Data Link Layer

The data link layer is used in a computer network to transmit the data between two devices or
nodes. It divides the layer into parts such as data link control and the multiple access
resolution/protocol. The upper layer has the responsibility to flow control and the error control
in the data link layer, and hence it is termed as logical of data link control. Whereas the lower
sub-layer is used to handle and reduce the collision or multiple access on a channel. Hence it is
termed as media access control or the multiple access resolutions.

Data Link Control

A data link control is a reliable channel for transmitting data over a dedicated link using various
techniques such as framing, error control and flow control of data packets in the computer
network.

What is a multiple access protocol?

When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets, the data link control is
enough to handle the channel. Suppose there is no dedicated path to communicate or transfer the
data between two devices. In that case, multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously
transmits the data over the channel. It may create collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple
access protocol is required to reduce the collision and avoid crosstalk between the channels.

For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher asks a question,
all the students (small channels) in the class start answering the question at the same time
(transferring the data simultaneously). All the students respond at the same time due to which
data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is the responsibility of a teacher (multiple access
protocol) to manage the students and make them one answer.

ollowing are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the different process as:
A. Random Access Protocol

In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a channel. In random
access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor any station control
another station. Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data
frame. However, if more than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a collision
or data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or changed. And hence,
it does not receive by the receiver end.

Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames on the
channel.

 Aloha
 CSMA
 CSMA/CD
 CSMA/CA

ALOHA Random Access Protocol

It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared medium
to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network
simultaneously when a data frameset is available for transmission.

Aloha Rules

1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.
 5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha

Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure Aloha. In pure
Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking whether the channel is
idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost. When any station
transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If
it does not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the station waits for a random
amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the station may assume the frame has been
lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully transmitted
to the receiver.

1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.

2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.
3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared channel and
transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations send their frames at the
same time. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the receiver
end. At the same time, other frames are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall on a shared
channel simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both will suffer damage. If the new frame's
first bit enters the channel before finishing the last bit of the second frame. Both frames are
completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the data frame.

Slotted Aloha

The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure Aloha has a
very high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed
time interval called slots. So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the
frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to
each slot. And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will
have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time. However, the possibility of a
collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or more station time slot.

1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.

2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted Aloha is S = G * e ^ - 2
G.
3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a
channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the station
can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it
reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.

CSMA Access Modes

1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the shared
channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait and keep track
of the status of the channel to be idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the
channel is idle.

Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data, each
node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the data.
Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the channel is
found to be idle, it transmits the frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent

mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it sends a frame
with a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random
time and resumes the frame with the next time slot.
O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the station before the
transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the channel is inactive, each
station waits for its turn to retransmit the data.

data.

CSMA/ CD

It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data
frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it first
senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a
frame to check whether the transmission was successful. If the frame is successfully received, the
station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a
jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data transmission. After that, it waits for a
random time before sending a frame to a channel.
CSMA/ CA

It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier

transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the
channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data
frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and
one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel.
Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment signal.

Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:

Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it gets
the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for some time,
and this time period is called the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is often used
to define the priority of the station.

Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different slots.
When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot number of
slots as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it does not restart the entire process, except that it
restarts the timer only to send data packets when the channel is inactive.

Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data frame to
the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.
B. Controlled Access Protocol

It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the controlled access
method, each station interacts and decides to send a data frame by a particular station approved
by all other stations. It means that a single station cannot send the data frames unless all other
stations are not approved. It has three types of controlled access: Reservation, Polling, and
Token Passing.

C. Channelization Protocols

It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a shared channel to be
shared across multiple stations based on their time, distance and codes. It can access all the
stations at the same time to send the data frames to the channel.

Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their time, distance and
codes:

1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA

It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the available
bandwidth into equal bands so that multiple users can send data through a different frequency to
the subchannel. Each station is reserved with a particular band to prevent the crosstalk between
the channels and interferences of stations.
TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method. It allows the same
frequency bandwidth to be shared across multiple stations. And to avoid collisions in the shared
channel, it divides the channel into different frequency slots that allocate stations to transmit the
data frames. The same frequency bandwidth into the shared channel by dividing the signal into
various time slots to transmit it. However, TDMA has an overhead of synchronization that
specifies each station's time slot by adding synchronization bits to each slot.

CDMA

The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method. In CDMA, all stations
can simultaneously send the data over the same channel. It means that it allows each station to
transmit the data frames with full frequency on the shared channel at all times. It does not require
the division of bandwidth on a shared channel based on time slots. If multiple stations send data
to a channel simultaneously, their data frames are separated by a unique code sequence. Each
station has a different unique code for transmitting the data over a shared channel. For example,
there are multiple users in a room that are continuously speaking. Data is received by the users if
only two-person interact with each other using the same language. Similarly, in the network, if
different stations communicate with each other simultaneously with different code language.
Problem 1
After the kth consecutive collision, each colliding station waits for a random time chosen from
the interval- (0 to 2k-1) x RTT

Problem 2
In a CSMA / CD network running at 1 Gbps over 1 km cable with no repeaters, the signal speed
in the cable is 200000 km/sec. What is minimum frame size?

Solution-
Given-

 Bandwidth = 1 Gbps
 Distance = 1 km
 Speed = 200000 km/sec

Calculating Propagation Delay-

Propagation delay (Tp)

= Distance / Propagation speed

= 1 km / (200000 km/sec)

= 0.5 x 10-5 sec

= 5 x 10-6 sec

Calculating Minimum Frame Size-

Minimum frame size

= 2 x Propagation delay x Bandwidth

= 2 x 5 x 10-6 sec x 109 bits per sec

= 10000 bits
Problem-03:

A 2 km long broadcast LAN has 107 bps bandwidth and uses CSMA / CD. The signal travels
along the wire at 2 x 108 m/sec. What is the minimum packet size that can be used on this
network?

A. 50 B
B. 100 B
C. 200 B
D. None of the above

Solution-
Given-

 Distance = 2 km
 Bandwidth = 107 bps
 Speed = 2 x 108 m/sec

Calculating Propagation Delay-

Propagation delay (Tp) = Distance / Propagation speed

= 2 km / (2 x 108 m/sec)

= 2 x 103 m / (2 x 108 m/sec)

= 10-5 sec

Calculating Minimum Frame Size-

Minimum frame size = 2 x Propagation delay x Bandwidth

= 2 x 10-5 sec x 107 bits per sec

= 200 bits or 25 bytes

Thus, Option (D) is correct.

Problem-04:
A and B are the only two stations on Ethernet. Each has a steady queue of frames to send. Both
A and B attempts to transmit a frame, collide and A wins first back off race. At the end of this
successful transmission by A, both A and B attempt to transmit and collide. The probability that
A wins the second back off race is ___ .

A. 0.5
B. 0.625
C. 0.75
D. 1.0

Solution-
According to question, we have-

1st Transmission Attempt-

 Both the stations A and B attempts to transmit a frame.

 A collision occurs.
 Back Off Algorithm runs.
 Station A wins and successfully transmits its 1st data packet.

2nd Transmission Attempt-

 Station A attempts to transmit its 2nd data packet.

 Station B attempts to retransmit its 1st data packet.
 A collision occurs.

Now,

 We have been asked the probability of station A to transmit its 2nd data packet successfully after
2nd collision.
 After the 2nd collision occurs, we have-

At Station A-

 2nd data packet of station A undergoes collision for the 1st time.
 So, collision number for the 2nd data packet of station A = 1.
 Now, station A randomly chooses a number from the range [0,21-1] = [0,1].
 Then, station A waits for back off time and then attempts to retransmit its data packet.

At Station B-

1st data packet of station B undergoes collision for the 2nd time.
  So, collision number for the 1st data packet of station B = 2.
 Now, station B randomly chooses a number from the range [0,22-1] = [0,3].
 Then, station B waits for back off time and then attempts to retransmit its data packet.

Following 8 cases are possible-

Station A Station B Remark

0 0 Collision

0 1 A wins

0 2 A wins

0 3 A wins

1 0 B wins

1 1 Collision

1 2 A wins

1 3 A wins

From here,

 Probability of A winning the 2nd back off race = 5 / 8 = 0.625.

 Thus, Option (B) is correct.