MODULE-4

I. PN juction diode
 By joining a P type semiconductor to an N type semiconductor, a PN junction is formed.
 PN junction diode conducts current only in one direction and offers high resistance in the other
direction.
 The potential difference across the junction by the electric field formed due to the depletion
region is called potential barrier
 which is 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for germanium.

 Under normal conditions, holes from the P side diffuse into the N side where they recombine
with free electrons.
 Each recombination depletes holes and electrons near the junction and contains only immobile
ions and devoid of free carriers.
 This region is called the depletion region.
 The electric field formed in the depletion region creates a potential difference across the
junction called barrier potential (0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for germanium).

Forward Biasing
 In forward basing Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type material and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the N-type material.
 Applied forward potential establishes an electric field which acts against the field due to the
potential barrier.
 Hence, the resultant field is weakened and the depletion region is reduced

 When the diode is forward biased, negative voltage repels the electrons from the N region and
they move towards the junction.
 The positive voltage repels holes from the P region and they move towards the junction.
 At junction some electrons cross the junction and combine with holes.
 The net result is that the depletion layer becomes smaller and offers a low resistance path.
Reverse Biasing

 In reverse biasing, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type material and
the positive terminal is connected to the N-type material.
 This applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction as the
field due to the potential barrier.
 Hence, the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and the barrier height is increased.
 In reverse biasing, positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons from the N
region and they move away from the junction.
 The Negative voltage applied to the P-type material attracts the holes from the P region and
they move away from the junction.
 The net result is that the depletion layer becomes wider and offers a high resistance path.

Diode characteristics

Applications of diode
i. Rectifiers in DC power supplies.
ii. Clipping circuits as wave shaping circuits in computers, radios, radars etc.
iii. Switches in digital logic designs.
iv. Detector and Demodulator circuits.
v. Clamping circuits in TV receivers as well as voltage multipliers.
 Half Wave Rectifiers

Working
POSITIVE HALF CYCLE
 Diode D is forward biased.
 Current flows through the load resistor.
 Output is same as input voltage
NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE
 Diode D is reverse biased.
 No current flows through the load resistor.
 Output voltage is ZERO.

Disadvantages of Half wave rectifier

 Conducts only during positive half cycle. During negative half cycle, the output is zero.
 The ripple Factor for half wave rectifier is very high
 Low efficiency of 40%

Full Wave Centre Tapped Rectifiers

POSITIVE HALF CYCLE

D1 FORWARD BIASED (ON)

D2 REVERSE BIASED(OFF)
NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE

D1 REVERSE BIASED(OFF)

D2 FORWARD BIASED (ON)

WAVE FORM

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

 I. Zener Diode

 A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device that
is designed to operate in the reverse direction.
 The Zener diode has a well-defined reverse- breakdown voltage, at which it starts conducting
current, and continues operating continuously in the reverse-bias mode without getting
damaged.
 The voltage drop across the diode remains constant over a wide range of voltages, making it
suitable for voltage regulation applications.
 A Zener diode operates just like a normal diode when it is forward-biased.
 Since the zener diode is heavily doped, the depletion region is narrow.
 When a reverse voltage is applied to a zener diode, current due to minority carriers increases.
 When reverse voltage reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the junction breaks down and
the reverse current increases.
 This voltage is called breakdown voltage of Zener voltage (Vz).
 This effect is known as the Zener Effect.
V-I Characteristics of zener diode

Applications of Zener diode

1. Voltage regulation, as it provides constant voltage to the load
2. Overvoltage protection
3. Clipping circuits
4. Voltage level shifting

I. TRANSISTORS

1. NPN Transistor

2. PNP Transistor

Working – NPN transistor

Transistor to work: apply external voltage,
Active region of operation: EB junction forward biased; CB junction reverse biased
 Majority charge carriers are electrons.
 EB junction forward biased, electrons would flow from emitter to base region.
 Small percentage of electrons (2%) will recombine with holes in base region.
 Electrons from emitter region will reach CB depletion region.
 Collector collects 98 % of the electrons emitted by the emitter.

Working of PNP transistor

 The transistor to be operated in the active region, Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and
Collector-Base junction is reverse biased.
 Here, Majority charge carriers are holes.
 When the Emitter-Base junction is forward biased, holes would flow from emitter to base region.
 A small percentage of holes (2%) will recombine with electrons in the base region.
 The remaining holes (98%) are attracted by the negative terminal of the voltage source VCB and
these will cross the base-collector barrier potential.

Transistor as an amplifier
 An amplifier is an electronic circuit, capable of amplifying signals.
 The weak signal is applied between the Emitter-Base junction and the output is taken across the
load resistor Rc.
 Input circuit should always be forward biased by applying a voltage VEB.
 As the input has low resistance, a small change in signal voltage causes an appreciable change in
emitter current.
 This causes almost the same change in collector current due to transistor action.
 The collector current flowing through Rc produces large voltage across it.
 Thus, a weak signal is applied in the amplified form in the collector circuit.

Applications of transistors
 As Amplifier Circuit
• As a switch
• Oscillator circuits
• Switching device in analog or digital circuits.
• Building blocks of Integrated Circuits.
• Buffer or impedance matching purpose between mismatched circuits.

OR gate

AND gate

NOT gate
NAND gate
• NAND = AND + NOT
• The NAND gate performs AND function with inverted output.

NOR gate
• NOR = OR + NOT
• The NOR gate performs OR function with inverted output.

XOR gate : provide output when both output are different

XNOR gate
XNOR gate provides output when both inputs are same

Application of Logic gates

● Logic gates are used in microprocessor microcontroller etc
● Most of the digital IC s use logic gate as fundamental component
● Logic gates are used in disc read write IC, Printer IC etc
● In digital control circuits logic gates are used for creating commands
● Smartphones and calculators use logic gate for their operation
● Computer, digital stopwatch etc uses digital ICs