tyrolean

INTERNAL PLASTERING

Functions of plaster

1. Camouflage irregularities in the backing wall

2. Provide a continuous surface which is suitable for direct decoration

3. Be sufficiently hard to resist damage by impact upon its surface

Gypsum plaster fulfill these requirements but lime plaster do not due to the following
disadvantages

1. Drying shrinkage which causes cracking

2. Slow drying out process which can take several weeks causing delay for other trades

3. Need to apply lime plaster in several in several coats to reduce the amount of
shrinkage

Gypsum

It is a crystalline combination of calcium sulphate and water. After crushing and

screening the gypsum is heated to dehydrate the material. The amount of water
remaining at the end of this process defines its class

Class A: plaster of Paris - ¾ of water removed - 170ºc heating

Class B: retarded he- midrate gypsum plaster

Class C: anhydrous gypsum plaster – nearly all water removed

Class D: Keene’s plaster

The choice of plaster mix, type and number of coat will depend uporn the background to which
the plan in to be applied

Advantages

1. Speed of erection

2. Reduction in the amount of water used during construction

3. Reduction in drying out period

4. Increased thermal insulation

Materials

a. Hardboard

b. Plywood

c. Chipboard

d. Plasterboard

Fixed to timber batterns attached to the wall. Finishing can be a direct application of paint,
vanish or wall paper

PAINTS

Definition: painting is the application of a thin coating of material in a liquid or plastic

condition to a surface as a decorative or protective measure, normally made to harden to a solid
film. Its chemical and physical properties depend on:

i) Nature of the surface being coated

 ii) Method of application

iii) Basic requirements

Materials: paints, vanishes, stains, preservatives etc Paint

composition

Consists of one or more solid materials

1. Pigments

2. Vehicle (a liquid)

Pigments: present in power form and suspended in vehicle made from metallic oxides and
salts

Functions

i. provide the hiding power and colour of the paint film

ii. Give corrosion resistance to the surface painted

Paint vehicle: is the liquid part of paint

Functions

i. Facilitates application by giving the paint mobility

ii. Serves as a binder for the pigment on drying

iii. Gives adhesion to the surface painted

Paint vehicle is a volatile solvent (a liquid which dissolves a substance but which readily
evaporates leaving behind the dissolved substance unaltered chemically) e.g. alcohols, methylated
spirits, naphtha’s and coal tar derivatives plus organic chemicals.

Paint types

1. Emulsion paints: this is a synthetic resin (PVA) emulsified in water. Other

 ingredients are usually stabilized which prevent coagulation (becoming thick). Their
drying action is due to evaporation of the emulsifying liquid

Advantages

i. Their paint films are initially and sometimes permanently permeable

ii. Their hardened films are washable

iii. Are alkaline resistant hence may be used on cement, concrete, asbestos – cement
and plaster

iv. Suited to rolled and brush application

2. Water paints: composed of drying oil, oil vanish or synthetic resin emulsified in water
together with a stabilizer as glue or casein. They contain pigments and the final product
is supplied in the paste from mixed with water. Used mainly for interior decoration

Advantages

i. They give a permeable paint film washable when hard

ii. Most are unaffected by alkalis

3. Distempers (i.e. white wash): distempers do not contain a dry oil, oil vanish or resin
and they are not emulsified. They consist of a pigment and extender with a water
soluble binder such as glue size and are supplied either in the mixed powder form or a
paste in water. Prepared for use by adding water. Used on ceilings and as a temporary
decoration for new walls.

Disadvantages

They are non-washable and easily rubbed off.

Other paints include

a. Solvent type paints

 b. Oil paints

c. Hard gloss paints

d. Enamel paints

e. Synthetic resin paints

PAINT SCHEMES

1. Primer

Functions

- It gives protection against corrosion of metals or against dampness

especially of site-stored joinery

- Used to adjust the suction of a surface and provide good adhesion for
subsequent coats

- Acts as a barrier coat to isolate one coat from a preceding coat – prevent
chemical interaction e.g. - red lead – used on iron and steel

Calcium plum bate – for zinc and galvanized iron

Zinc chromate – for aluminum

Red oxide – protects ferrous metal

2. Undercoat

paints

Functions

- To obliterate the background and provide a uniformly dense tone (colour) to assist
the finish

- Provide good adhesion for the finishing coat

3. Finishing paints
 Functions

- Give the required reflection characteristics to the surface

- Give the final colour

- As an exterior paint, seal the surface against the weather

- Offer elastic quality to the surface

Defects in paint film

a. Crazing or cracking : deterioration due to weathering or a symptom of unsuitable paint

formation, adulteration or subsequent maltreatment

b. Chalking : powdering of paint film due to normal weathering causing breakdown of the
binder

c. Bleeding : the softening of a paint film due to an agency such as resinous or

bituminous matter acting as a solvent on the binder and penetrating the film causing
staining and local breakdown

d. Sulphiding : discoloration of certain paint films due to conversion of compounds

present to the sulphide (change of colour)

Floor finishes (const tech vol I)

The type of floor finish to be applied to a floor will depend upon a number of factors

i. Type of base

ii. Room usage

iii. Degree of comfort required

iv. Maintenance problems

 v. Cost

vi. Appearance

vii. Safety

viii. Individual preference

Types

1. Cement sand screed

This serves a number of purposes

i. Provide a smooth surface

ii. Provide falls for drainage

iii. Provide thermal insulation

iv. Accommodate service pipes and cables

- Cement and sand screeds in the ratio of 1 : 3 by weight are suitable for
thickness up to 40mm

- The screed is laid on the insitu concrete base before it has set (within 3 hours of
placing).

- Complete bonding is obtained and the thickness need only to be 12mm. this is
called monolithic construction

- With separate construction, the base has to be hatched, cleaned and

dampened. In this respect the screed has to be 40mm

- Where the screed is laid on a DPM it is classified as un-bonded and should have a
minimum of 50mm thick

- Screed laid on a comprehensible thermal insulation is called floating and should

be at least 65mm thick
2. Granolithic

- This is a mixture of Portland cement and granite chippings. Applied to a sub- floor

- A typical mix for granolithic is 1 : 1 : 2 cement, sand and chippings by volume

- Finish obtained is very hard wearing, noisy and cold to touch

- Used mainly in situations where easy maintenance and durability are

paramount such as common entrance hall

- Its applied to green concrete sub-floor as a topping in a single layer 20mm thick in
bay size not exceeding 28m² resulting to monolithic floor and finish construction

- For mature concrete, it needs to be hacked and brushed well to remove all the
laitance before lying. The finish at least 40mm thick should be laid on a wet cement
slurry coating to improve the bond in bay sizes not exceeding 14m²

3. Wood blocks

- Small blocks of timber usually of hardwood which are designed to be laid in set
patterns

- Lengths range from 150 – 300mm with width up to 89mm and thickness ranges
from 20 – 30mm

- Blocks are joined along their edges with a tongued and grooved joint and have a
rebate or chamfer along the bottom longitudinal edges

- Blocks should be laid from the centre of the floor towards the perimeter

- To allow for moisture movement a cork expansion strip should be placed around
the entire edge of the block floor
4. Parquet

- Superior form of wood block flooring made from specially selected hardwood
chosen mainly for their decorative appearance

- Are generally smaller and thinner than hardwood blocks and are usually fixed to a
timber sub-floor which is level and smooth

- Fixing can be by adhesives or secret nailed

- Can be supplied as a patterned panel fixed to a suitable backing sheet in panel

sizes from 300 – 600mm square

5. Floor tiles

- Thin flexible materials and should be laid on a sub-floor with smooth finish

- 1 : 3 mix c/s bed or screed with a steel float finish is laid to the concrete sub- floor

- A mature concrete subfloor must be clean, free from dust and dampened with water
to reduce the suction before applying the bonding agent to receive the screed

- Screed are laid in bays less than 15m² to reduce shrinkage cracks

a) Flexible PVC tiles and sheet

- Hardwearing floor finish produced by a mixture of polyvinyl chloride resin

pigments and mineral fillers

- Produced as 300 x 300mm square tiles or in sheet up to 2400mm wide with a

thickness of 1.5 – 3mm

- Fixed with manufacturer recommended adhesive

- Laid from centre of the area towards edge so that if the area is not an exact tile
module an even border cut tiles is obtained
b) Thermoplastic tiles

- Also called asphalt tiles and produced from coumarone indene resins, fillers and
pigments

- Are hardwearing, moisture resistant and suitable for most situation

- Size 225mm² 3 – 4.5mm thick

- To make them pliable they are usually heated before being fixed with a
bituminous adhesive

c) Rubber tiles

- Produced from natural or synthetic rubber compound with fillers to give

colour and texture

- It’s hardwearing, quiet and water resistant. Suitable for bathrooms and
washrooms

- Size 150 – 1200mm² and 3 – 6.5mm thick. Sheet size 900 – 1800mm width

- Fixed by rubber based recommended adhesive

d) Linoleum

- Produced in sheet or tile form from a mixture of drying oils, resins, fillers and
pigments which is pressed on to a hessian or bitumen saturated felt paper backing

- Gives a quiet, resilient and hardwearing surface suitable for most domestic floors

- Size 1800mm. width 2 – 6.5mm thick sheet tiles 300mm²

- Fixed by adhesive to any dry smooth surface

e) Carpet

- Produced from nylon, acrylics and wool or mixtures of these

- There is vast range of styles, types, patterns, colour, qualities and sizes
available

- Laid over an underlay of felt or latex and secured by adhesives, nailing around the
perimeter

- Supplied in narrow or wide rolls

f) Cork tiles and carpet

- Cut from baked blocks. 300mm² and 5mm thick

- Are hardwearing, quiet and resilient fixed with recommended adhesive

- Treated with surface sealant to resist dirt and grit penetration

g) Quarry tiles

- Made from ordinary clays worked in a plastic from, pressed into shape and hard
burnt

- Are hardwearing, good resistance to water and suitable for kitchens and
entrance halls

- They tend to be noisy and cold.

- Produce in square size 100 x 100 x 20mm to 225 x 225 x 32mm thick

- Joint between tiles are grouted with 1: 1 c/s grout.

h) Plain clay tiles

- Produced from refined natural clays

- Denser than quarry - ranges from 75 x 75mm to 150 x 150mm

 DOORS AND WINDOWS

DOORS

Definition: A door is amusing part of a building and will be subjected to constant use and
often abuse throughout its life

Functions

The function of a door is to give access to a house, room or passage

Functional requirements

The door must be carefully designed and made from good material. It must also be
remembered that condition of temperature and humidity will often be different in rooms
or spaces on each side of the door, which will produce tendency for the door to warp or
twist. The material and design must counteract this.

a. Durability; proper maintenance allied to the choice of good material with good
design workmanship will ensure satisfactory durability throughout the life of the
building. Timber doors need special consideration in particular external doors and
regular painting or clear treatment is necessary.

b. Weather protection; with external doors it concerns the exclusion of air and
water. The top and bottom of the door is particularly vulnerable and special
precautions in the form of throttling and provision of weather bars should be taken.
Outward opening doors should wherever possible be set back into the opening.
Where possible the edges for the meeting stiles of doors hung in pairs should be
rebated. Doors should as far as possible be drought proof and the use of same form
of weather stripping at the rebate is a wise precaution

c. Sound and thermal insulation; with regard to thermal insulation the loss of heat
through a closed door is minimal. For good sound insulation doors must
 be solid with tight seals at all edges. The passage of sound between the doors and
frame must be restricted. Where the specification requirements are high for both
sound and thermal insulation the two sets of door with an intervening space or
vestibule will be necessary.

d. Fire resistance; precautions in respect of an outbreak of fire fall into three

categories

i. Structural fire precaution; concerned with restricting the spread of fire

within the building

ii. Means of escape is to enable the occupants to leave the building in safety

iii. To restrict the movement of smoke throughout a public building

e. Strength and stability; the strength of the door is dependent on its method of
construction. In terms of stability a door is called upon to resist a number of stresses
that will vary according to its use and position. Normal closing and opening,
barging, slamming, bumping from articles being carried through and even kicking
are to be expected. In addition to these factors the door must withstand stresses due
to the variation in humidity that occur through changes in weather condition and
artificial conditions within the building

Classification of doors

Doors can be classified as internal or external. The reason for this is that external doors are
subjected to weather while internal doors are not. The entrance door of a house in an external
door, while the doors to rooms or passage are internal doors, a door opening must be large
enough for people to walk through with ease and to allow the passage of goods and equipment.
Therefore external doors are normally slightly bigger than the internal door

Types of doors
 1. a). Flush door; it has a plain face which is easy to clean and decorate it is also free of
molding which collect dust. It can be faced with hardwood, plywood or plastic
laminate. Three of the more commonly used constructional methods are a;

i. Laminated solid timber core

ii. Solid core

iii. Timber railed

In every case the frame work is covered with plywood on both faces and a hard wood
edging strip 69mm thick on both long edges to protect the plywood

The strongest form of flush door is the solid core, often made up of longitudinal
laminations of precision planned timber butt jointed with resin based adhesive under
pressure. It has excellent fire check and sound reducing qualities

Half solid flush door is cheaper and lighter. It is made up of a timber frame in corpora
ting horizontal rail not more than 63mm apart and the whole forming a 50% solid timber
core. In its strength it can satisfactorily accommodate standard ironmongery

Timber railed door is even lighter. It consists of horizontal rails not more than 125mm
apart. Used extensively in local authority and private housing where stringent cost limit per
rail. It is possibly faced with hard board.

b). fire check flush door; these doors provide an effective barrier to passage of fire for the
time designated by their type, but to achieve this they must be used in conjunction with
correct frame. Two types are designed by BS 459, half hour type door are hung using one
pair of hinges where as one hour type door requires one and a half pair of hinges.

2. Match boarded doors; can be used as external or internal door they are
constructed in three forms

i. Ledged and battened

ii. Ledged and braced

iii. Framed, ledged and braced

The ledged and braced door are for external use, however the framed, ledged and braced
doors are stronger and widely used as external doors possibly made of cedar

2. Paneled door; paneled doors are usually described by the number of panels which they
contain and which may vary from one to six. These doors are stronger than flush doors
and match boarded doors without frames. They can be used for external as well as
internal. They consist of stile and rails framed around panel of timber or plywood. They
are framed by joining the members where they intersect by dowels or mortise and tenon

Door frames

The function of a door frame is to provide a fixing and support for doors. A door frame consists
of three members i.e. two upright posts (jambs) which are secured at top by a cross piece called
head. Head usually projects 50 – 100mm beyond the post and these projections are called
horns. They assist in making the frame secure

Section sizes

Post on which the doors are hung must be large enough to enable the frame to remain rigid. The
section piece must be related to the weight and the size of the door they have to carry.

Types of door frames

i. Basic door frame; the simplest type of door frame consisting two jambs and head.
 A C

X X

C C-C

Rebate

Doorstop A-A X- X

ii. Ceiling height frame; this is a door frame with fanlight

Fanlight
 Transom

Squaring strips and horns

In order to keep the frame rigid and square digging operation, transport or setting on the wall all
ordinary door frames bracing with square strips which are usually 18 x 50mm are cut into the
rebate while the horns protect the frame during transport

Ironmonger

Hinges, locks, door handles, fasteners, fixing e.t.c. which are used for doors and windows are
generally described as hardware or ironmongery.

Hinges; are used for hanging doors and window casements in their frames. Normally three
hinges are used for each door. Hinges are available in a very wide range, small and type. The
cheapest and most commonly used hinge is braced steel butt hinge

Fixing and fasteners; door frames and window frames are normally built into block or brick
wall. “L” shaped built in lug are used to secure frames into wall. The shorter arm of “L” shaped
lug is screwed to the back of the frame. When the door is placed to the wall horizontal openings
have to be chiseled for the longer arm. When the door is set to the right position the opening are
to be filled again with mortar. Fixing can also be made of hoop iron or nails. The frame should
be fixed into the walls with three lugs to each jamb. It avoids any unnecessary force on the
frame. The hinges of the door must be fixed at the same height to the frame as the lugs are fixed
 Jamb

Wall

Framed door
12mm thick plaster with plastic emulsion paint

A 215mm thick bri ck wall

215
150 100 x 50mm top rail

Insitu lintel (1:2:4)

100 x 50mm stile 16mm Ø m.s.

bar

100 x 25mm braces 25mm

quadrant

125 x 75mm
mould frame 2100 25 mm nt
mould
100 x 50mm top
rail quadra
B 200 x 25mm middle 75 x 25mm T
B r
& G battens ail
100 x25mm

brace

100 x 50 mm
stil
meeting 75 x 25mm
es 100 x 25mm
T & G batt 100 x
middle rail ens
A 25mm bottom r
1640 ail

FRONT ELEVATION
20 x100mm swd skirting

12mm thick plaster with plastic emulsion

pai 25mm quadrant mould 100 x 25mm

brace

125 x 75mm frame

100 x 50mm stile

100 x 25mmbrace 100 x 25

bottom rail

75 x 25mm T & G battens 25mm thick

(1:4) screed

100 x 50mm meeting g.lvl

stiles 215mm thick brick

wall Fixing cramp

25mm quadrant

mould SECTION B-B SECTION A-A

 Flush door B

2190 x 900mm solid

Core flush door B

300 x 300mm Glazed

opening

A A

Exterior flush door

200 x200mm
conc lintol

200mm thick solid conc block wall insitu 200mm thick

conc block

12mm thick c/s rendering solid 12mm thick

wall plaster

150 x 25 x 3mm m.s cramp c/s

h/wood
architrave
100 x 75mm wrot h/wood door 40 x 20m wrot

frame 45mm thick solid cored

f/door

45mm thick solid

cored
 40 x 20mm wrot h/wood architrave

Section A – A

WINDOWS

Windows are openings in walls and therefore are part of the wall construction

Function

The function of the window is to admit light and air but also to have a look outside. The ideal
window is one which is drought and weather resistance

Window opening

The window opening affects the strength of the wall; therefore its size must be limited. Three
factors are important for the size of the window

1. The use of the room that the window gives light to

2. The wall construction

3. Climate (sun and wind directions)

Window frame

The function of the frame is to fix the glass panel properly into the wall and protect it against
excessive shrinkage. Window frames are either made of timber or steel.

Casement or sash

It is the movable part of a window whose purpose is to ventilate the room. Windows are normally
described by the number of casements

Dead light

It is that part of the window which cannot be opened

Fixing for the frame is as for the door while glazing is fixed in two ways.

1. Using grazing compounds like putty

 2. Using beads

Types of windows

The four most usual ways in which apart or the whole of a window is made to open are

a) Hung- side hung or top hung (hinges)

H1 H2

Side hang

b) Pivoted – horizontal or vertical

Hori pivot hung vertical pivot hung

c) Horizontal or vertical sliding sash

Sliding vertical sliding horizontal

d) Louvers
Windows

A C frame

Vent light
D D

B B

Window frame

Mullion

Dead light

A C cill

Casement opening sec A- A

Frame glass mullion

frame

Sec B - B

Frame Casement

frame mullion

Vent light

Sec D- D
 Transom

Grass

Cill Sec C – C

Vertical sliding window

These windows have a pair of sashes or casements, both of which should open for ventilation and
cleaning

The casement slide vertically within shallow recesses formed in the frame built of thin timber
members. The jambs of the window are in the form of boxes/ cases, therefore the frame is also
called boxed frame or cased frame. A pair of cast iron weights contained within the frame is
connected to each casement/ sash by means of cords which are passed on small pulleys fixed to
the frame for raising or lowering the casement. The cords and weights hanging on either sides of
the casement balance the casement at any position of opening. A spring cord with weights
instead of a cord (string) can also be used.

Horizontal pivot hung and vertical pivot hung windows

The horizontal pivot hung is pivoted at a convenient position in between the jambs of the frame
so that the casement can be opened at any position as required. It can be fixed to open at 30º. The
horizontal pivot is fixed like the horizontal pivoted only that the vertically is pivoted at top and
bottom of the frame. The friction hinges used are the same for both vertical and horizontal
pivoted hung window

Sliding and folding windows

These windows slides and fold at the same time

The casement is hinged to one side of the frame and the casement leaves are hinged together.
There is the bottom runner that supports the window casement and a guide at the top guides the
system of leaves. There is a channel at top and at the sill on which the mechanism runs
The whole window composed of various casement leaves can be fold to one end of the window
reveal. The window can be secured/ locked by means of shoot bolt/ tower bolts from the inside

IRONMONGERY FOR DOORS AND WINDOWS

Doors and windows are shut to exclude unwanted visitors and droughts. They should therefore
be fitted with the types of hardware (also called monger) which are adequate not only to close
but also keep them securely and properly closed. This hardware comprises of wide range of
fittings made of metal by various hardware manufactures. Examples of these are friction pivots,
friction slung, casement stays, epaulet fittings, fasteners, sashes lifts; sash handles weights,
pulleys, sash cords and chains.

Caulking lock with handle: there are used for locking small windows in basements and stair
windows

Friction stay: the friction stay is screwed to the sash with the pin mounting screwed to the
frame. The stay makes use of friction to hold the sash at any desired position. the stay is used
on bottom hung, top hung pivot hung and side hung

Espagnalette bolts: these types of bolts are for doors and windows fixed at the edges. They
close simultaneously the window/ door at various points along the stile

Coupling: available in three sections for fastening sashes in double glazed windows. It has a
female and a male part. The female half incorporates a spring loaded catch which greatly
facilitates the separation or coupling of sashes

Overhead door closer: These overhead door closer acts automatically without noise they
may be bought either single or double action.
Single action door closer may be used to keep the door open or closed with a slight push.
The door may be opened up to 90º and released with a slight pull.

Concealed door closer is especially designed for use where the foremost need is for aesthetic
qualities. It opens the door to 90º and 180º respectively

Floor springs: These are also double or single action i.e. opening double one way. They are
provided with shoes and top centres and are hydraulically operated which prevents slamming of
the door

Various types of door holders available in the market can be used for holding doors. The steel
spring clip type is fixed to the door frame with the plunger screwed to the door.
The other types are housed and fixed to the floor.

Spring hinges: for doors required to close automatically, single and double action springs are
used to hang the doors. The springs are used expected to be double because they are often
misused due to the opening and closing of the swing doors. The springs are sold as pairs.

Sash pivots: these are various designs depending with the manufacture and may be made of
brass or malleable iron. A stub is screwed to the inner face of the frame. One pair of fittings is
required for each sash (casement)

Another type consists of a pin or stub plate and a slotted plate/ a socket. A pair of these pivots is
fixed to the inside of the frame and the sash

The other type consists of a screw bolt (or pivot) with three plates. A hole is bored through the
middle of the sash and frame. The plates T and U are fixed/ screwed to the stile (refer to the
handout) and the plate V is screwed to the frame. Initially a hole should have been drawn
through the sash stiles and the frame. The bolt is then finally inserted through the hole and plates
to make a pivot

Eyelets and cleats: these are devices for opening and closing of pivoted window sashes or
casement. The system consists of a length of cord attached to the eyelet which is screwed to the
face of the top and bottom rails. The long cord that can be pulled to
open the sash catch at “high” position is tied to the cleat fixed below the window where someone
can reach with ease

Standard steel casement window

The steel casement windows are commonly used. They are cheap and can be bought readymade
and to size. They are available in a wide range of standard sizes

They are made from a standard section of mild steel which is used for the frame, the casement,
vent lights, e.t.c. the section used is roughly Z shaped and its trimmed to size and welded together
to form a wide range of sizes

When we have a casement and a vent light, a transom (horizontal member) is welded to the frame
to accommodate the vent light. A vertical member called mullion is also welded to the frame so
that the window can have an opening casement and a dead light.

Vent light

Transom

Dead light

Mullion

Casement hinged

Standard section for mullion and frame are also available. The module 100 metric sizes
of window is used for domestic houses while the metric W20 windows are made of heavier
metal sections. The W20 windows are used for big houses. The glazing of the W20 windows is
done from inside so as to make it easier to repair the glazing latter if need be. A neoprene strip
material is fitted to the sashes to reduce air infiltration and heat loss. Metal beads and putty are
used for fixing the glass to the window casement
e.t.c. from inside

Hinges and fasteners for steel casements

The standard steel casement windows are hung on projecting steel hinges. The advantage for the
use of the projecting hinges is it makes it possible to clean the casement glass on both side from
within the building

Casements are secured to the frame with a single lock spar type of fastener and a peg stay is fixed
to the casement so that it can stay open when there is need

Vent light are hung on ordinary steel hinges and are fitted with open stay similar to that fixed to
the casement

Fixing standard steel window

Standard steel windows are built into openings in brick or block work walls when the wall has
risen up to the cill level, the window is put on position and the construction around it upwards
can continue.

The advantage for this method is when fixing windows whose surfaces (possibly hardwood/
bronze) should not be damaged during the fixing. Steel building lugs and counter sunk head
bolt and nut are sold together with steel windows. The lugs are “L” shaped and are of
galvanized steel. The building lugs may not hold the window to the wall very successfully as
such a mortar filet can be run between the back of the frame and the wall to reinforce the hold

Apart from building in of the steel window, the wall can be constructed to the needed height
and the space left for the window to be fixed latter on. The clearances for the lugs can be
chiseled out and latter on filled with mortar when the window is placed at
the proper position

Rust proofing of metal windows

Most of the metal windows when bought readymade are supplied rust proofed with zinc paint.
The rust proofing prevents the corroding rusting of the window surfaces. There are various
methods of rust proofing of the windows. The brushing with brushes is the cheapest method
mostly used locally

Other methods

Hot dip galvanizing method: this is a commonly used method of rust proofing. It consists of
dipping the completed window unit maltenzing which then adheres in a thin coat all the
window surfaces

Sheradizing method: the cleaned parts are placed in a container with zinc powder. The
container sealed and rotated in a hot furnace whose temperature is raised to 375º c. after some time
(hours) at that temp the container is allowed to cool slowly before removing the contents (window
parts) already coated with uniform adherent coat film of zinc

Electro galvanizing: in these method the cleaned parts of the window electroplated in a
solution of zinc salts and a zinc coating is obtained on the windows

Zinc praying method: this is the common spraying method. The zinc solution is splayed on
the windows thoroughly. Various coats can be sprayed. As need be

Timber sub-frame to metal window

The module 100 range of metal windows is rather light and weak and therefore to reinforce the
steel windows a wooden sub-frame may be used. It may be made of 75 x 75/ 75 x 50 / 100 x 50
(unplanned sizes). This wooden sub-frame also improves the appearance of steel metal
casement

The steel casement window may be fixed to the wooden sub-frame by use of counter sunk screw
driven through holes in the casement frame. A rebate may be cut in the sub-
frame to keep off wind and rain that may seeps into the building behind the steel frame

The wooden sub-frame is supplied with steel lugs which are “L” shaped. The lugs can be screwed
to the back of the sub-frame and then built into the horizontal joints of the masonry brick wall