UNIT 1 – THE CELL - BASIC UNIT OF LIFE • Aims an electron beam through thin section of

specimen
CELL THEORY
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCPES (SEM)
• All organism is made up of cells
• The cell is the basic living unit of organization for all • Studying surface structures
organisms. • Sample surface covered with thin film of gold
• All cells are from pre-existing cells • Beam excites electrons on surface
• Great depth of field = an image that seems 3-D
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND UNITY
CELL CHARACTERISTICS
• Underlying the diversity of life is a striking unity
• DNA is universal genetic language All cells:
• CELLS are the basic units of structure and function
✓ Lowest level of structure capable of performing all • Surrounded by plasma membrane
activities of life. • Have Cytosol
✓ Semi-fluid substance within the membrane
ACTIVITIES OF LIFE ✓ Cytoplasm = cytosol + organelles
• Contain chromosomes which have genes in the form
• Most everything you think of a whole organism
of DNA
needing to do, must be done at the cellular level.
• Have ribosomes
✓ Reproduction
✓ Tiny “organelles” that make proteins using
✓ Growth and development
instructions contained in genes
✓ Energy utilization
✓ Response to the environment TYPES OF CELLS
✓ Homeostasis
Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells
HOW DO WE STUDY CELLS?
• Location of chromosomes
• Microscopes opened up the world of cells.
• Robert Hooke (1665) – first cytologist Prokaryotic cell

HOW DO WE STUDY CELLS? • DNA in nucleoid region, without a membrane

separating it from rest of cell
MICROSCOPES
Eukaryotic cell
• light microscopes
• electron microscope • Chromosomes in nucleus, membrane enclosed organelle
• transmission electron microscopes (TEM)
• scanning electron microscopes (SEM)
LIGHT MICROSCOPE
• 0.2um resolution
• ~size of bacterium
• Visible light passes through specimen
• Can be used to study live cells
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
• 1950s
• 2.0nm resolution
• 100 times > light microscope
• Reveals organelles
• But can only be used of dead cells
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPES (TEM)
• Used mainly to study internal structure of cells
 Micron= micrometer = 1/1,000,000 meter
Diameter of human hair = ~20 microns

CELL MEMBRANE
• Exchange organelle
✓ Plasma membrane functions as selective barrier
✓ Allows passage of 02, nutrients and wastes
Oraganelles and internal membrane
Eukaryotic cell
• Internal membranes
✓ partition cell into compartments
✓ create different local environments
✓ compartmentalize functions
✓ membranes for different compartments are specialized
Eukaryotic Cells
for their functions
Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells different structures for specific functions
unique combination of lipids and proteins
• Within cytoplasm is a variety of membrane bounded
organelles
• Specialized structures in form and function NUCLEUS AND RIBOSOMES
Eukaryotic cells are generally bigger than prokaryotic THE CELL NUCLEUS
cells

STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUS

The nucleus comprises:
LIMITS TO CELL SIZE • the nucleoplasm: a highly viscous liquid, similar to
cytoplasm, which surrounds the chromosomes and
Lower limit
nucleolus.
• Smallest bacteria, mycoplasmas
✓ 0.1 to 1.0 micron (um=micrometer)
• Most bacteria
✓ 1-10 microns
Upper Limit

• Eukaryotic cells
✓ 10-100 microns
• Almost all the cell’s genetic
material
• A double layered nuclear
membrane, which isolates
and protects the DNA from
molecules that could damage
its structure or interfere with
function.
• Almost all DNA replication
and RNA synthesis occur in
the nucleus.

THE NUCLEAR MEMBRANE

• The nuclear membrane (or nuclear envelope) is a
double membrane, similar to the cell plasma membrane
• It encloses the nucleus
to separate its contents
from the cell cytoplasm.
• The nuclear membrane THE NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX
has many holes in it
IMPORTANCE OF THE NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX
called nuclear pores.
✓ the nuclear pores allow • Minimizes the frictional force that damage the protein
the selective passage of • Helps the tight control of the proteins that are
materials between the transported inside the nucleus
nucleus and the • They make a channel in such a way that small protein
cytoplasm molecules can pass into the cell and the large protein
molecules are prevented from passing.
THE NUCLEOLUS
• the nucleus is separated by the perinuclear space
• The nucleolus is prominent
• the outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the
within the nucleus. It is
lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum
made up of protein and
• the outer nuclear membrane is studded with ribosomes. ribosomal DNA (rDNA)
• The outer nuclear membrane binds to the actin and • It has no membrane
intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton.
• It is the site of RNA
transcription and
processing and ribosome
assembly
• Some cell types and
organism (e.g.,
paramecium) contain more
than one nucleolus.
 • Various “players” modify macromolecules for
various functions

RIBOSOMES

• Function
✓ Protein production
• Structure
✓ Ribosomes contain rRNA and protein ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
✓ Composed of 2 subunits that combine to carry out
protein synthesis. -Function
TYPES OF RIBOSOMES ✓ manufactures membranes and performs many
bio synthesis functions
• Free ribosomes
✓ Suspended in cytosol
✓ Synthesize proteins that function within cytosol
• Bound ribosomes
• structure
✓ Attached to outside of endoplasmic reticulum
✓ membrane connected to nuclear envelope and extends
✓ Synthesize proteins for export or for
throughout cell
membranes
✓ accounts for 50% membranes in eukaryotic cell
RIBOSOMES
rough ER = bound ribosomes
• Prokaryotes and eukaryotes have different
smooth ER = no ribosomes
ribosomes
✓ Different size subunits
✓ Different proteins

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
The Cell: Endomembrane system – endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
vacuoles, vesicles
OVERVIEW
• Play key role in synthesis (&hydrolysis) of
macromolecules in cell
Smooth ER function
• factory processing operations
▪ Many metabolic processes
▪ Synthesis and hydrolysis
▪ Enzymes of smooth ER…
▪ Synthesize lipids, oil, phospholipids, steroids,
and sex hormones.
 ▪ Hydrolysis (breakdown) of glycogen (in liver) Trans buds off vesicles that travel to other sites=”shipping”
into glucose (transport)
▪ Detoxify drugs and poisons (in liver)
Ex. Alcohol and barbiturates
Rough ER Function
• Produce proteins for export out of cell.
• Protein secreting cell
• Packaged into transport vesicles for export.

Golgi processing
• During path from cis to trans, products from ER are modified
into final form
• Tags, sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
Golgi=”UPS headquarters”
Transport vesicles=”UPS trucks”
• Delivering packages that have been tagged with their
own barcodes

Golgi Apparatus
Function
• Finishes, sorts, ships cell products
Shipping and receiving department
• Center of manufacturing, warehousing, sorting and
shipping.
• Extensive in cells specialized for secretion
Structure
Flattened membranous sacs= cisternae
Look like stack of pita bread
2 sides=receives materials by fusing with
vesicles=”receiving”
 Lysosomal enzymes
• Lysosomal enzymes work best at Ph 5
Organelle creates customs Ph
➢ How?
Proteins in lysosomal membrane pump H+ ions from
the cytosol into lysosome
➢ Why?
Enzymes are very sensitive to Ph
➢ Why?
Enzymes ae proteins—Ph affects structure
➢ Why evolve digestive enzymes with function at Ph
different from cytosol?
Digestive enzymes won’t function well if leak into
cytosol= don’t want to digest yourself!

When things go wrong…

• What if a lysosome digestive enzyme doesn’t

function?
o Don’t digest a biomolecule
✓ Instead, biomolecule collects in lysosomes
✓ Lysosomes fill up with undigested material
o Lysosomes grow larger and larger
✓ Eventually disrupt cell and organ function
• Lysosomal storage diseases are usually fatal
o Tay-Sachs disease
✓ Lipids build up in brain cells
✓ Child dies before age 5

Peroxisomes

• Other digestive enzyme sacs

- in both animals & plants
- breakdown fatty acids to sugars
✓ easier to transport & use as energy source
- detoxify cell
✓ detoxifies alcohol & other poisons
- produce peroxide (H₂O₂)
✓ must breakdown

H2O2→ H2O
 Vacuoles & vesicles ➢ chloroplasts: from sunlight to ATP &
carbohydrates
• Function
✓ ATP = active energy
o little "transfer ships"
✓ carbohydrates = stored energy
- Food vacuoles
✓ phagocytosis, fuse with lysosomes
- Contractile vacuoles
Mitochondria & Chloroplasts
✓ in freshwater protists, pump excess H₂O out of
cell • Important to see the similarities
- Central vacuoles ➢ transform energy
✓ in many mature plant cells - generate ATP
➢ double membranes = 2 membranes
➢ semi-autonomous organelles
Vacuoles in plants - move, change shape, divide
➢ internal ribosomes, DNA & enzymes
• Functions
➢ storage
- stockpiling proteins or inorganic ions
Mitochondria
- depositing metabolic byproducts
- storing pigments • Function
- storing defensive compounds against herbivores ➢ cellular respiration
- selective membrane ➢ generate ATP
- control what comes in or goes out - from breakdown of sugars, fats & other fuels
- in the presence of oxygen
✓ break down larger molecules into smaller to generate
energy = catabolism
✓ generate energy in presence of O₂ = aerobic
respiration
• Structure
➢ 2 membranes
- smooth outer membrane
- highly folded inner membrane
✓ the cristae
➢ fluid-filled space between 2 membranes
➢ internal fluid-filled space
- mitochondrial matrix
- DNA, ribosomes & enzymes

Why 2 membranes?
Chapter 7 increase surface area for membrane- bound enzymes
Mitochondria and chloroplasts that synthesize ATP.

Overview

• Mitochondria & chloroplasts are the organelles

that convert energy to forms that cells can use for
work
➢ mitochondria: from glucose to ATP
 - in leaves, other green structures of plants & in

• Almost all eukaryotic cells have mitochondria

➢ there may be 1 very large mitochondrion or 100s to eukaryotic algae
1000s of individual mitochondria
➢ number of mitochondria is correlated with aerobic
metabolic activity • Structure
- more activity = more energy needed = more • 2 membranes
mitochondria - outer membrane
- inner membrane
What cells would have a lot of mitochondria? • internal fluid-filled space = stroma
active cells: - DNA, ribosomes & enzymes
- thylakoids = membranous sacs where ATP is
• muscle cells made
• nerve cells - grana = stacks of thylakoids

Why internal sac membranes?

Chloroplasts

• Chloroplasts are plant organelles

• class of plant structures = plastids
o amyloplasts
- store starch in roots & tubers
o chromoplasts
- store pigments for fruits & flowers

o chloroplasts
- store chlorophyll & function in photosynthesis

increase surface area for membrane-bound enzymes

that synthesize ATP

• Function
 ➢ photosynthesis - tubulin (all cells)
- actin (eukaryote cells)
generate ATP & synthesize sugars
• Means that they are both ancient and essential
- transform solar energy into chemical energy for life
- produce sugars from CO₂ & H₂O
➢ Semi-autonomous
- moving, changing shape & dividing Microtubules
- can reproduce by pinching in two
• Structure
Who else divides like that? - thickest fibers
- hollow rods about 25nm in diameter
bacteria!
- constructed of protein, tubulin

Mitochondria & chloroplasts are different

• Organelles not part of endomembrane system

• Grow & reproduce
- semi-autonomous organelles
• Proteins primarily from free ribosomes in cytosol & a
few from their own ribosomes
• Own circular chromosome
- directs synthesis of proteins produced by own
internal ribosomes

Who else has a circular chromosome no bound within a

- grow or shrink as more tubulin molecules are
nucleus?
added or removed
bacteria

The cell: cytoskeleton

• Function
Cytoskeleton
structural support & cell movement
• Function
- move chromosomes during cell division
➢ structural support
- centrioles
- maintains shape of cell
- tracks that guide motor proteins carrying
- provides anchorage for organelles
organelles to their destination
➢ motility
- motor proteins: myosin & dynein
- cell locomotion
- motility
- cilia, flagella, etc.
✓ cilia
➢ regulation
✓ flagella
- organizes structures & activities of cell

Centrioles
Evolutionary perspective
• Cell division
• Proteins that make up the fibers are very similar
in all living things in animal cells, pair of centrioles organize microtubules
guiding chromosomes in cell division
from bacteria to humans
 Cilia & flagella - movement of Amoeba
- cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells
• Extensions of eukaryotic cytoskeleton
• speeds distribution of materials
• Cilia = numerous & short (hair-like)
• Flagella = 1-2/cell & longer (whip-like)
- move unicellular & small multicellular organisms
Intermediate filaments
by propelling water past them
- cilia sweep mucus & debris from lungs • Structure
- flagellum of sperm cells - specialized for bearing tension
- built from keratin proteins
- same protein as hair
Cilia - intermediate in size 8-12nm
• Function
• Oar-like movement
- hold "things" in place inside cell
- alternating power & recovery strokes
- more permanent fixtures of cytoskeleton
- generate force perpendicular to cilia's axis
- reinforce cell shape & fix organelle location

nucleus is held in place by a network of intermediate

Flagella filaments

• undulatory movement

force generated parallel to flagellum's axis Summary

• Microtubules
- thickest
Cilia & Flagella - cell structure &
• Structure cell motility
- remember 9+2! - tubulin
- 9 pairs of microtubules around 2 single • Microfilaments
microtubules in center - thinnest
- bending of cilia & flagella is driven by motor protein - internal
✓ dynein movements
within cell

Microfilaments (actin filaments)

• Structure
- thinnest class of fibers
- solid rods of protein, actin
- twisted double chain of actin subunits
- about 7nm in diameter
• Function
- 3-D network inside cell membrane 8000m
- in muscle cells, actin filaments interact with
myosin filaments to create muscle contraction

• Dynamic process - actin, myosin

• Intermediate filaments
actin filaments constantly form & dissolve making the - intermediate
cytoplasm liquid or stiff during movement
 - more permanent fixtures Animal cell surface
- keratin
• Extracellular matrix

collagen fibers in network of glycoproteins

Cell Junctions
- support
Where cells touch each other... - adhesion
- movement
- regulation
Plant cell wall
Intercellular junctions
• Structure
• Animal cells
- cellulose
- primary cell wall tight junctions
- secondary cell wall
- membranes of adjacent cells fused forming
- middle lamella = sticky polysaccharides
barrier between cells
- forces material through cell membrane

gap junctions

- communicating junctions
- allow cytoplasmic movement between adjacent
cells

desmosomes

- anchoring junctions
- fasten cells together in strong sheets