UNIT IV

UNIT COMMITMENT AND

ECONOMIC DISPATCH

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 UNIT COMMITMENT
• The total load in any power system varies from instant to instant
• During certain time of the day the load is at peak value, during certain
times it is very low and during certain other times it is at some
intermediate value
• It is not economical to run all the units available all the time.
• The load division between the generating units in operation is
determined from the principle of equal incremental costs.
• The topic of unit commitment deals with specifying the units which
should be operated for a given load (which units should be committed
to supply a given load)
• It is possible that it may be economical to decommit certain units when
load is low or when they are not needed.
• To commit a unit means to bring the boiler to the required operating
temperature, bring the turbine and generator to synchronous speed
and synchronise the generator to the system
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 Statement of Unit Commitment Problem
• To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted (estimated
load in advance) load of the system over a required period of time at
minimum cost as well as provide a specified margin of the operating
reserve (spinning reserve). This procedure is known as unit
commitment.
Unit Commitment (UC) problem may be stated as follows:
• Given: The expected system demand levels for the 24 hours and the
inflating, start-up and shut-down costs as well as constraints on
minimum up time/down time of the available N units.
• To determine: If N-generating units are available then (2N - I) number
of combinations will be obtained.
• From many feasible subsets, determine the subset of units that would
satisfy the expected demand at minimum operating cost.
• Loads vary from time to time, so determine all the 24 subsets to satisfy
the 24 consecutive hour demands per day.
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Constraints in Unit Commitment
• Spinning Reserve
• Thermal Unit Constraints
– Minimum up time
– Minimum down time
– Crew constraint
• Other constraints
– Hydro constraint
– Must run constraint
– Fuel constraint

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 Spinning Reserve
• Spinning reserve is the total amount of generation available
from all units synchronized on to the system minus the
present load and losses being supplied.
• Spinning Reserve = {Total amount of generation} — [Present
load + Losses]
• Spinning reserve must be established, so that the loss of one
or more units does not cause drop in system frequency.
• Spinning reserve is the reserve generating capacity running at
zero load or no load.

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 Spinning Reserve
❑ Reserve Capacity:
• Capacity in excess of that required to carry peak load.
❑ Reserve Generating Capacity:
• The amount of power that can be produced at a given point in
time by the generating units that are kept available in case of
special need
• This capacity may be used when unusually high power
demand occurs or when other generating units are off-line for
maintenance, repairs or refuelling.
• Reserve generating capacity include quick-start diesel or gas
turbine unit, or hydro units and pumped-storage hydro-units
that can be brought on-line, synchronized and brought up to
full capacity quickly.
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 Spinning Reserve
❑ Reserve Margin:
• The percentage of installed capacity exceeding the expected
peak demand during a specified period.
Typical Rules for Spinning Reserve Set by Regional Reliability
Council:
➢ Reserve must be available for percentage of forecasted peak
demand.
➢ Reserve must be capable of making up the loss of the most
heavily loaded unit in a given period of time.
➢ Calculate reserve requirements as a function of the
probability of not having sufficient generation to meet the
load.

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 Thermal Unit Constraints
• A thermal unit can withstand only gradual temperature changes and is
required to take some hours to bring the unit on-line.
• For thermal plants, one hour is the smallest time period that should be
considered for unit commitment solution as the start-up and shut-
down time for many units are of this order.
• The thermal unit constraints are:
❑ Minimum up time:
• Once the unit is running it should not be turned off immediately.
❑ Minimum down time:
• Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can
be recommitted.
❑ Crew constraints:
• If a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot both be turned on
at the same time. Since there are not enough crew members to attend
both units while starting up.
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 Thermal Unit Constraints
Start-up cost:
• It is dependent upon the down-time of the unit i.e., the time interval
between shut-down and restart.
• Start-up cost = 0, if unit is stopped and started immediately.
a) Start-up cost when cooling: During down time period, the unit's
boiler has to cool down and then heat back up to operating
temperature in time for a scheduled turn on.
Start-up cost  Cooling of the unit
Start-up cost when cooling =
where Cc = Cold start cost
F = Fuel cost
Cf = Fixed cost (crew expenses, maintenance expenses)
 = Thermal time constant for the unit
t = Time in which the unit was cooled
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 Thermal Unit Constraints
b) Start-up cost when banking (Shut-down cost): During the
shut-down period, the boiler may be allowed to cool down
and thus no shut down cost will be incurred.
• Banking requires that sufficient energy be input to the boiler
to just maintain operating temperature and pressure.
• Start-up cost when banking =
where
Ct = Cost of maintaining unit at operating temperature.

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 Thermal Unit Constraints

• Fig. shows the start-up cost Vs time during cooling and banking period.
• Upto point 'p', cost of banking < Cost of cooling
• When the shut down cost is incurred, the unit may be said to be in hot-
reserve.
• Finally, the capacity limits of thermal units may change frequently, so
we must consider the thermal constraints for solving unit
commitment.
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 Other Constraints
❑ Hydro Constraints:
• Unit commitment problem involves only thermal units.
• In hydro-thermal scheduling, to allocate maximum hydro units during
rainy seasons and to allocate thermal units during remaining periods.
• We are not considering hydro units for unit commitment because
start-up and shunt-down time, operating costs are negligible.
• So we couldn't get the optimal solution.
❑ Must Run Constrains:
• Some units like nuclear units are given a must-run status during certain
times of the year to maintain the voltage in the transmission system.
❑ Fuel Constraints:
• If thermal and hydro sources are available, a combined operation is
economic and advantageous. i.e., to minimize the fuel cost of thermal
unit over a commitment period.
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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods

For solving unit commitment problem the following points are

considered:
• To form loading pattern for M-periods using load curve.
• To determine the load dispatch for all feasible combination of
solutions for each load level and satisfying operating limits of
each units.
• Commit possible number of units to be operated to meet out
the load.

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
1. Brute Force Technique or Simple Priority List Scheme
• In brute force technique, all possible combinations of the
units at each hour are tried, i.e.. [2n – 1] combinations.
• For M periods, number of combinations to try are [2n – 1]M
• Constraint: Enough units will be committed to supply the
load.

- Infeasible solution or to decommit some generating units

- Feasible solution or to commit some generating units

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
➢ For each feasible combination, the units will be dispatched using
coordination equation. But it is not possible to get an optimum
solution sometimes.
➢ Number of units are restricted to have better accuracy.
• For example, Consider three units to be operated,
• The optimum commitment is to run only one unit. i.e., the most
economic unit and that unit is operating closer to better efficiency
• As the load increases, commit two units that will be loaded from
their best efficiency points such that the total cost is more than that
of operating one unit alone. etc.
• This technique follows simple "peak-valley" pattern and the
corresponding unit commitment schedule is as shown in Fig.

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods

• If the operation of the system is to be optimized, units must

be shut down as the load goes down and then recommitted
as it goes back up.

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
2. Priority List Method Using Full Load Average
Production Cost (FLAPC)
• Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution
method which consists of creating a priority list of units.
• The priority list can be obtained by noting the full-load
average production cost of each unit.
• Full load average production cost = {Net heat rate at full load}
x Fuel cost

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods

Assumptions:
• No load costs are zero.
• Unit input - output characteristics are linear between
zero output and full load.
• Start-up costs are a fixed amount.
• Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time.

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
Steps to be followed or Method of Solving
1. Determine the full load average production cost for each
units.

2. Form priority order based on average production cost,

(ascending order)
3. Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
4. Calculate PG1, PG2,..........,PGN from economic dispatch
problem for the feasible combinations only.

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods

5. For the load curve, shown in Fig., each hour load is varying.
• Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether
dropping the next unit will supply generation and spinning reserve.
• If not, continue as it is. If yes, go to next step.

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
6. Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be
needed again.
7. Check H < Minimum shut down time. If yes, go to last step. If
not, go to next step.
8. Calculate two costs
➢ Sum of hourly production costs for the next H hours with the
unit up.
➢ Recalculate the same for the unit down + start up cost for
either cooling or banking.
• If the second case is less expensive, the unit should be on.
9. Repeat this procedure for the entire priority list

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
Merits
• No need to go for 'N' combinations.
• Take only one constraint.
• Ignore the minimum up time and minimum down time.
• Complication reduced.
Demerits
• Start-up cost are fixed amount.
• No load costs are not considered.

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
1. Determine priority list using full load average production cost
for the data given

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Unit Commitment Solution Methods

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Unit Commitment Solution Methods

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods

• All the three units would be held on until the load reached 900 MW.
• Units 1 and 3 would be held on until the load reached 500 MW, then unit 1
dropped

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
2. From the previous problem, obtain optimum unit
commitment solution for the power demand of 800 MW
• Feasible combinations operating are: 1 and 3 units
1, 2 and 3 units
• Case (i): Units 1 and 3 are operating

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Unit Commitment Solution Methods

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods
• Case (ii): Units 1, 2 and 3 are operating

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 Unit Commitment Solution Methods

• Total fuel cost for the case (i) is less than that of the case (ii)
of feasible solution
• So when the system load level is 800 MW, it is preferable to
keep units 1 and 3 running
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Forward Dynamic Programming Approach
• One could set up a DP algorithm to run backward in time starting
from the final hour to be studied back to the initial hour.
• Conversely, one could set up the algorithm to run forward in time
from the initial hour to the final hour.
• The forward approach has distinct advantages in solving generator
unit commitment.
• For example, if the start-up cost of a unit is a function of the time it
has been off-line (i.e., its temperature), then a forward DP
approach is more suitable since the previous history of the unit can
be computed at each stage.
• There are other practical reasons for going forward.
• The initial conditions are easily specified and the computations can
go forward in time as long as required

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Forward Dynamic Programming Approach
Assumptions:
• Total number of units available, their individual cost
characteristics and the load cycle on the station are assumed
priori (previously).
• A state consists of an array of units with specified units
operating and the rest off-line
• The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has
been off-line (i.e., fixed amount).
• There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
• There is a strict priority order and in each interval a specified
minimum amount of capacity must be operating.

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Forward Dynamic Programming Approach
Advantages:
• Algorithm to run forward in time from the initial hour to the
final hour.
• Forward dynamic programming is suitable if the start-up cost
of a unit is a function of the time it has been off-line (i.e.,
fixed amount).
• Previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage.
• Reduction in the dimensionality of the problem, i.e., number
combinations to be tried are reduced in number
• Initial conditions are easily specified

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Forward Dynamic Programming Approach

Algorithm
• For a load cycle, at each load level, the algorithm is to run
either of the units or both units with a certain load sharing.
• Determine the most economical cost curve of a single
equivalent unit.
• Then add the third unit and repeat the steps.
• The process is repeated until all the units are added.
• Determine the possible number of combinations and
determine the economic dispatch and total cost.

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 Forward Dynamic Programming Approach

• The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour K

with combination I is:
•

• Where
Fcost (K, I) = Least total cost to arrive at state (K, I)
Pcost (K, I) = Production cost for state (K, I)
Scost (K-1, L: K, I) = Transition cost from state (K-1, L) to state (K, I)
State (K, I) is the Ith combination in hour K
L = “N” feasible states in interval K — 1.

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 Flow Chart

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Forward Dynamic Programming Approach
• For the forward DP approach, we define a strategy as the transition,
or path, from one state at a given hour to a state at the next hour.
• Note that two new variables, X and N, have been introduced in the
flow chart
• X = number of states to search each period
• N = number of strategies, or paths, to save at each step
• These variables allow control of the computational effort
• For complete enumeration, the maximum number of the value of X
or N is 2n − 1.
• For example, with a priority list ordering, reducing the number N by
discarding the highest cost schedules at each time interval and
saving only the lowest N paths or strategies
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Flow Chart

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 Unit Commitment in Deregulated
Environment
• Deregulation is the process of unbundling Generation, Transmission
and Distribution.
• They are named as generating companies (GENCO’s), transmission
companies (TRANSCO’s) and distribution companies (DISCO’s).
• The GENCO’s is an owner-operator of one or more generators that
runs them and bids the power into the competitive market.
• TRANSCO’s is those entities which own and operate the
transmission lines. Their prime responsibility is to transmit
electricity from the generators to customers.
• The DISCO’s are usually those entities owning and operating the
local distribution network in a region and supply electricity to the
end customers.

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 Unit Commitment in Deregulated
Environment
• Deregulation in power sector increases the efficiency of electricity
production and distribution, offer lower prices, higher quality, a
secure and a more reliable product.
• The main difference between the traditional UC and deregulated UC
model is the demand constraint.
• In traditional UC, it is necessary to meet the demand, whereas in
deregulated environment it is not mandatory to meet the demand
by the utilities.
• In the deregulated environment, UC refers to optimizing generation
resources in order to maximize the profit.
• More number of units are committed when the market price is
higher.
• When more number of generating units are brought online more
power is generated and participated in the deregulated market to
get maximum profit.

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