Teacher’s Name: Akhtab Hussain

CHAPTER No. 6
Storage Devices

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Contents
6. Memory and Data Storage 4
6.1 File Format 4
Types of File Formats 4
6.1.1 Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) 4
6.1.1.1 MIDI File 4
6.1.1.2 Playback 4
6.1.1.3 MIDI Interface 5
6.1.1.4 Advantages 5
6.1.1.5 Disadvantage 5
6.1.1.6 Applications 5
6.1.2 MPEG-3 (MP3) 5
6.1.2.1 Applications 5
6.1.2.2 Conversion Method 6
6.1.2.3 Points to Remember 6
6.1.3 MPEG-4 (MP4) 6
6.1.4 Joint Photographic Experts Group (jpeg) files 6
6.1.4.1 Types of JPEG 6
6.1.4.2 Applications of JPEG 6
6.1.4.3 Where we can’t use JPEG 6
6.1.5 Text and number file formats 7
6.1.5.1 Text File Compression 7
6.2 Lossless and lossy file compression 8
6.2.1 Lossless file compression 8
6.2.2 Lossy file compression 8
6.3 Memory and storage 8
6.3.1 Primary memory 8
6.3.1.1 Random Access Memory (RAM) 8
6.3.1.2 Read Only Memory (ROM) 11
6.3.2 Secondary storage 11
6.3.2.1 Hard Disk Drives (HDD) 11

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6.3.2.2 Solid-state Drives (SSD) 12

6.3.3 Off-line storage 13
6.3.3.1 CD/DVD disks 13
6.3.3.2 DVD Disk 14
6.3.3.3 DVD-RAM 14
6.3.3.4 Blu-ray disks 15
6.3.3.5 USB flash memories 16
6.3.3.6 Memory Cards 17
6.3.3.7 Removable hard disk drives 17
6.4 How to estimate the size of a file 17
6.4.1 Text File 17
6.4.2 Image File 17
6.4.3 Audio File 18

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6. Memory and Data Storage

6.1 File Format
“A file format is a standard way that information is encoded for storage in
a computer file. It specifies how bits are used to encode information in a digital storage
medium.”
Types of File Formats
A number of different file formats are used in computer systems. We will look at
the following ones:
i. Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
ii. MP3
iii. MP4
iv. Jpeg
v. Text and Number Formats
6.1.1 Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
MIDI is essentially a communications protocol that allows electronic musical
instruments to interact with each other. The MIDI protocol uses 8-bit serial transmission
with one start bit and one stop bit, and is therefore asynchronous.
6.1.1.1 MIDI File
“A MIDI file consists of a list of commands that instruct a device how to produce
a particular sound or musical note. It is recognised by the file extension .mid.”
a) MIDI Command
Each MIDI command has a specific sequence of bytes.
i) Status Byte
The first byte is the status byte – this informs the MIDI device what function to
perform. Status byte also includes the MIDI channel. MIDI operates on 16 different
channels, which are numbered 0 to 15.
ii) Pitch Byte
PITCH BYTE tells the MIDI device which note to play
iii) Velocity Byte
VELOCITY BYTE tells the device how loud to play the note.
6.1.1.2 Playback
i) Through Digital Instruments
If this .mid file is played back through a digital instrument (e.g. electronic
keyboard) the music will be played back in an identical way to the original. The whole
piece of music will have been stored as a series of commands but no actual musical notes.
Advantages
This makes it a very versatile file structure, since the same file could be fed back
through a different electronic instrument, such as an electric guitar, with different effects
to the original.
ii) Through Analog Instruments
To play back through an instrument such as a guitar would need the use of
SEQUENCER SOFTWARE, since the MIDI files wouldn’t be recognised in their ‘raw’
form.

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6.1.1.3 MIDI Interface

MIDI interface provides a connection between electronic instruments and the
computer. Both the electronic instruments and the computer need a MIDI interface to
allow them to communicate.

Figure 1: MIDI Interface

MIDI operates on 16 channels. In fact the computer can send data out on all 16
MIDI channels at the same time. Hence 16 MIDI devices could be connected to the
computer. Each device could be playing a separate line in a song from the sequencer
software, effectively creating an electronic orchestra. This implementation is being used
more and more today in the recording studio, by major orchestras and in musical scores
use in films.
6.1.1.4 Advantages
i) Their size is considerably smaller. This makes them ideal for devices where
memory is an issue; for example, storing ring tones on mobile phones.
ii) 16 MIDI devices can be connected at a time through 16 different channels.
6.1.1.5 Disadvantage
MIDI file cannot support audio tracks.
6.1.1.6 Applications
i. Creating an electronic orchestra
ii. Creating ring tones on mobile.
iii. Instrument Control
iv. Background Music in films
6.1.2 MPEG-3 (MP3)
MPEG-3 (MP3) uses technology known as AUDIO COMPRESSION to convert
music and other sounds into an MP3 file format. Essentially, this compression technology
will reduce the size of a normal music file by about 90 per cent. For example, an 80
megabyte music CD can be reduced to 8 megabytes using MP3 technology.
6.1.2.1 Applications
i. MP3 files are used in MP3 players, computers or mobile phones.
ii. Files can be downloaded from the internet can be converted to MP3 format.
iii. The CD files are converted using FILE COMPRESSION software.

6.1.2.2 Conversion Method

Conversion is done using file compression algorithms which use PERCEPTUAL
MUSIC SHAPING; this essentially removes sounds that the human ear can’t hear
properly. For example, if two sounds are played at the same time, only the louder one can

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be heard by the ear, so the softer sound is eliminated. This means that certain parts of the
music can be removed without affecting the quality too much.
6.1.2.3 Points to Remember
i. MP3 files use what is known as a LOSSY FORMAT since part of the original
file is lost following the compression algorithm.
ii. Original file can’t be put back together again.
iii. The quality of MP3 files can be different since it depends on the BIT RATE –
this is the number of bits per second used when creating the file.
iv. Bit rates are roughly between 80 and 320 kilobits per second
v. Usually 200 or higher gives a sound quality close to a normal CD.
6.1.3 MPEG-4 (MP4)
MPEG-4 (MP4) format allows the storage of multimedia files rather than just
sound. Music, videos, photos and animation can all be stored in the MP4 format. Videos,
for example, could be streamed over the internet using the MP4 format without losing
any real discernable quality.
6.1.4 Joint Photographic Experts Group (jpeg) files
“JPEG is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images,
particularly for those images produced by digital photography.”
The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff
between storage size and image quality. JPEG typically achieves 10:1 compression with
little perceptible loss in image quality.
6.1.4.1 Types of JPEG
JPEG compression is used in a number of image file formats.
i) JPEG/Exif is the most common image format used by digital cameras and other
photographic image capture devices
ii) JPEG/JFIF, it is the most common format for storing and transmitting
photographic images on the World Wide Web. JPEG/JFIF supports a maximum
image size of 65,535×65,535 pixels, hence up to 4 giga-pixels for an aspect
ratio of 1:1.

⮚ These format variations are often not distinguished, and are simply called JPEG

⮚ JPEG files usually have a filename extension of .jpg or .jpeg.

6.1.4.2 Applications of JPEG
i) The JPEG compression algorithm is at its best on photographs and paintings of
realistic scenes with smooth variations of tone and color.
ii) For web usage, where the amount of data used for an image is important, JPEG
is very popular.
iii) JPEG/Exif is also the most common format saved by digital cameras.
6.1.4.3 Where we can’t use JPEG
i) JPEG may not be as well suited for line drawings and other textual or iconic graphics,
where the sharp contrasts between adjacent pixels can cause noticeable artifacts. Such
images may be better saved in a lossless graphics format such as TIFF, GIF, PNG, or
a raw image format. The JPEG standard actually includes a lossless coding mode, but that
mode is not supported in most products.

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ii) As the typical use of JPEG is a lossy compression method, which somewhat reduces the
image fidelity, it should not be used in scenarios where the exact reproduction of the
data is required (such as some scientific and medical imaging applications and certain
technical image processing work).
iii) JPEG is also not well suited to files that will undergo multiple edits, as some image
quality will usually be lost each time the image is decompressed and recompressed,
particularly if the image is cropped or shifted, or if encoding parameters are changed. To
avoid this, an image that is being modified or may be modified in the future can be saved
in a lossless format, with a copy exported as JPEG for distribution.
6.1.5 Text and number file formats
Text and numbers can be stored in a number of formats. Text is usually stored in an
ASCII format.
When using spreadsheets or databases, for example, numbers can be stored in a
number of different formats:
⮚ Real, e.g. 2.71678

⮚ Integer, e.g. 3

⮚ Date, e.g. 12/08/2016

⮚ Time, e.g. 19:45:50

⮚ Currency, e.g. $ 15.50

It is important that the correct format is chosen if some form of processing is to be

done. If number files undergo any form of file compression, then it tends to be lossless. Since
it very important that none of the information/data is lost.
6.1.5.1 Text File Compression
Text files can also undergo file compression. These use complex algorithms that work
on redundancy or repeated sections of words (e.g. OU in yOUr, cOUntry or mOUntain). The
following section shows, in very simple terms, how this could work:
The phrase ‘THIS SECTION SHOWS YOU HOW THIS WOULD WORK’ consists
of 35 memory units (ignoring spaces).
⮚ Repeated words, such as ‘THIS’ could be put into a data dictionary and be replaced
by ‘1’.
⮚ Repeated word sections, such as ‘HOW’ and ‘OU’ could be replaced by the numbers
‘2’ and ‘3’.

Our phrase then becomes ‘1 SECTION S2S Y3 2 1 W3LD WORK’

.Again, ignoring spaces, this compressed form now uses only 23 memory units. This is about
a 33% saving in file size. Obviously if whole pages are to be stored, then repeated words and
word sections become even more numerous.
This is clearly an example of lossless compression since the original phrase can be
reformed if necessary using the data dictionary and compressed file.

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6.2 Lossless and lossy file compression

6.2.1 Lossless file compression
“With LOSSLESS FILE COMPRESSION, all the data bits from the original file
are reconstructed when the file is again uncompressed.”
This is particularly important for files where loss of any data would be disastrous – for
example, spreadsheet file.
6.2.2 Lossy file compression
“With this technique, the file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary bits
of data.”
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is compressed. This is why it is
chosen for files where removing certain bits doesn’t detract from the quality.
6.3 Memory and storage
Memory and storage devices can be split up into three distinct groups:
1) Primary memory
2) Secondary storage
3) Off-line storage.

Figure 2: Storage Devices

6.3.1 Primary memory
“Primary memory is computer memory that a processor accesses first or
directly. It allows a processor to access running applications and services that are
temporarily stored in a specific memory location. Primary memory is also known
as primary storage or main memory.”
6.3.1.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)
Features
The features of RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) are:
i. It is volatile/temporary memory (the contents of the memory are lost when the power to
the RAM is turned off)
ii. It is used to store:
a. data,
b. files, or
c. part of the operating system that are currently in use
iii. It can be written to or read from and the contents of the memory can be changed.

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Affect on Computer’s Speed

The larger the size of RAM the faster the computer will operate. In reality, the
RAM never runs out of memory; it continues to operate but just gets slower and slower.
As the RAM becomes full, the processor has to continually access the hard disk drive to
overwrite old data on RAM with new data.
By increasing the RAM size, the number of times this access operation is carried
out is reduced, making the computer run faster.
Advantages
i. RAM is much faster to write to or read from than other types of memory.
ii. Its size can be changed by simply plugging in more RAM chips.
iii. It is Read and Write memory.
Drawback
RAM is volatile memory.
Types of RAM
There are currently two types of RAM technology:
1) Dynamic ram (DRAM)
2) Static RAM (SRAM)
a) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Each DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM) chip consists of a number of transistors and
capacitors. Each of these parts is tiny since a single RAM chip will contain millions of
transistors and capacitors. The function of each part is:
⮚ Capacitor – this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)

⮚ Transistor – this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control circuitry to read the
capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.
Figure 3 shows the Common DRAM packages. From top to bottom: DIP, SIPP,
SIMM (30-pin), SIMM (72-pin), DIMM (168-pin), DDR DIMM (184-pin).
Drawback
This type of RAM needs to be constantly REFRESHED (that is, the capacitor
needs to be recharged every 15 microseconds otherwise it would lose its value). If it
wasn’t refreshed, the capacitor’s charge would leak away very quickly, leaving every
capacitor with the value 0.
Advantages
i. They are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM
ii. They consume less power than SRAM
iii. They have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.

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Figure 3: DRAM
b) Static RAM (SRAM)
SRAM doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed. It makes use of ‘flip flops’ which
hold each bit of memory.
DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers, but where absolute
speed is essential, SRAM is the preferred technology. For example, the processor’s
MEMORY CACHE is the high speed portion of the memory; it is effective because most
programs access the same data or instructions many times. By keeping as much of this
information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids having to access the slower
DRAM.

Figure 4: Comparison of SRAM and DRAM

6.3.1.2 Read Only Memory (ROM)
Features
i. They are non-volatile/permanent memories (the contents of the memory remain even
when the power to the ROM is turned off).

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ii. They are often used to store:

a. The start-up instructions when the computer is first switched on.
b. Manufacturer’s Information
c. Character Generation codes
iii. The data or contents of a ROM chip can only be read; they cannot be changed.
6.3.1.3 Application
A remote-controlled toy car has a circuitry which contains both RAM and
ROM chips. The remote control is a hand-held device.
Function of ROM
⮚ Stores the factory settings such as remote control frequencies

⮚ Stores the ‘start-up’ routines when the toy car is first switched on

⮚ Stores the set routines; for example, how the buttons on the hand-held device control
turning left, acceleration, stopping, and so on.
Function of RAM
⮚ The user may wish to program their own routines; these new instructions would be
stored in the RAM chip.
⮚ The RAM chip will store the data/instructions received from the remote control unit.
6.3.2 Secondary storage
“Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the slowest and cheapest form of
memory. It cannot be processed directly by the CPU. It must first be copied into primary
storage.”
6.3.2.1 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
NEED OF HARD DISK
The rapid development in application software packages has increased the need of
large storages. Hard disks have been developed to meet the growing demand for
secondary storages.
FEATURES
i) Hard disks have more speed than floppy disk, CD, DVD.
ii) Hard disks have large storage capacity.
iii) These are referred as mass-storage magnetic medium. Hard disks available
now-a-days have memory up to tens and even hundreds of G-Bytes.
iv) Hard disks are used to store the programs and data which are required on regular
basis.
v) Hard disks are able to access or save information sequentially or randomly.
STRUCTURE
i) Hard disks are coated with magnetic material on their surfaces.
ii) Hard disk consists of one or more rigid metallic disk platters.
iii) Every disk platter has its associated read/write heads encased in a sealed chamber.
iv) All the disk platters are stacked on a common rotating spindle.

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WORKI
NG
Data and the instructions are recorded on both the surfaces of a platter. For a hard
disk with four platters, there are eight recording surfaces on which data can be stored
with eight read write head.
As all the heads move together so all are at the same track number on their
respective recording surfaces at the same time. A set of similarly numbered concentric
tracks, one on each surface forms a cylinder. Thus, for a hard disk containing four
platters, a computer can access a cylinder of eight tracks in a single movement. The disks
spin continuously at a high speed (from 3600 rpm to 10000 rpm within a sealed
chamber). The chamber keeps the disk surfaces free from dust and smoke.
Advantages
⮚ Large storage capacity.

⮚ User can read, write and delete data from the hard disk.

⮚ More reliable as compared to other secondary storage devices.

Disadvantages
⮚ Hard disk drives have very slow data access when compared to, for example, RAM.
Many applications require the read–write heads to constantly seek for the correct blocks
of data; this means a large number of head movements. The effects of LATENCY then
become very significant.
Latency
⮚ Latency is defined as the time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate
around to the read–write Head
⮚ Users will sometimes notice the effect of latency when they see messages such as ‘please
wait’ or, at its worst, ‘not responding’.
6.3.2.2 Solid-state Drives (SSD)
SOLID-STATE DRIVES (SSD) removes the latency issue in HDDs.

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Structure:
⮚ They have no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate.

⮚ They don’t rely on magnetic properties; the most common type of solid-state
storage devices store data by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND
chips.
⮚ The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the chip.
This effectively produces a non-volatile rewritable memory.
Types of SSD
FLASH SSD EEPROM

(Electrically Erasable Programmable Read

only Memory)

1 FLASH SSD uses NAND chips for EEPROM use NOR chips for storage of
storage of data. data.

2 Slow in operation as compared to Faster in operation.

EEPROM,

3 Less expensive Expensive memory

4 Use of NAND only allows blocks EEPROM allows data to be read or erased
of data to be read or erased. in single bytes at a time

Benefits of SSD as compared to HDD

The main benefits of SSDs are summarized below:
⮚ They are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

⮚ They are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)

⮚ They don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly

⮚ They have lower power consumption.

⮚ They run much cooler than HDD (these last two points again make them very
suitable for laptop computers)
⮚ Because they have no moving parts, they are very thin

⮚ Data access is considerably faster than HDD.

SSD Endurance (Drawback)
The main drawback of SSD is the questionable longevity of the technology. Most
solid state storage devices are conservatively rated at only 20 GB write operations per
day over a three-year period – this is known as SSD endurance. For this reason, SSD
technology is not used in servers, for example, where a huge number of write operations
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take place every day. However, this issue is being addressed by a number of
manufacturers to improve the durability of these solid-state systems.

6.3.3 Off-line storage

“Offline storage refers to any storage medium that must be physically inserted
into a system every time user wants to access or edit data.”
Offline storage can be any type of internal or external storage that can easily be
removed from the computer. Offline storage is also known as removable storage.
Off-line storage includes:
i. CD/DVD/DVD-RAM (optical storage systems)
ii. Blu-ray disks (optical storage systems)
iii. USB flash memory/memory sticks/SD-XD cards (solid state storage systems)
iv. Removable/external hard disk drives (magnetic storage systems).
6.3.3.1 CD/DVD disks
CDS and DVDS are described as OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES. Laser light is
used to read data and to write data in the surface of the disk. Both CDs and DVDs use a
thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data. As can be seen in
Figure 5, both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from the centre of the disk to
the edge.

Figure 5 CD/DVD Track

The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ on the spiral track. A red laser is used to
read and write the data. CDs and DVDs can be designated R (write once only) or RW
(can be written to or read from many times).
6.3.3.2 DVD Disk
DVD technology is slightly different to that used in CDs. One of the main
differences is the use of DUAL-LAYERING which considerably increases the storage
capacity. Basically, this means that there are two individual recording layers. Two layers
of a standard DVD are joined together with a transparent (polycarbonate) spacer, and a
very thin reflector is also sandwiched between the two layers. Reading and writing of the
second layer is done by a red laser focusing at a fraction of a millimeter difference
compared to the first layer. Standard, single layer DVDs still has a larger storage capacity
than CDs because the ‘pit’ size and track width are both smaller. This means that more
data can be stored on the DVD surface. DVDs use lasers with a wavelength of 650
nanometers;

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Figure 6: DVD Layers

CDs use lasers with a wavelength of 780 nanometers. The shorter the wavelength
of the laser light, the greater the storage capacity of the medium.
6.3.3.3 DVD-RAM
DVD-RAM uses a very different technology to CDs and DVDs. They have the
following features:
⮚ Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of concentric tracks (see Figure 6).

⮚ Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations to take place.

⮚ They allow numerous read and write operations (up to 100 000 times) and have great
longevity (over 30 years) which makes them ideal for archiving.

Figure 7: Tracks and Sectors (DVD RAM)

6.3.3.4 Blu-ray disks
BLU-RAY DISKS are another example of optical storage media. However, they
are fundamentally different to DVDs in their construction and in the way they carry out
read–write operations.

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Difference between Blu-Ray and DVD

⮚ A blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out read and write operations; the
wavelength of blue light is only 405 nanometers (compared to 650 nm for red light)
⮚ Using blue laser light means that the ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ can be much smaller;
consequently, blu-ray can store up to five times more data than normal dvd
⮚ Blu-ray uses a single 1.1 mm thick polycarbonate disk; normal dvds use a sandwich
of two 0.6 mm thick disks
⮚ Using two sandwiched layers can cause birefringence (light is refracted into two
separate beams causing reading errors); because blu-ray uses only one layer, the disks
don’t suffer from birefringence.
⮚ Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to
prevent piracy and copyright infringement.

Table below summarizes the main differences between CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray.

Disk Type Laser Color Wavelength Disk Track Pitch

Construction (Distance
(Nanometer) between Tracks)

CD Red 780 Single 1.2 mm 1.6 μm

DVD Red 650 Two 0.6 mm 0.74 μm

Blu-Ray Blue 405 Single 1.1 mm 0.30 μm

(Note: nm = 10−9 metres and μm = 10−6 metres.)

Applications of Optical Storage Media
⮚ All these optical storage media are used as back-up systems (for photos, music and
multimedia files).
⮚ CDs and DVDs can be used to transfer files between computers.

⮚ Manufacturers often supply their software using CDs and DVDs. When the software is
supplied in this way, the disk is usually in a read-only format.
⮚ The most common use of DVD and Blu-ray is the supply of movies or games. The
memory capacity of CDs isn’t big enough to store most movies.
The future of optical media
In recent times both the CD and DVD are showing signs of becoming obsolete. Many computer
systems now come with USB connectors only and no DVD or CD drive.

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The main method of transferring files between devices has become the flash memory.
Many people now store all their music in the following ways:
● On hard disk drive systems (set up as sound systems as shown in Figure 6.13)

● In MP3 format on:

o A computer/tablet
o Their mobile phone
o A portable music player (such as iPod®)
● Using the ‘cloud’ to store all their files so they can access their music from anywhere in
the world.
● By ‘streaming’ their music from the internet; provided the user has an internet
connection, they can access music through a laptop computer, mobile phone, tablet or any
other receiving device.
6.3.3.5 USB flash memories
MEMORY STICKS/FLASH MEMORIES (also known as pen drives) use solid-state
technology. They usually connect to a computer through the USB port.

Figure 8 USB Flash Memories

Advantages
i) They are small in size
ii) These are lightweight devices
Applications
i) These are suitable for transferring files between computers.
ii) They can also be used as small back-up devices for music or photo files.
iii) Complex or expensive software, such as an Expert System, often uses memory sticks as a
DONGLE. It prevents illegal or unauthorized use of the software, and also prevents
copying of the software since, without the dongle, it is useless.
6.3.3.6 Memory Cards
Digital cameras use a slightly different form of solid-state memory, known as XD
(eXtreme Digital) or SD (Secure Digital) cards. The technology is essentially the same as
memory sticks. These memory cards allow photos to be transferred from camera to
computer via the USB port. Many printers and computers also have card slots allowing
the device to read the memory card directly.
Each memory card is made up of NAND chips and, as with all solid-state
memories, there are no moving parts.

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Drawback
All solid-state memories need to be treated with some care. If they are removed from a
device while still in the middle of a read–write operation, data on the memory card or stick can
be corrupted. In extreme cases, the memory card or stick becomes totally unusable.
Precautions
i) It is essential to wait for the message: ‘it is now safe to remove your device’ if plugged
into a computer.
ii) With mobile phones or digital cameras, it is usually advisable to switch them off before
removal of the card.
6.3.3.7 Removable hard disk drives
REMOVABLE HARD DISK DRIVES are essentially HDD but can be connected
to the computer using one of the USB ports. In this way, they can be used as a back-up
device or as another way of transferring files between computers.
6.4 How to estimate the size of a file
6.4.1 Text File
Estimating the size of a text file is relatively straightforward. Each character from the
keyboard has a value of 1 byte.
Example
Suppose we typed in the following message:
This is text from the computer science text book and then saved it under the filename
‘sample_text_for_book’.
If we count the number of characters in the text typed in, we get the number 48. Each
character equals 1 byte; therefore the size of this text file if 48 bytes.
6.4.2 Image File
Size of image file depends upon its resolution. One pixel occupies 3 bytes of
memory.
Example
Suppose we imported the photograph of size 424 by 256 pixels into a document.

Total Number of Pixels = 424 x 256

= 108544 Pixels
Size of file = 108544 x 3
= 325 632 bytes (318 kilobytes).

6.4.3 Audio File

Size of audio file depends upon the bit rate of the file and the length of audio track.
You can calculate the size using the following formula:
x = length of song in seconds
y = bitrate in kilobits per second
z = resultant file size in kilobytes
(x * y) / 8
We divide by 8 to get the result in bytes.
Example
If you have a 3 minute song recorded with bit – rate of 128 Kilo Bits Per Second (kbps)
3 minutes = 180 seconds
Size of File = 128 kbps * 180 seconds

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Teacher’s Name: Akhtab Hussain

= 23,040 kilobits of data

Size in Bytes = 23,040 kilobits / 8
= 2880 kb

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