Psychosocial Development by Erik Erikson
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to
provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon
the adults in their life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.2 Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world
is inconsistent and unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when
caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When
this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience
tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
The Role of Independence
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.2
Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping
children develop this sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other
important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point
in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense
of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved,
the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages
5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set
before them.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage
plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence
behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self
and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to
role confusion and a weak sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.2
Malone JC, Liu SR, Vaillant GE, Rentz DM, Waldinger RJ. Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial
development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health. Dev Psychol.
2016;52(3):496-508. doi:10.1037/a0039875
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values
that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads
to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity
versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we
also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.
Why Identity Is Important
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures
through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions
with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period
of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.2
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.
Building On Earlier Stages
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships
and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability
to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating
a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who
are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active
in their home and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with
your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.2 At
this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are
happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the
entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back
on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a
sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives
will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have.
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
