FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & EARTH RESOURCES

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

CONCRETE
LABORATORY

CC01

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DETERMINATION CONSISTENCY OF STANDARD CEMENT

PASTE/VICAT TEST

1.0 INTRODUCTION

According to MS 522:1989, cement paste must have a standard consistency degree

when a Vicat needle (G needle) under self-weight penetrate. The penetration of
paste is 5 to 7 mm to the bottom of mould within 30 seconds. This penetration
depends on the mix concentration and water content had been used. (Please make
sure, the preparation process whereby from the start put the paste inside the Vicat
ring mould is around 4 + ¼ minute).

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the requirement of water content to produce the standard consistency

of cement.

3.0 EQUIPMENTS AND APPARATUS

i. Vicat apparatus
ii. Balance
iii. Ordinary Portland Cement
iv. Glass plate
v. Spoon,
vi. 250 ml cylinder measurer.

4.0 PROCEDURE

a. Prepare 500 gm of cement and put it on the glass plate. Make a hole at
the centre of cement by using a spoon and pour 130 ml of water inside
the hole. After that, fill up the hole within 30 second and leave it 30
second to absorb the water. After that, mix and blend the cement by using
the hand around 1 ½ minute. By using the hand, make a small ball from
the cement and lob it in six times between to hand with 150 mm of dis-
tance.
b. Put the ball inside the Vicat apparatus ring on to the glass plat. Shake the
ring slowly until the mould full and cut the surplus with the ‘sudip’ until the
surface of sample is flat. Please ensure the mixer not press the cement
paste. After that, put the ring under the Vicat needle. Make sure the
needle can move smoothly down. Touch the end of needle on the surface
and release it. With under the self weight, the needle will penetrate the
sample. The deep of penetration is depends on the consistency of cement
paste. Take the reading after 30 seconds.
c. Repeat the test with increase the water content until 4 experiments.

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Example

No. of Water Content Percent of water/cement Depth of Penetration

Experiment (ml) weight (%) from bottom (mm)
1 130 26 28.0
2 140 28 15.0
3 150 30 10.0
4 160 32 6.5
5 170 34 1.0

Figure 1

From the graph, the percentage of water/cement weight for the penetration between
5 mm to 7 mm is 32.2% to 31.1%. So that, the requirement water content is taken
between those values is 32.0% to produce the standard cement paste.

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CC02
SIEVE ANALYSIS (FINE AGGREGATE & COARSE AGGREGATE)

a. FINE AGGREGATE SIEVE ANALYSIS

b. COARSE AGGREGATE SIEVE ANALYSIS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is customary for aggregates for concrete to be continuosly graded from their

maximum size down to the size of cement grain, since this ensures that all voids
between larger particles are filled without an excess of fine material. Both crushed
and uncrushed natural gravel have naturally continous grading, but to comply with
the standard the grading must be within certain limit. Grading are determined by
passing aggregates through a set of standard sieves, the particular sieves used
depending on the maximum aggregate size. The grading is then defined by the
percentage of the total sample used which is passes each sieve.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To produce a “Grading Curve” for fine and coarse aggregate according BS 882.

3.0 EQUIPMENT

a. Sieve set size 5mm, No. 7, No 14, No. 25, No 52, No 100
b. Sieve set size 20mm, 10 mm and 5 mm
c. Balance accurate to 1 g
d. Mechanical sieve shaker
e. Oven

4.0 PROCEDURE

a. Prepare 3.0 kg sand that already dried in oven at 24 hours with 110 + 5
o
C. From that value, the sample will mix together until uniform and form it
in con shape and reduce the sand to 500 gm by using the quarter method.
After that, the con wills flatted by using appropriate equipment and divide
by four portions equally with 90o. The opposite of portion will ignore and
the other two portions will mix together back until the sample reduces to
500 gm.

b. Prepare a stack of sieves. sieves having larger opening sizes (i.e lower
numbers) are placed above the ones having smaller opening sizes (i.e
higher numbers).

c. Put the sample inside on the top of sieve set.

d. Shake the material trough each sieve individually into the collecting tray
around 10 to 15 minutes.

e. Take the weight of sand that was stuck for each sieve and grade it on the
table.

f. Repeat the same procedures for the coarse aggregate.

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5.0 RESULT

WEIGHT OF
WEIGHT WEIGHT OF
BS SIEVE SIEVE + CUMULATIF (% )
NO. OF SIEVE SAMPLE
SIZE SAMPLE % PASSING
(g) (g)
(g)

6.0 DISCUSSION

i) Calculate the cumulative percent passing from the result.

ii) Plot graph cumulative persent passing vs particle size analysis
iii) Discuss the result whether the sand and aggregate is well-graded, gap-
graded or poorly graded.

7.0 CONCLUSION

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CC03
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Reference Standard: DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL (DOE), UK

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Concrete mix design has a number of different approaches such as ACI (American
Concrete Institution) developed in U.S.A. and the most popular and widely used is
the DOE method. It is the British method of concrete mix design and it is being used
in United Kingdom and other parts of the world. This method is based on extensive
laboratory and field experiments carried out by the Road Research Laboratory U.K.

This method is applicable to normal weight concrete made with Portland cement only
or taken into account ground granulated blast furnace slag or fly ash. This method
does not cover the flowing concrete, pumped concrete or lightweight aggregate
concrete

2.0 PRINCIPLES OF DOE METHOD OF MIX DESIGN

The manner in which this method links the various factors involved in the process of
designing a mix is shown as a flow chart in Figure 1. Also a suitable mix design form
for recording the values derived is shown in Table 1. It will be seen from the flow
chart that initial information is divided into two categories:

a) Specified variables, the values of which are usually nominated in

specifications, and
b) Additional information, which is normally available to the producer of the
concrete.

This initial information is used in conjunction with reference data, which appear in the
form of figures or tables in this publication, to evaluate a number of 'derived values'
which are also subdivided into two categories:

a) The mix parameters, several of which form an intermediate step to the

derivation of the second category, and
b) The final unit proportions, which are defined in terms of weights of materials
required to produce one cubic metre of compacted concrete, expressed to the
nearest 5 kg.

In order to clarify the sequence of operation, and for ease of reference, the flow
process is divided into five stages. Each of these stages deals with a particular
aspect of the design and ends with an important parameter or final unit proportions.

Stage 1 Deals with strength leading to the free-water/cement ratio

Stage 2 Deals with workability leading to the free-water content
Stage 3 Combines the results of Stages 1 and 2 to give the cement content
Stage 4 Deals with the determination of the total aggregate content
Stage 5 Deals with the selection of the fine and coarse aggregate contents.

The mix design form shown in Table 1 is subdivided into the same five stages and
the separate item numbers correspond with the relevant boxes of the flow chart in
Figure 1.

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3.0 OBJECTIVES

1) To understand about the materials have been used in concrete design

and the implication on the workability and strength of concrete
2) To design concrete mix to a strength of 25 N/mm2 at 28 days and;
3) To test the cube strength of the mix design by mixing, casting and
crushing a test cube

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Cement, Sand and Aggregate

ii) Shovel
iii) Trowel
iv) Tamping Bar
v) Moulds (150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm)
vi) Compression Machine
vii) Curing Tank

5.0 PROCESS OF MIX DESIGN

Step 1 Selection of-target water/cement ratio

1. Table 1.1 shows a standard deviation for the strength test. Refer to the table
to use the appropriate value for mix design which applicable to the condition
and application. The margin can then be derived from equation C1:

M=kxs -------------------- C1
where
M = the margin (Item 1.3)
k = a value appropriate to the 'percentage defectives' permitted below the
characteristic strength. (Refer table 1.2)
s = the standard deviation.

Table 1.1: Standard Deviation under different conditions

Condition Standard Deviation (N/mm2)

Good Control with weight batching, use 4-5
of graded aggregates, etc –constants
supervision
Fair control with weight batching. Use of 5-7
two sizes of aggregates. Occasional
supervision
Poor control. In accurate volume 7-8
batching of all-in aggregates. No
supervision

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Table1.2: k factors used in statistical control

Percentages k
16 1.0
10 1.28
5 1.64
2 2.05
1 2.33

2. Using equation C2 to determine the target mean strength (expressed to two

significant figures):

fm = fc + M -------------------- C2

where:

fm = the target mean strength

fc = the specified characteristic strength
M = the margin

3. Next, a value is obtained from Table 1.3 for the strength of a mix made with a
free-water/cement ratio of 0.5 according to the specified age, the type of
cement and the aggregate to be used. This strength value is then plotted on
Figure 2 and a curve is drawn from this point and parallel to the printed
curves until it intercepts a horizontal line passing through the ordinate
representing the target mean strength. The corresponding value for the free-
water/cement ratio can then be read from the abscissa. This should be
compared with any maximum free-water/cement ratio that may be specified
and the lower of these two values used.

Table 1.3: Approximate compressive strengths (N/mm2) of concrete mixes

made with a free-water/cement ratio of 0.5

Type of cement Type of coarse Compressive strength

aggregate (N/mm2)
Age (days)
3 7 28 91
Ordinary Portland Cement @ Uncrushed 22 30 42 49
sulphate resisting Portland Crushed 27 36 49 56
Cement
Rapid hardening Portland Uncrushed 29 37 48 54
Cement Crushed 34 43 55 61
1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa

4. If the water/cement ratio obtained in this step exceeds the maximum

water/cement ratio specified for durability (Table 1.4) then adopt the lower-
resulting in a concrete having a higher strength than required.

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Table 1.4 Durability requirements

Exposure Condition Nominal Cover (mm)

Mild 25 20 20 20
Moderate - 35 30 20
Severe - - 40 25
Very Severe - - 50 30

Maximum free w/c ratio 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.45

Minimum cement content (kg/m3) 275 300 325 400
Concrete fcu (N/mm2) 30 35 40 50

Step 2 - Selection of free-water content

1. This stage consists simply of determining the free-water content from Table
2.1 depending upon the type and maximum size of the aggregate to give a
concrete of the specified slump or Vebe time.

Table 2.1: Approximate free-water contents (kg/m 3) required to give

various levels of workability

Slump (mm) 0 -10 10-30 30-60 60-180

Vebe time (s) > 12 6-12 3-6 0-3
Maximum size Type of
aggregate(mm) Aggregate
10 Uncrushed 150 180 205 225
Crushed 180 205 230. 250
20 Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
Crushed 170 190 210 225
40 Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
Crushed 155 175 190 205

Note: When coarse and fine aggregates of different types are used, the free-
water content is estimated by the equation below:

2/3 Wf + 1/3 Wc

Where:

Wf = free-water content appropriate to type of fine aggregate and

Wc = free-water, content appropriate to type of coarse aggregate.

Step 3 - Determination of cement content

1. Calculate the cement content from equation C3:

Cement content = free-water content -------------------- C3

free-water/cement ratio

The resulting value should be checked against any maximum or minimum

value that may be specified. If the calculated cement content from equation
C3 is below a specified minimum, this minimum value must be adopted and a

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modified free-water/cement ratio calculated which will be less than that

determined in Stage 1. This will result in a concrete that has a mean strength
somewhat higher than the target mean strength. Alternatively, the free-
water/cement ratio from Stage 1 is used resulting in a higher free-water
content and increased workability.

2. The value given by equation C3 should be checked against any maximum or

minimum cement content that may have been specified for durability (Refer
table 1.4)

Step 4 - Determination of total aggregate content

1. This stages requires an estimate of the density of the fully compacted

concrete which is obtained from Figure 3 depending upon the free-water
content and the relative density* of the combined aggregate in the saturated
surface-dry condition (SSD). If no information is available regarding the
relative density of the aggregate an approximation can be made by assuming
a value of 2.6 for uncrushed aggregate and 2.7 for crushed aggregate. From
this estimated density of the concrete the total aggregate content is
determined from calculation C4:

Total aggregate content = D - C - W ----------------- C4

(saturated and surface-dry)

Where:

D = the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)

C =f the cement content (kg/m3)
W = the. free-water content (kg/m3).

Step 5 – Selection of fine and coarse aggregate contents

1. This stage involves deciding how much of the total aggregate should consist
of material smaller than 5 mm, i.e. the sand or fine aggregate content. Figure
4 shows recommended values for the proportion of fine aggregate depending
on the maximum size of aggregate, the workability level, the grading of the
fine aggregate (defined by its percentage passing a 600 um sieve) and the
free-water/cement ratio. The best proportion of fines to use in a given mix will
depend on the shape of the particular aggregate, the actual grading of shape
of the particular aggregate, the actual grading of the fine aggregate and the
use to which the concrete is to be put. However, adoption of a proportion
obtained from Figure 6 will generally give a satisfactory concrete in the first
trial mix which can then be adjusted as required for the exact conditions
prevailing.

The final calculation, equation C5, to determine the fine and coarse aggregate
contents, is made using the proportion of fine aggregate obtained from Figure
6 and the total aggregate content derived in Step 4:

Fine Aggregate Content

= Total Aggregate Content x Proportion of Fines ----------------- C5

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Coarse Aggregate Content

= Total Aggregate Content - Fine Aggregate Content ------------------C5

The coarse aggregate content itself can be subdivided if single sized 10, 20
and 40 mm materials are to be combined. Again, the best proportions will de-
pend on aggregate shape and concrete usage but the following ratios are
suggested as a general guide:

a. 1 : 2 for combination of 10 and 20 mm material

b. 1 : 1.5 : 3 for combination of 10, 20 and 40 mm material.

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TABLE 1: CONCRETE MIX DESIGN FORM

JOB TITLE: ……………………………………………………………………………

Stage Item Reference or Calculation Values

1 1.1 Characteristic strength Specified ___________________ N/mm2 at ____________ days

Proportion Defective _______________________ %

1.2 Standard Deviation Table 1.1 _______________ N/mm2 or no data ___________N/mm2

1.3 Margin C1 or Specified (k = _______ ) _________ x ___________ = ______N/mm2

1.4 Target mean Strength C2 ___________ + _______________= ______________N/mm2

1.5 Cement type Specified OPC/SRPC/RHPC

1.6 Aggregate type : coarse Crushed/uncrushed

Aggregate type : fine Crushed/uncrushed

1.7 Free – water/cement ratio Table 1.3, Figure 2 ______________

Use the lower value
1.8 Maximum free-water/ce-
ment ratio Specified ______________
2
2.1 Slump or Vebe Time Specified Slump ______________ mm or Vebe time____________ s

2.2 Maximum aggregate size Specified ____________ mm

kg/m3
3
2.3 Free water content Table 2.1 ___________________ kg/m
3
3.1 Cement Content C3 _____________ / _________________ = __________kg/m3

3.2 Maximum cement content Specified ___________ kg/m3

3.3 Minimum cement content Specified ___________ kg/m3

use 3.1 if < 3.2

use 3.3 if > 3.1 kg/m3
3.4 Modified free-water/cement
ratio __________________________
4
4.1 Relative density of
aggregate (SSD) _________________________known/assumed

4.2 Concrete density Figure 3 ______________ kg/m3

4.3 Total Aggregate content C4 _________ - ___________ - __________ =________kg/m3

5
5.1 Grading of fine aggregate Percentage passing 600 µm sieve ___________________________%

5.2 Proportion of fine aggreg- Figure 4

ate ___________________________ %
kg/m3
5.3 Fine aggregate content ______________ X ______________ =
C5
5.4 Coarse aggregate content
______________ - ______________ = kg/m3
Quantities Cement (kg) Water (kg or L) Fine Aggregate (kg) Coarse Aggregate (kg)
10 mm 20 mm 40mm

Per m3 (to nearest 5 kg) ____________ _____________ ________________ _________ ________ __________

Per trial mix of ______ m3 ____________ _____________ ________________ _________ ________ __________

1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa

OPC = Ordinary Portland Cement; SRPC = Sulphate-Resisting Portland Cement; RHPC = Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement.
Relative density = specific gravity
SSD = based on a Saturated Surface-Dry basis

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6.0 DISCUSSION

i) Explain the factors which affect the choice of the maximum size of aggregate
for concrete.
ii) What are the objectives of mix design?
iii) What are the factors contributed to the strength of concrete?

7.0 CONCLUSION

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Appendix for Concrete Mix Design Experiment

Figure 2: Relationship between compressive strength and free-water cement ratio.

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Figure 3: Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete

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Figure 4: Recommended proportions of sand according to percentage passing a 600

m sieve

CC04
CONCRETE WORKABILITY TEST

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i. SLUMP TEST
ii. VEBE TEST
iii. COMPACTING FACTOR TEST

Reference Standard:
BS 1881: Part 102: 1983, 1881: Part 103:1983, BS 1881: Part 104: 1983

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Workability may be defined as the property of the concrete which determines its
ability to be placed, compacted and finished. It is the most term relating to fresh
concrete of these three operations, the greatest emphasis should be placed on
compaction to eliminate of air voids, since the consequences of inadequate
compaction are serious. It also can be independently characteristic as follows:

 Consistency
o Is the firmness of form of a substance or the ease with which it will
flow
o It is measure of wetness or fluidity
 Mobility
o The ease which concrete mix can flow into and completely fill the
formwork or mould
 Compactibility
o The ease with which a given concrete mix can be fully compacted
to remove all trapped air
o To achieve maximum possible density
o The increase in compressive strength with an increase in the
density

There are three tests that are being used widely to measure the workability.
Workability may be measured by the slump test, compacting factor test and Vebe
test. These methods have found universal acceptance and their merit is due to the
simplicity of operation with and ability to detect variations in the uniformity of a mix of
given nominal proportions. Workability categories and its application shown in Table
1.0

Table 1.0: Workability categories and applications

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Workability Slump Vebe time Compacting Applications

category (mm) (mm) factor
Lean mix concrete for roads
Extremely Low 0 Over 20 0.65-0.7 (compacted by vibrating
roller). Precast paving slabs
Roads compacted by power
Very Low 0-10 12-20 0.7-0.75
operated machines
High quality structural
Low 10-30 6-12 0.75-0.85 concrete. Mass concrete
compacted by vibration
Normal purposes reinforced
Medium 30-60 3-6 0.85-0.95 concrete compacted by
vibrating poker or manually
Areas with congested
High 60-180 0-3 0.95-1.0 reinforcement, concrete for
placing underwater

2.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objectives this experiment is determine the slump of cohesive concrete of
medium to high workability and measure the workability of concrete. The end of this
experiment, the students will be able to:
i) explain and define workability
ii) measure workability
iii) describe factors affecting workability
iv) explain the slump, Vebe and compacting factor test.

3.0 WORKABILITY TEST

3.1.1 SLUMP TEST

The workability of a concrete mix is defined as the case with which it can be mixed,
transported, placed and compacted in position. Slump test is carried out to measures
the consistency of plastic concrete. It is suitable for detecting changes in workability.
This test is being used extensively on site. There are three type of slumps which is
true slump, shear slump and collapse slump. Figure 1.0 shows the method to meas-
ure the slump.

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Figure1.0: Method of measuring slump in slump test together with types of slump: (a)
true slump; (b) shear slump; (c) collapse slump

3.1.2 APPARATUS

1. Slump Cone
2. Base Plate
3. Tamping Rod

3.1.3 PROCEDURES

i) Ensure the internal surface of the mould is clean and damp but free from
superfluous moisture before commencing the test.
ii) Place the mould on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non-absorbent surface
free from vibration and shock.
iii) Hold the mould firmly against the surface below. Fill in three alyers, each
approximately one-third of the height of the mould when tamped.
iv) Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the tamping rod, the strokes being dis-
tributed uniformly over the cross-section of the layer.
v) After the top layer has been tamped, strike off the concrete level with the
top of the mould with a saving and rolling motion of the tamping rod.
vi) With the mould still held down, clean from the surface below any concrete
which may have fallen onto it or leaked from the lower edge of the mould.
vii) Remove the mould from the concrete by raising it vertically, slowly and
carefully in 5 to 10 seconds, in such a manner as to impact minimum lat-
eral or torsional movement to the concrete.
viii) The entire operation from the start of filling to the removal of the mould
shall be carried our without interruption and shall be completed within 150
seconds.
ix) Immediately after the mould is removed, measure the slump to the
nearest 5 mm using a measuring scale to determine the difference
between height of the mould and highest point of the specimen.

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3.2 VEBE TEST

Vebe is a good laboratory test, particularly from very dry mixes. This is in contrast to
the compacting factor test where error may be introduced by the additional
advantage that the treatment of concrete during the test is comparatively closely
related to the method of placing in practice. The test is covered by BS 1881:Part 104:
1983. The apparatus is shown in Figure 2.0

Figure 2.0: Vebe Test Apparatus

The remolding is assumed to be complete when the glass plate rider is completely
covered with concrete and all cavities in the surface of the concrete have
disappeared. This is judged visually, and the difficulty of establishing the end point of
the test may be a source of error.

Compaction is achieved using a vibrating table with an eccentric mass rotating at 50

Hz and maximum acceleration of 3g to 4g. It is assumed that the input of energy
required for compaction is measure of workability of the mix, and remolding to be
complete.

3.2.1 APPARATUS

a. Vebe consistometer
b. Vibrating table
c. Stop watch

3.2.2 PROCEDURES

i. Prepare a sample with mix ratio given by the instructor.

ii. Fill in the concrete inside the slump cone and then remove the cone.
iii. Place a disc-shaped rider on top of the concrete cone.
iv. Use watch to count the time which is from the moment where the vi-
brating table is switched on until it is switched off.

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v. Switch on the vibrating table and let the concrete vibrate until the con-
crete cone change to the shape of cylinder, which take the shape of its
container.
vi. Vibrating time (in second) which is taken from the moment the vibrat-
ing table is switched in until it is switched off is called Vebe degree/
Vebe time for the mix.

3.3 COMPACTING FACTOR TEST

The workability of concrete has been defined as the amount of work required to place
the concrete and to compact it thoroughly. It is simpler to apply a standard amount of
work to the concrete and to measure its degree of compaction is defined as
compacting factor which is measured by the density ratio, for example, the ratio of
density actually achieved in the test to density of the same concrete fully compacted.
The test is suitable for concrete with a maximum size of aggregate up to 40 mm and
it is described by 1881: Part 103: 1983. The apparatus consist essentially of two
hoppers, each in the shape of frustum of a cone, and one cylinder, the three being
above one another, about 1.2 m high as shown in Figure 3.0. The ‘compacting
factor’ is:

Mass of partially compacted concrete

Mass of fully compacted concrete

Figure 3.0: Compacting Factor Apparatus

3.3.1 APPARATUS

i. Compacting Factor Apparatus

ii. Balance
iii. Tamping Rod

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3.3.2 PROCEDURES

a. Prepare the sample with the mix ratio given by the instructor
b. Weight the empty cylinder and record its mass to the nearest 10 gram
c. Make sure the internal surfaces of the hoppers and cylinder are
smooth, clean and damp but free from the superfluous moisture
d. Close the two trap doors and place the two floats on the cylinder so as
cover its top.
e. Place the sample of the concrete gently in the upper hopper using the
scoop until hopper is filled to the level of the rim.
f. Open the upper trap door o that the concrete falls into the lower
hopper. Immediately after the concrete has come to rest, remove
the float from the top of the cylinder. Open the trap door the lower
and allow the concrete to fall into the cylinder.
g. Help the concrete through by pushing the tamping rod gently into the
concrete from the top until the lower end emerges from the bottom
of hopper
h. Cut off the excess concrete remaining above the level of the top of the
cylinder by holding a float in each hand, with the place of the
tamping rod horizontal and moving them simultaneously one from
each side across the top of the cylinder
i. Within 150 seconds of placing the sample in the upper hopper, weight
the cylinder and its content. By subtracting the mass of empty
cylinder, calculate and record the mass of the partially compacted
concrete to the nearest 10 gram.
j. Empty the partially compacted concrete from the cylinder and refill it
with concrete from the sample in such way as to remove as much
entrapped air is possible.
k. By means of the scoop, place the concrete in the cylinder in six layer
approximately equal in depth and compact each layer by using the
compacting bar.
l. After the top layer has been compacted, smooth its level with the top
of the cylinder using one of the plaster’s float.
m. Weight the cylinder and its content to the nearest 10 gram and by
subtracting the mass of the empty cylinder, calculate and record
the mass of the fully compacted concrete to the nearest 10 gram.

4.0 RESULT

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UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

4.1 Slump Test

Height of Slump = ………………………mm

Type of Slump = ……………………….

(Draw it)

Type of Slump

4.2 Vebe Test

Vebe Time = ……………………………. Second

4.3 Compacting Factor Test

Mp = …………………..

Mf = …………………....

Compacting factor = ………………………...

Calculate the capacity factor from the formula:

Compacting factor = Mp
Mf

Where:

Mp = mass of the partially compacted concrete (g)

Mf = mass of the fully compacted concrete (g)

5.0 DISCUSSION

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1. Discuss the result above.

2. Compare the following test for the workability of concrete in term of

application
i. Slump test
ii. Compacting factor test
iii. Vebe test

3. A sample of concrete was divided into three and result for the slump,
compacting factor test and Vebe Test obtained as follows:

Slump = 5 mm, Compacting Factor = 0.93, Vebe Time = 18 s

Assume that only one result was in error, which result is incorrect?
Why)

6.0 CONCLUSION

CC05
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UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

DESTRUCTIVE TEST

CC05-A
CONCRETE COMPRESSION TEST

Reference Standard: BS 1881:Part116:1983

1.0 OBJECTIVE

To prescribe the compressive strength test of specimens of hardened concrete and

describes and demonstrate the method for determining the compressive strength of
concrete cubes.

2.0 APPARATUS AND SPECIMEN

i. Compression machine and accessories

ii. 100 or 150 mm concrete cube

3.0 PROCEDURES

i. Prepare the concrete cube accordance to the standard.

ii. Use at least three concrete specimens for testing. If capped
specimens are not available use 1/8" layer of cardboard, paper or
fiberboard at each end of the specimens to evenly distribute the load.
iii. Measure the weight and diameter of each specimen. Measure in
several locations, both horizontally and vertically.
iv. Place the concrete specimen between the compression plates (raising
block is not needed) with the appropriate cushioning material.
v. Slowly apply the load without a shock. Observe and record the highest
load reached.
vi. When the load begins to decrease, remove the load and sketch the
type of failure in the specimen.
vii. Repeat the process for each of the specimens.
viii. Calculate the ultimate compressive strength for each specimen

NOTE

Test specimens shall be concrete cubes made, cured and stored in accordance to
the standard. Do not test cubes which have been made in badly assembled moulds
or which are clearly misshapen.

Record any unusual features in the type of failure. Refer to Figure 1 for examples of
satisfactory failure, and to Figure 2 for examples of some unsatisfactory failures.

Unsatisfactory failures are usually caused by insufficient attention to the detail of the
various procedures that have to be followed to make and test the specimens. For
example, unsatisfactory failure may be due to the cubes being badly made, the use
of moulds that do not comply with the specification, or mis-placement of the cubes in
the testing machine. It is also possible for a machine fault to be the cause of
unsatisfactory failure.

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UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

Figure 1: Satisfactory Failures

Figure 2: Unsatisfactory Failures

4.0 RESULTS

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Calculate the cross-sectional area of the cube face from the checked nominal
dimensions or from measured dimensions. Calculate the compressive strength of
each cube by dividing the maximum load by the cross-sectional area. Express the
results to the nearest 0.5 N/mm2.

fcc = F/ A , in N/mm2 to the nearest 0.5 N/mm2,

where:
F= is the maximum load recorded at failure expressed in Newton.
A=is the cross-sectional area of the specimen on which the
compressive force acts, expressed in mm2. The diameter or the
side of the specimen is measured at the nearest mm.

Specimen
1 2 3
Weight, kg
Diameter, mm
Area, mm2
Maximum load, N
Ultimate Strength, N/mm2
Average ultimate strength,
N/mm2
Average Density, kg/m3

CC05-B
CONCRETE FLEXURAL TEST

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Reference Standard: BS 1881 :Part118

1.0 OBJECTIVE

To prescribe and describes the flexural strength test of specimens of hardened

concrete and demonstrate the method for determining the flexural strength of
concrete beam by means of a constant moment in the centre zone (two-point
loading)..

2.0 APPARATUS AND SPECIMENS

i. Flexural Machine – the machine must consist of two supports, a

distance apart, and two loading points.
ii. 100 x 100 x 500 mm or 150 x 150 x 750 mm beam

3.0 PROCEDURES

i. Prepare the concrete beam accordance to the standard.

ii. Measure the diameter of each specimen. Measurement
shall in several locations, both horizontally and vertically. Mark the
point on the beam specimen at the loading and reaction point.
iii. Place the concrete specimen between the loading points
as depicted in Figure 1.
iv. Slowly apply the load without a shock. Observe and
record the highest load reached until the beam fail.
v. Calculate the modulus of rupture for the beam.

Figure1: Loading arrangement on the specimen

4.0 TEST RESULTS

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UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

The flexural strength of concrete, to the nearest 0.05 N/mm 2 is given by

the expression:

fct = 3 F / d2 (N/mm2)
where:
F = is the maximum load in Newton,
D = is the length of the side of the specimen in mm, measured at the nearest
mm.

5.0 DISCUSSION

i. Why test hardened concrete?

ii. What does 28 -day strength mean?
iii. How do you control the strength of concrete?
IV. Does the workability affected to the concrete strength?

6.0 CONCLUSION

CC06

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ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST/PUNDIT TEST

Reference Standard: BS1881: Part 203: 1986

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ultrasonic pulse velocity test is a true non-destructive test to monitor quality of

concrete without any physical damage to concrete structure. The test is useful to
examine the interior body of concrete such as the presence of cracks, honeycombed
or voids. The test also often used to monitor the uniformity of concrete, degree of
compaction, and the estimation of in-situ strength. Generally, this test used to assess
the quality and homogeneity of concrete in relation to specified standard requirement.
The equipment used to carry out UPV test is known as PUNDIT as shown in Figure
1.

Figure 1 UPV Equipment

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The test based on the principle that the velocity of sound within a solid mass, V, is a
function of square root of the ratio of Modulus of Elasticity, E, and Density, 

; where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

A pulse of vibration at an ultrasonic frequency is transmitted by an electro-acoustic

transducer held in contact with the surface of the concrete under test. After passing
through the concrete the vibration is received and converted to an electrical signal by
a second electro-acoustic transducer. The signal is then fed through an amplifier to a
cathode-ray oscilloscope. The time taken by the pulse to travel through the concrete
is measured by an electric timing unit with an accuracy of +/- 0.1 microsecond. The
path length for the vibration to travel between the two transducers, L, divided by the
transit time, t, gives the pulse velocity, V,

; expressed in km/s

There are three basic ways in which the transducers maybe arranged as shown in
Figure 2, these are:-

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i) Direct transmission; with transducers at opposite faces

ii) Semi-direct transmission; with transducers at adjacent faces
iii) In-direct transmission; with transducers at the same face

(a) Direct transmission (b) Semi-direct transmission

(c) In-direct transmission (d) In-direct transmission: Transducer arrangement

Figure 2

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) Determine the uniformity of concrete within structure

ii) Detection of the presence of cracks, and
iii) Estimates in-situ strength of existing concrete using the supplied Correla-
tion Chart

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Main control unit

ii) Transducer
iii) Receiver
iv) Reference bar

5.0 PROCEDURE

i) Calibrate the equipment by placing the transducer and receiver at either

ends of the reference bar.
ii) Choose suitable 4 test locations for each transducer arrangement. The
surface of test location must be clean, smooth and dry. Preferably mould
or formed surface, but if trowelled surfaces are unavoidable, rub smooth
the surface using a suitable polish material.
iii) Measure the path length using measuring tape or calipers
iv) Apply grease to the surface of test location to ensure proper contact of the
transducers with the concrete surface
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v) Position the transducers at the chosen test location. Ensure they are
properly in contact with the concrete surface
vi) Take three (3) readings per test location. For in-direct transmission, four
(4) readings will be adequate to plot the best fit straight line.
vii) Calculate the average reading for each test location. For the in-direct
transmission, plot the best fit straight line as shown in Figure 4. Slope of
the best fit straight line gives the average velocity
viii) Estimate the compressive strength of the test specimen using the chart
provided
ix) For crack depth detection, use Figure 3 and the following expression

; where T1 = time taken without cracks

T2 = time taken with crack

h
2x

x x

Without crack With crack

Figure 3

6.0 RESULT

Record the test results in the lab sheets provided

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Figure 4

7.0 DISCUSSION

i) From the test results, give your comments on the quality of the test speci-
men
ii) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the UPV test
iii) Can we use UPV to monitor the quality of concrete during construction

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Compressive Strength Estimation Chart

Rebound Number
Rebound Hammer Test

m2)
(N/m
ngth
Stre
sive
pres
Com
Test
sion
pres
Com
e
Cub

Pulse Velocity (km/s)

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Classification of the quality of concrete on the basis of pulse velocity

Longitudinal Pulse (km/s) Concrete Quality

> 4.5 Excellent

3.5 – 4.5 Good
3.0 – 3.5 Doubtful
2.0 – 3.0 Poor

Result For PUNDIT / Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Testing result
Part Reading Path length, s Transit time, t Pulse Velocity, v Average
1 1st
2nd
3rd
2 1st
2nd
3rd
3 1st
2nd
3rd

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CC07
REBAR LOCATOR TEST (COVERMETER SURVEY)

Reference Standard: BS1881: Part 204: 1988

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It maybe necessary to locate the exact position of reinforcement in concrete

members such as beams, columns and slabs during the course of detailed
investigation, especially when core sample is to be extracted from the members.
Rebar locator or covermeter can be used to detect the presence of steel in concrete.
This test is non-destructive in nature as it relies on the magnetic field for detecting
embedded steel. The covermeter can also be used to measure the thickness of
concrete cover to the reinforcing bars.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

An electromagnetic field is generated by a search head. When reinforcing bar or

other metal object lies within the field, the lines of force become distorted. The dis-
turbance caused by the presence of the metal object in turn produces a local change
in the field strength as detected by the search head and indicated by the meter.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) Determine the location of reinforcement bars in reinforced concrete

members
ii) Determine the thickness of concrete cover

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Covermeter
ii) Calibration block

5.0 PROCEDURE

i) Locating reinforcement bars

b) Connect measuring head to covermeter
c) Select required bar diameter on “DIAM” knob
d) Switch “ZERO” knob to ON position
e) Switch “MODE” knob to “LOCate” position
f) Hold the sensing head away from any metallic object and turn “ZERO”
knob until the red line on the analogue meter is in the center of the two
red arrows and the sound output is at low frequency (at this point the
LCD should be at 0.000v)
g) Place the sensing head in direct contact with concrete surface and
move over surface until peak signal is obtained
h) Mark bar position on concrete surface

ii) Depth of concrete cover measurement

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a) Connect the measuring head to the covermeter

b) Turn the “DIAM” knob to known bar diameter (or estimated)
c) Switch the “ZERO” knob to ON position
d) Turn “MODE” to “CAL”
e) Hold the sensing head away from any metallic object and turn “ZERO”
knob until the red line on the analogue meter is in the center of the two
red arrows and the sound output is at low frequency (at this point the
LCD should be at 0.000v)
f) Turn “MODE” knob to “DEPTH”
g) Place black face of head against concrete surface centrally over bar
position and orientate it parallel to the direction of reinforcement bar to
obtain minimum indication
h) Read off the depth directly in mm

6.0 RESULT

Record the test results in the lab sheets provided

7.0 DISCUSSION

i) From the test results, give your comments of the test specimen
ii) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Covermeter test.
iii) Can we use Covermeter to monitor the quality of concrete during con-
struction.

8.0 CONCLUSION

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LIGHT
STRUCTURE
LABORATORY

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LS01
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES IN TWO- DIMENSION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

When all the forces which act upon an object are balanced, then the object is said to
be in a state of equilibrium. The forces are considered to be balanced if the rightward
forces are balanced by the leftward forces and the upward forces are balanced by
the downward forces.

Figure 1: Two objects in equilibrium state because of the balanced forces.

Newton’s First Law: If the net force on an object is zero, the object continues in its
original state of motion. That is, if ΣF = 0, an object at rest stays at rest, and an
object in motion continues in motion in a straight line at constant speed. This law is
also known as the law of inertia. Inertia is the tendency of an object to stay at rest or
stay in motion. Mass is the quantity of inertia, in other words, the greater the mass,
the greater the inertia. There is a fancy word for an object at rest or constant velocity:
equilibrium.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

If an object is at rest and is in a state of equilibrium, then we would say that it is at

"static equilibrium." "Static" means stationary or at rest. In the "Equilibrium Lab," the
state of an object was analyzed in terms of the forces acting upon the object. The ob-
ject was a point on a string upon which three forces were acting. Refer to the figure
below. If the object is at equilibrium, then the net force acting upon the object should
be 0 N. Thus, if all the forces are added together as vectors, then the resultant force
(the vector sum) should be 0 N.

B [9.2 N]

A [4.3 N]
19° 70°

C [9.8 N]

Figure 2: Three force members reacting on a two- dimensional plane

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The resultant force in x and y direction must be zero (or at least very close to 0 N).
the calculations are shown below.

Fx = 0,
= 9.2cos70° - 4.3cos19° [Equation
1]
Fy = 0,
= 9.2sin70° + 4.3sin19° - 9.8 [Equation
2]

Another way to determine net force is by constructed an accurately-drawn, vector ad-

dition diagram. Below is an example of vector diagram;

Figure 3: Types of vector additional diagrams

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To investigate the equilibrium of forces in two- dimension and hence prove that the
summation of forces in x and y directions are zero.

4.0 APPARATUS

Figure 4: Set- up of two- dimensional forces system

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1. A set of 2- equilibrium of force apparatus

2. A set of weight.

5.0 PROCEDURES

1. Select the angles for all the members and calculate the vertical and horizontal
distances.
2. Mark the location of each anchor point on the top and side bar, the horizontal
and vertical distances should be measured from the pin.
3. Attached one end of each wire to the ring and anchor the other end to the ho-
rizontal bar at the marked position.
4. Make fine adjustment to the length of the wires so that the pin is at the centre
of the ring.
5. Hang a load hanger on the ring.
6. Set all the spring balances reading to zero. If this is not possible note the ini-
tial reading of the balance.
7. Placed some weight on the load hanger.
8. The ring will be displaced from its position.
9. If the ring displaces to he left attached a pulley to the right side of the frame,
in line with the pin, or vice verse so that the horizontal force acting to the right
can be applied to the ring to achieve equilibrium.
10. Tie a chord to the ring and pass it over the pulley.
11. Hang a load hanger at the end of the chord.
12. Place some weight on the hanger so that the pin is once again at the centre
of the ring.
13. Records the weights on the hanger, the reading of each spring balance and
their respective angle.
14. Increase the load on the load hanger and repeat step 12 and 13.
15. Repeat for several increase in vertical load.

6.0 RESULTS

Analyze the force in each member, including the force in the chord and compare
these results with the theory of equilibrium of forces.

Angle  1 = _______ degrees

Angle  2 = _______ degrees

Initial reading of spring balance 1 = _______ N

Initial reading of spring balance 2 = _______ N

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Table 1: Data of two- dimensional force systems

VERTICAL HANGER SPRING BALANCE READING (N)

LOAD (N) BALANCE 1 BALANCE 2

1. Plot the graph of force in each member, including the force in the chord
versus vertical load.
2. Determine the slope of each graph. This represents the average force in the
member per unit vertical load.
3. From the slope calculate the components of the vertical and horizontal force
for each member.

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. Theoretically when a body is in equilibrium the summation of forces at a point

in a particular direction is zero. Does the above experiment verify this state-
ment taking into consideration the error that occurs?
2. Give your comments on the polygon of forces obtained by this experiment.

8.0 CONCLUSION

Refer to the objective of the experiment.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

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LS02
TENSILE TEST (Standard reference: BS4449)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Tensile stress (or tension) is the stress state leading to expansion, that is the may be
increased until the reach of tensile strength namely the limit state of stress. In a
tensile test, a sample is strained at a constant rate and the stress needed to maintain
this strain rate is measured. The stress and strain can either be measured in terms of
engineering stress and strain or true stress and strain. The elastic modulus, the ulti-
mate tensile stress, the fracture stress, the modulus of toughness, and the modulus
of resilience can all be determined from a tensile test. The relationship between the
induced strain and the stress causing it is found to be constant in elastic material.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

A specimen of gauge length, L (the length on which change in length, δL is

measured) and cross-sectional area, A is subjected in a testing machine to a
gradually increasing load, P until fracture occurs. Figure 1 shows the steel bar
specimen is subjected to an axial load, P then the bar will change in length. When
the load is increased in increments from zero (initial load) to the point of fracture and
stress and strain are computed at each step. Strain was measure of the deformation
of the material and is non-dimensional. Normally, the extension of materials under
load is very small (micro strain, µ).

P P

δL L

Figure 1: Change in length of steel bar subjected to tensile load

Stress is direct force uniformly or equally applied across the cross-section in which
the internal forces set up are also distributed uniformly. The stress may be
compressive or tensile depend on the nature of the load and will be measured using
this formulation:

-----------------[Equation 1]

Normally, tensile stress is taken as positive (elongation is occur) and compressive

stress as negative (shortening occur). If the steel bar is subjected to a direct load,
then the bar will change in length. The original length, L changes in length by L.
Then, the strain can be produced:

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-----------------------[Equation 2]

The stress-strain curve can be plotted and were revealed in Figure 2. The
relationship between the induced strain and the stress causing it is found to be
constant in elastic material. For example, the material returns to its original, unloaded
dimensions when the load is removed.

Stress
(σ) PLASTIC region
E = Ultimate Stress
C = Upper Yield Limit

D= Lower Yield Limit

B = Elastic Limit F = Stress during
A = Proportional Limit failure

ELASTIC region

Strain (ε)

Figure 2: Typical curve of stress-strain relationship for mild-steel bar

A typical stress-strain curve of steel bar shown in Figure 2 was revealed. The
relationship between stress and strain is linear up to proportional limit. The material is
follow to Hooke’s Law until point. A, namely Proportional Limit. Later than this point,
Hooke’s Law wouldn’t happen although the material has an Elastic Characteristic.
The region of Elastic Limit was performed at point B. The elastic limit of the material
is a stress that lies between the proportional limit and the upper yield point (Point C).
Up to this stress, the specimen can be unloaded without permanent deformation; the
unloading will be along the linear portion of the diagram, the same path followed
during loading. This part of the stress – strain diagram is called the elastic range.
However, the Elastic Limit (Point B) is seldom determined, since it is very close to the
Proportional Limit (Point A) and therefore rather difficult to detect.
A peak value, the upper yield point (Point C), is quickly reached after that, followed
by levelling off at the lower yield point (Point D). At this stage of loading, the test
specimen continues to elongate as long as the load is not removed, even though the
load cannot be increased. This constant stress region is called the plastic range.

When a further load is applied to the specimen, the curve will rise continuously but
became flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred as the Ultimate Stress
(Point E). Throughout the test, while the specimen is elongating, its cross-sectional
area will decrease. At the Ultimate Stress (Point E), the cross-sectional area begins
to decrease in a localized region of the specimen, instead of over the specimen’s
entire gauge length. This phenomenon is caused by slip planes formed within the

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material, and the actual strains produced are caused by shear stress. As a result, a
constriction or neck gradually tends to form in this region.

Since the cross-sectional area within this region is continually decreasing, the smaller
area can only carry an ever-decreasing load. Hence, the stress – strain diagram tend
to curve downward until the specimen breaks at the Fracture Stress (Point F).

3.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objectives for this present test are:

1. To determine the yield stress, tensile stress and Young Modulus of the mild
steel bar.
2. To define the behaviours of a mild steel bar when subjected to an axial tensile
load.
3. To draw the type and behaviour of the breakage (at failure).

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS

Figure 2: Universal testing machine

1. Universal testing machine (UTM) - Tensile Test

2. Bar specimens (Steel Bar)
3. Measurement apparatuses such as ruler, divider, etc.

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Measure the diameter of the specimen at three (3) various positions and cal-
culates the average.
2. Mark the specimen at every10 mm interval along it gauge length.
3. Punch 2 marks on the specimen using the puncher provided.
4. Fix the both ends of specimen to the cross-head of UTM machine by pushing
the button upwards and downwards to grip the specimen.
5. Ensure the specimen is parallel with the cross-head of UTM machine.
6. Record the readings of the load and stroke until the specimen failed.

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7. Remove the specimen from the grips and stick back the specimen.
8. Measure the final length (distance between 5 markings interval at the break-
age point) and diameter at the breakage point.

6.0 RESULTS

The following data were obtained form the mild-steel bar specimen:

1. Specimen diameter, ø = ____________ mm

2. Cross sectional area, A = ____________ mm2
3. Specimen Gauge Length, L = 200 mm

Record the date of load and stroke from tensile test in the Table 1 provided.

Table 1: Tensile test data

STROKE READING –
LOAD CELL
CHANGE IN LENGTH, STRESS, (σ) STRAIN, (ε)
READING
∆L (N/mm2) (mm/mm)
(kN)
(mm)

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7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. Determination of the Young Modulus (Elastic Modulus):

a. Plot the stress against strain curve from the data obtained from Table 1.
b. Mark and state the values for upper and lower yield point, point of maximum
load and breakage point at the graph plotted.
c. Determine the slope of the graph and the point where the graph starts to be
non linear.

Elastic Modulus, (E) = ____________ N/mm2

d. From the graph determine:

Upper yield limit = ___________ N/mm2

Lower yield limit = ___________ N/mm2

According to Hooke’s Law, ‘Strain is proportional to the stress causing it, providing
that the limit of proportionality has not been exceeded’. Therefore it can be
summarized as:

--------------------------[Equation 3]

Or,

Constant (E) = Slope of stress-strain curve ---------------------[Equation 4]

The constant of proportionality, E is called the Elastic Modulus or sometimes referred

as Young’s Modulus. For the steel the average around 200 GPa.

2. Determination of Tensile Stress:

The present data obtained from Table 1, determine the ultimate tensile stress of the
bar specimen using the data as follow:

a. Maximum load = ____________

b. -------------[Equation
5]

3. Calculate Reduction in Area:

a. Original Area (A) = ___________ mm2

b. Area at Breakage (A1) = ___________ mm2
c. Percentage reduction in an area

--------------[Equation 6]
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4. Calculate the Percentage of Elongation, e (for 50mm):

a. On the 50mm Gauge Length (l) = 50 mm

b. Gauge Length at Breakage (Lo) = __________ mm

c. Percentage elongation, e

--------------------[Equation 7]

5. Calculate the Proof Stress at 0.1%:

a. -------------------[Equation 8]

6. Graph Explanations:

a. Explain and give a comment(s) on the stress vs. strain curve graph
material. Show the term below:
i. Tensile strength elasticity
ii. Ultimate tensile strength
iii. Plasticity
iv. Young’s modulus (slope of the curve in the elastic region)
v. Type and behaviour of breakage (draw it)

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

LS03
REACTION OF A CONTINUOUS BEAM

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

A beam is a structural member which carries loads. These loads are most often
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis, but they can be of any geometry. A beam
supporting any load develops internal stresses to resist applied loads. These internal
stresses are bending stresses, shearing stresses, and normal stresses. Beam types
are determined by method of support, not by method of loading. Below are three
types of beams;

Figure 1: Various category of beams

The first two types are statically determinate, meaning that the reactions, shears and
moments can be found by the laws of statics alone. Continuous beams are statically
indeterminate. The internal forces of these beams cannot be found using the laws of
statics alone.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The free body diagram of the continuous beam covered in this experiment can be
seen from the Figure 1- 3 ranged by different types of spans and loads. The typical
theory support reactions for each case are included for every different case.

L/2 L/2

W W

CASE 1

L L

5W/16 22W/16 5W/16

Figure 1: Free body diagram (FBD) of a continuous beam with equal spans and
symmetrical loads.

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L/2

CASE 2

L L

13W/32 22W/32 3W/32

Figure 2: FBD of a continuous beam with equal spans and single load.

CASE 3

2L L

3W/8 7W/8 W/4

Figure 3: FBD of a continuous beam with unsymmetrical spans

and single load.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the reactions of a two-span continuous beam.

4.0 APPARATUS

Figure 4: Continuous beam apparatus

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The apparatus comprise of

1. A support frame
2. 3 Nos. reaction support pier
3. 2 Nos. load hangers
4. Beam specimen
5. A meter ruler to measure the span of the beam
6. A set of weights

5.0 PROCEDURES

1. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator.

2. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must be
switch on 10 minutes before taking readings.
3. Clamped the reaction piers to the support frame using the plate and bolt sup-
plied with the apparatus and at predetermine distance between the supports.
4. Place the beam specimen between the two cylindrical pieces of each support.
Tightened the two screws at the top of each support with your fingers.
5. Fixed the load hanger at the position where the beam is to be loaded.
6. Connect the load cell from the support pier to the display unit, each load cell
occupying one terminal on the display.
7. Note the indicator reading. If it is not zero press the tare button on the indic -
ator.
8. Beginning with channel 1 record the initial reading for each channel.
9. Place a suitable load on the load hanger and note the reading of each load
cell. This represents the reaction at each pier.
10. Increase the load on the load hanger at suitable increments and for each in-
crement record the pier reaction reading.

6.0 RESULTS

Result data of the experiment:

Left – hand span of beam, LL = ___________ mm

Right – hand span of beam, LR = ___________ mm
Distance of load from the left-hand support, XL = ___________ mm
Distance of load from the right-hand support, XR = ___________ mm

Table 1: Result data for the CASE 1 experiment.

SUPPORT REACTIONS (N)

LOAD
LEFT MIDDLE RIGHT
(N)
EXP. THEORY EXP. THEORY EXP. THEORY

Table 2: Result data for the CASE 2 experiment.

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SUPPORT REACTIONS (N)

LOAD
LEFT MIDDLE RIGHT
(N)
EXP. THEORY EXP. THEORY EXP. THEORY

Table 3: Result data for the CASE 3 experiment.

SUPPORT REACTIONS (N)

LOAD
LEFT MIDDLE RIGHT
(N)
EXP. THEORY EXP. THEORY EXP. THEORY

Using the tabulated data,

1. Plot the graph of reaction against load for each support of the beam.
2. Draw the best fit curve through the plotted points.
3. Using the slope of the graph, calculate the percentage error between the ex-
perimental and theoretical reaction.

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. How does the experimental reactions compare with the theoretical.

2. State the possible factors that might have influenced your results and pos-
sible means of overcoming it.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment

LS04

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SHEAR FORCE OF BEAM

ii)
1.0 INTRODUCTION

An important part of structure engineering and indeed the understanding of

structure behaviour are the understanding of the shear forces and bending
moment that exist within a structural system. Shear force is defined as the
algebraic summation of the external forces that are perpendicular to the axis of
the member to the left or to the right of a section. Shear force is normally taken to
the positive if the summation of the external forces to the left is up; the internal
force on the left necessary for equilibrium is directed downward. Conversely, if
the summation of external forces to the right is down, the internal forces on the
right is upward and is taken to be positive. The relationship is shown in Figure 1.
A

+V

+V

Figure 1: Positive shear force at section A-A in a beam

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The shear force at a section of a beam is the sum of the components resolved
parallel to the section of ALL the forces to the right or to the left of the section.
Shear force is positive if it acts downwards on the left-hand side of a section; and
is positive if it acts upwards on the right-hand side of a section.

A shear force diagram is a diagram which indicates the value of shear force at all
points along the length of a structural member due to a given system of applied
loads.

Figure 2: Shear force free body diagram

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The shear force in statically determinate beams can be calculated from equation of
static equilibrium. From the free-body diagram of Figure 2, we obtain

VA = W1(L - L1) + W2(L - L2) + W3(L - L3)

L
At section x, (consider the LHS)

VX = VA - W1 ----------------------------[Equation 1]

Where, x is a distance from end free to section mm.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To prove that the shear force at a cut section of a beam is equal to the algebraic sum
of the forces acting to the left or right of the section.

4.0 APPARATUS

1. Shear force equipment

2. Shear force equipment
3. Weight hanger
4. Set of weight
5. Measuring tape/ ruler

5.0 PROCEDURES

1. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator.

2. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must be switch
on 10 minutes before taking readings.
3. Fixed the two simple supports to the aluminium base at a distance equal to the
span of the beam to be tested. Screw the supports tightly to the base.
4. Hang the load hanger to the beam.
5. Place the beam on the supports
6. Place the load hanger at the desired location
7. Note the indicator reading. If it is not zero, press tare button on the indicator
8. Place a load on each load hanger
9. Record the indicator reading. This represents the shear force at the cut section
10. Remove all loads from the load hangers and apply a different set of loading and
at different locations.
11. Remove all loads from the load hangers and apply a different set of loading and
at different location
12. Repeat procedure 6 to 11 for other sets of readings.

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6.0 RESULTS

Result data for shear force experiment:

Length of Beam Span = mm

Distance of loads form the left support
L1 = mm
L2 = mm
L3 = mm
Distance of the shear section from the left support, X-X = mm

Table 1: Shear force data at section X-X

SHEAR FORCES (N)

LOAD CASES
(N)
EXP. THEORY % ERROR

1. Theoretically, calculate the value of shear force at section X-X and fill it in the
Table 1.
2. Using the data in the Table 1, plot the bar chart for the shear force for the the-
oretical and experimental for each load case.
3. Calculate the percentage of error for each load case and hence determine the
overall percentage of error.

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. What actually happens when a load is applied to the beam and why does this
condition occur?
2. Comment on the accuracy of the experiment and what are the precautions
that should be taken in this experiment to ensure its accuracy?
3. State the probable factors that affect the accuracy of the experiments.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

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LS05
BENDING MOMENT OF BEAM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Bending moment is the algebraic sum of the moments caused by all the external
forces to the left or right of a particular section. The bending moment is computed
about an axis through the centroid of the cross section. A positive sign indicates
that the summation of external moments to the left is clockwise. That is, the
internal bending moment on the left necessary for equilibrium is counter
clockwise. Conversely, if the summation of external moments to the right is
counter clockwise, then the internal bending moment on the right necessary for
equilibrium is clockwise and is considered positive. The relationship is shown in
Figure 1.
A

+
M moment at section A-A in a beam
Figure 1: Positive bending

2.0 PRINCIPLES

L
Pin-Joint at the section
R
X
L-
X
Y mm

Screw
Force Tension
Gauge Spring

(a) Bending moment set- up

(b) Free body diagram

Figure 2: Bending moment at cross section.

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Bending Moment: The bending moment at a section of a beam is the sum of the
moments about that section of ALL the forces to the right or to the left of the section.
Bending Moment is positive if it acts clockwise on the left-hand side of a section; and
is positive if it acts anti-clockwise on the right-hand side of a section. A bending
moment diagram is a diagram which indicates the value of bending moment at all
points along the length of a structural member due to a given system of applied
loads. From the free-body diagram of Figure 2, we obtain;

VA = W1(L - L1) + W2(L - L2) + W3(L - L3)

L

MX = VA(X) - W1(X - L1) ---------------------------------- [Equation 1]

Where, x is a distance from end free to section mm.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To prove that the bending moment at a cut section of a beam is equal to the algeb-
raic sum of the moments acting to the left or right of the section.

4.0 APPARATUS

The test equipment that used to determine the bending moment of beam is shown in
Figure 3.

1. Bending moment in simply supported beam (refer to Figure 1).

2. Measuring tape
3. Set of weight
4. Weight hanger

Figure 3: Bending moment of beam apparatus.

5.0 PROCEDURES

1. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator

2. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must be
switch on 10 minutes before taking readings.

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3. Fixed the two simple supports to the aluminium base at a distance equal to
the span of the beam to be tested. Screw the supports tightly to the base.
4. Hang the load hanger to the beam.
5. Place the beam on the supports
6. Place the load hanger at the desired location
7. Note the indicator reading. If it is not zero, press tare button on the indicator
8. Place a load on each load hanger
9. Record the indicator reading. This represents the force at the cut section
10. Remove all loads from the load hangers and apply a different set of loading
and at different locations.
11. Repeat procedure 6 to 11 for other sets of readings.

6.0 RESULTS

Length of Beam Span, L = __________mm

Distance of the cut section from the left support, L1 = __________mm
Distance of load cell from centre of the beam’s cross section,Y = __________mm

Table 1: Load cell reading data

LOAD AND DISTANCE FROM THE LEFT SUPPORT LOAD CELL

LOAD READING, F
CASE W1 L1 W2 L2 W3
L3 (mm) (N)
(N) (mm) (N) (mm) (N)

Table 2: Bending moment data at section X-X

LOAD BENDING MOMENT (N.mm)

CASE EXPERIMENTAL (FX175) THEORY

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5
7.0 DISCUSSIONS/ANALYSIS

1. Using the data in the Table 1, determine the experiment value for bending
moment and fill it in Table 2. Then, plot the bar chart for the bending for the
theoretical and experimental for each load case.
2. Calculate the percentage of error for each load case and hence determine the
overall percentage of error.
3. Will the readings of the load cell differ from the above if it is placed 100 mm
from the centre of the cross-section. If the answer is yes, by how much. If the
answer is no, then why.
4. Comment on the accuracy of the experiment and what are the precautions
that should be taken in this experiment to ensure its accuracy?

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

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LS06
DEFLECTION OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In engineering mechanics, deflection is a term that is used to describe the degree to

which a structural element is displaced under a load. The deflection of a member
under a load is directly related to the slope of the deflected shape of the member
under that load and can calculated by integrating the function that mathematically
describes the slope of the member under that load. Deflection can be calculated by
standard formulae (will only give the deflection of common beam configurations and
load cases at discrete locations).

2.0 PRINCIPLES

Consider a simply supported uniform section beam with a single at the centre. The
beam will be deflected symmetrically about the centre line with 0° slope (dy/dx) at the
centre line. It is convenient to select the origin at the centre line. Then:-

Figure 1: Point loading at the mid- span of simply supported beam

Integrating

(C1 = 0 because dy/dx = 0 at x = 0)

Integrating again

y = 0 when x = L/2 therefore

and thus

At end B and

At centre C, x = 0 (slope dy/dx = 0 by symmetry)

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The theoretical mid-span deflection, -----------------[Equation 1]

In order to study the affect of span upon deflection, the power 3 for the span is
replaced by n. Thus, the deflection equation can be written as

Where the constant

The deflection equation can be written in log as

------------------------[Equation 2]

This represents the equation of a straight line. The slope of the graph represents the
power of the span and the vertical intercept represents the constant.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

1. To established the relationship of the deflection and applied load.

2. To determined the elastic modulus of the beam specimen from the deflection
data.
3. To established the relationship of the deflection and span of the beam speci-
men.

4.0 APPARATUS

Figure 2: Deflection of simply supported beam set- up.

The apparatus consists of:

1. A support frame
2. A pair of knife – edge support
3. A load hanger
4. A dial gauge with 0.01 mm accuracy to measuring deflection
5. Beam specimen with constant depth and width through out its length
6. A micrometer to measure the depth and with of the beam specimen
7. A meter ruler to measure the span of the beam
8. A set of weights

5.0 PROCEDURE

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1. Bolt the two supports to the support frame using the plate and bolt supplied
with the apparatus. The distance between the two supports should be equal
to the span of the beam to be tested.
2. Measure width and depth of specimen and note the readings (take measure-
ment at 3 locations and record the average reading)
3. Place the beam specimen on the support.
4. Fix the load hanger at the mid-span of the beam.
5. Position the dial gauge at the mid-span of the beam to measure the deflec-
tion.
6. Zero the dial gauge reading.
7. Place a suitable load on the load hanger.
8. Note the dial gauge reading.
9. Increase the load on the load hanger.
10. Repeat step 8 and 9 for a few more load increments
11. Repeat the above test to obtain another set of readings.

6.0 RESULTS

L/2

δ
W
L

Figure 3: Deflection at the mid- span due to the point load.

Span of tested beam, L = _____________mm

Width of beam specimen, b = _____________mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = _____________mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, (bd3/12) = _____________mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 div = 0.01 ____mm

Table 1: Deflection at the mid-span

APPLIED EXPERIMENTAL MID-SPAN DEFLECTION THEORETICAL

LOAD TEST 1 TEST 2 AVERAGE DEFLECTION
(N) (div) (mm) (div) (mm) (div) (mm) (mm)

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1. Using the tabulated data in Table 1, plot the graph of load against experi-
mental deflection.
2. Draw the best-fit curve through the plotted points and hence deduce the rela-
tionship between the applied load and the mid-span deflection result.
3. Calculate the modulus of elasticity using the slope of the graph obtained, as-
suming a linear relationship between load and deflection as shown below.

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. From this experiment what is the relationship between the applied load and
the displacement.
2. How the experimental result does differs with the theoretical in terms of accur-
acy.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

LS07
SHEAR FORCE INFLUENCE LINE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Influence lines have important application for the design of structures that resist large
live loads. An influence line represents either the variation of the reaction, shear,
moment, or deflection at a specific point in a member as a concentrated force moves
over the member. Once this line constructed, one can tell at glance where the
moving load should be placed on the structure so that it creates the greatest

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influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the magnitude of the associated

reaction, shear, moment or deflection at the point can be calculated from the
ordinates of the influence- line diagram.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The influence line for bending moment at a section is the graph (curve) representing
the variation of bending moment at a section for various positions of the load on the
span of the beam. The sign convention followed, in general, is shown in Figure 1.

W
x
C
A B

VA=W(L-x) a (L-a) VB=Wx

L
L L
L
Figure 1: Simply supported beam with load towards left of C

W
x

C
A B

VA=W(L-x) a (L-a) VB=Wx

L L
L

Figure 2: SimFigure 2: Simply supported beam with load towards right of

C

Consider a simply supported beam of span ‘L’ as shown in Figures 1 and 2. It is

required to draw influence line for bending moment at ’C’ at a distance ‘a’ from the
left support.

When the load ‘W’ is towards left of section ’C’, at a distance ‘x’ from left support ’A’
0<x<a
The shear force at C

---------------------[Equation 1]

(Considering right side of section C)

When the load ‘W’ is towards right of section ’D’ at a distant ‘x’ from left support ’A’
a<x<0
The bending moment at D (considering left side of section C)

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------------------------------------ [Equation 2]

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the shear force influence line when the beam is subjected to a load
moving from left to right.

4.0 APPARATUS

1. A pair of simple supports

2. Special beam with a cut section
3. A set of weight with several load hangers

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator

2. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must be
switch on 10 minutes before taking readings.
3. Fixed the two simple supports to the aluminium base at a distance equal to
the span of the beam to be tested. Screw the supports tightly to the base.
4. Hang the load hanger to the beam
5. Placed the beam on the supports.
6. Placed the load hanger at the 50 mm from the left support.
7. Note the indicator reading. If it is not zero press the tare button on the indic -
ator.
8. Place a load on the load hanger.
9. Record the indicator reading. This represents the shear force at the cut sec-
tion.
10. Remove the load from the hanger.
11. Move the load hanger to 100 mm from the left support and repeat step 7 to
11. Each time increase the distance by 50 mm.
12. Repeat step 7 to 11 until the load reaches end B.

6.0 RESULTS

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L1
X
W1

RA RB
X
Figure 3: Loading position for case 1

Beam span = ________________mm

Distance of the shear section from the left support, = ________________mm
W1 = ________________N

Table 1: Result data for Case 1

DISTANCE FROM LEFT SHEAR FORCE AT X – X

SUPPORT (MM) EXPERIMENTAL = RB (N) THEORY ( N )

L1
a
X
W1 W2

RA RB
X
Figure 4: Loading position for case 2

Beam span = ________________mm

Distance of the shear section from the left support = ________________mm
Weight 1 = ________________N
Weight 2 = ________________N

Table 2: Result data for Case 2

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DISTANCE FROM LEFT SHEAR FORCE AT X – X

SUPPORT (MM) EXPERIMENTAL = RB (N) THEORY ( N )

L1
a b
X
W1 W2 W3

RA RB
X
Figure 5: Loading position for case 3

Beam span = _________________mm

Distance of the shear section from the left support = _________________mm
Weight 1 = _________________N
Weight 2 = _________________N
Weight 3 = _________________N

Table 3: Result data for Case 3

DISTANCE FROM LEFT SHEAR FORCE AT X – X

SUPPORT (MM) EXPERIMENTAL = RB (N) THEORY ( N )

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. From this experiment, plot a graph of load vs. shear forces (experimental and
theoretical) and gives your comments.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

LS08
BENDING MOMENT INFLUENCE LINE

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Influence lines have important application for the design of structures that resist large
live loads. An influence line represents either the variation of the reaction, shear,
moment, or deflection at a specific point in a member as a concentrated force moves
over the member. Once this line constructed, one can tell at glance where the
moving load should be placed on the structure so that it creates the greatest
influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the magnitude of the associated
reaction, shear, moment or deflection at the point can be calculated from the
ordinates of the influence- line diagram.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The influence line for bending moment at a section is the graph (curve) representing
the variation of bending moment at a section for various positions of the load on the
span of the beam. The sign convention followed, in general, is shown in Figure 1.

W
x
C
A B

VA=W(L-x) a (L-a) VB=Wx

L
L L

Figure 1: Simply supported beam with load towards left of C

W
x

C
A B

VA=W(L-x) a (L-a) VB=Wx

L
L L

Figure 2: SimFigure 2: Simply supported beam with load towards right of

C

Consider a simply supported beam of span ‘L’ as shown in Figures 1 and 2. It is

required to draw influence line for bending moment at ’C’ at a distance ‘a’ from the
left support.

When the load ‘W’ is towards left of section ’C’, at a distance ‘x’ from left support ’A’
0<x<a

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The shear force at C

---------------------------[Equation 1]

(Considering right side of section C)

When the load ‘W’ is towards right of section ’D’ at a distant ‘x’ from left support ’A’
a<x<0

The bending moment at D (considering left side of section C)

---------------------------[Equation 2]

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the bending moment influence line when the beam is subjected to a
load moving from left to right.

4.0 APPARATUS

1. A pair of simple supports

2. Special beam with a cut section
3. A set of weight with several load hangers

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator

2. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must be
switch on 10 minutes before taking readings.
3. Fixed the two simple supports to the aluminium base at a distance equal to
the span of the beam to be tested. Screw the supports tightly to the base.
4. Hang the load hanger to the beam
5. Placed the beam on the supports.
6. Placed the load hanger at the 50 mm from the left support.
7. Note the indicator reading. If it is not zero press the tare button on the indic -
ator.
8. Place a load on the load hanger.
9. Record the indicator reading. This represents the shear force at the cut sec-
tion.
10. Remove the load from the hanger.
11. Move the load hanger to 100 mm from the left support and repeat step 7 to
11. Each time increase the distance by 50 mm.
12. Repeat step 7 to 11 until the load reaches end B.

6.0 RESULTS

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L1
X
W1

RA RB
X

Figure 3: Loading position for case 1

Beam span = __________________mm

Distance of the shear section from the left support, = __________________mm
W1 = __________________N

Table 1: Result data for Case 1

BENDING MOMENTS AT X – X
DISTANCE FROM LEFT
SUPPORT (MM) EXPERIMENTAL
THEORY ( N )
= (F*175) (N)

L1
a
X
W1 W2

RA RB
X

Figure 4: Loading position for case 2

Beam span = ________________mm

Distance of the shear section from the left support = ________________mm
Weight 1 = ________________N
Weight 2 = ________________N

Table 2: Result data for Case 2

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BENDING MOMENTS AT X – X
DISTANCE FROM LEFT
SUPPORT (MM) EXPERIMENTAL
THEORY ( N )
= (F*175) (N)

L1
a b
X
W1 W2 W3

RA RB
X

Figure 5: Loading position for case 3

Beam span = _______________mm

Distance of the shear section from the left support = _______________mm
Weight 1 = _______________N
Weight 2 = _______________N
Weight 3 = _______________N

Table 3: Result data for Case 3

BENDING MOMENTS AT X – X
DISTANCE FROM LEFT
SUPPORT (MM) EXPERIMENTAL
THEORY ( N )
= (F*175) (N)

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. Using the data in Table 1 plot the graph of shear force and bending moment
versus distance from left support.
2. Draw the shear force diagram for the section x – x.
3. Obtain the experimental result from the shear force influence line diagram
4. Comment on the accuracy of the experiment
5. State the probable factors that affects the accuracy of the experiment

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

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Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

LS09
FORCES IN TRUSS

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Trusses are a major type of structure consist slender straight members joined
together at their end points. This truss structure is a type of framework which is been
designed to be stiff which can be achieved by the inclusion of a sufficient number of
triangles. This triangles shape allow for simple, rigid, lightweight structures to be
made. This is one of the advantage of the truss structure which it can only use a
minimum amount of material even for a larger span. The idea of using this type of
structure is that all loads can be taken along the axis of the tubes, preventing
bending loads, and allowing for a lighter, stiffer, and stronger frame. Besides that, all
the truss members are assumed to be connected by pin-connected at their ends by
frictionless pins which the member will be in tension or compression condition. The
test equipment used to investigate the forces in the loaded frame truss is shown
in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Truss test equipment

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The truss that will be investigated in this experiment is a statically determinate planar
truss which the loads are applied only at the joints. Thus, the truss member end
forces must be collinear and opposite for equilibrium.

A planar determinate truss can have only three unknown reaction forces. The forces
in the truss members can be obtained by using the method of joints. In this method,
each joint of the truss is isolated in a free body diagram and the unknown member
forces are determined from equilibrium of Σ Fx = 0 and Σ Fy = 0. For an example, the
force F AB at joint A can be determined as be shown in Figure 2.
B D

A C E

100 N 200 N 100 N

Σ FY = 0 y F AB
F AB sin(θ) + 100 = 0
F AB = -100/sin(θ)
Joint ө F AC x
A 72

R Ay = 100 N
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Figure 2: Method of joint in truss

When involving with the truss analysis, some assumptions must be considered such
as:-

1. Loads are applied only at the joints

2. Weight of each member is small compared with the applied load
3. Loads are carried axially by members
4. Geometry is known

Using the method of joints, must be strictly known that only two unknown member
forces can be solved for at a time. The remaining joints of the truss can be isolated
and the unknown member of forces can be determined.

The most practical way for determining the force in the truss member by
experimentally is by using the strain gage. Since this strain gage measures strain,
some conversion must be performed to obtain the force in the member.

Hook’s Law is using to calculate stress (σ) by converting the measured strain (ε). For
the case where the tensile stress is uniformly distributed over the cross sectional
area it has the following form:σ = E ε

where E is the modulus of elasticity of the truss member and it depended to the
material that has been used. Since for this experiment, steel has been used,
therefore the value of E is: E = 210 GN/m2

Once the stress in the member is determined, it can be converted into force (F) by
multiplying the axial stress by the cross sectional area (A): F = A σ

3.0 OBJECTIVES

1. To investigate the forces in the loaded frame truss.

2. To investigate the relationship between the measured forces in a loaded
frame truss experimentally and theoretically.
3. To check linearity of the measured strain versus the applied load.

4.0 APPARATUS

1. Structures test frame

2. Digital force display
3. Truss with strain gages
4. Load cell
5. Digital strain display
6. Callipers

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7. Two power supplies for the digital force display and the load cell

5.0 PROCEDURES

1. Measure the dimensions of the truss and tabulate in Table 1.

2. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator
3. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must
be switched on 10 minutes before taking readings.
4. Note the indicator reading on channel 1. If it is not zero press the
tare button.
5. Take the initial readings of all other channels.
6. Apply the load at end C, by turning the load cell lever, W, to give a read -
ing 10N and record the loaded readings of each member of the truss by
using the digital load cell recorder.
7. Increase the load gradually each time, by turning the load cell lever 10N
increments and record the readings until the maximum load 40N into
Table 2a
8. Decrease the load by turning the load cell in the reverse direction gradu -
ally and record the readings again.
9. Obtain the forces in the members experimentally form graphs for 30N
loading.
10. Calculate theoretical values of the forces in the members for the load of
30N and tabulate the final results in Table 3.

6.0 RESULTS

Table 1: Truss Dimensions

FRAME DIMENSIONS
L1
L2
H

Table 2: Measured Readings of Forces in Truss

INITIAL INCREASING W DECREASING W

MEMBER READING 10 20 30 40 30 20 10

Table 3: Measured Forces in Truss

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INCREASING W DECREASING W
MEMBER
10 20 30 40 30 20 10

Table 4: Calculated Forces in Truss

MEMBER LENGTH EXPERIMENTAL THEORY

7.0 DISCUSSIONS/ANALYSIS

1. What is the relationship between the experimental and theoretical values

obtained?
2. Will there be any changes to the angles of the frame with the loading?
3. What are the precautions that should be taken in this experiment to en -
sure its accuracy?

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

LS10
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PORTAL FRAME

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Frame is a structure elements composed of beams and column connected by rigid

joints. The angle between the beam and column is usually 90 o. Figure 1 shows a
simple frame which consists of a column and a girder. Frames can be divided into
two categories: braced and unbraced.

Girder

Column

Figure 1: Simple frame

A braced frame is one in which the joints at each level are free to rotate but are
prevented from moving laterally by attachment to a rigid element that can supply
lateral restrain to the frame. An unbraced frame is one in which lateral resistance to
displacement is supplied by the flexural stiffness of the beam and columns.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

For single-bay frames many analyst define moment as positive when it produces
compression stresses on the outside surface of the member, where inside is define
as the region within the frame. The positive direction for shear is then arbitrarily
defined, as shown by the arrows on figure 2.

Axial force on a cross section is evaluated by summing all forces perpendicular to

cross section. Forces acting outward from the cross section are tension force; those
directed toward the cross section are compression force.

M V M
T
T
M V M

V C
C V
C C
V V
M
M

Figure 2: Internal forces acting on section of the frame.

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For statically determinate frame, the internal forces (shear forces, axial forces and
bending moments) can be calculated by using equation of equilibrium.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objectives for this present experiment are:

1. To investigate the behaviour of a portal frame experimentally under a given

loading arrangement.
2. To compare the results obtained experimentally with theoretical results of the
reactions, bending moments, shear forces and axial forces.

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS

Figure 3: Portal frame apparatus

1. Support Frame
2. Portal Frame
3. Dial Gauge
4. Vanier calliper
5. Ruler / tape measure
6. 1 set of loads

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator.

2. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must be
switched on 10 minutes before taking readings.
3. Place a load hanger at the location where the load is to be applied.
4. Note the indicator reading. If it is not zero press the tare button.
5. Place a load on the load hanger.
6. Record the indicator reading. This represents the horizontal reaction of the
pinned support.
7. Increase the load on the load hanger and record the horizontal reaction.
8. Repeat step 7 for another 4 load increment.

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9. Decrease the load on the hanger and record the horizontal reaction.
10. Repeat step 9 until all loads are removed.

6.0 RESULTS

The dimensions:

1. Width of member = ______________ mm

2. Thickness of member = ______________ mm
3. Second moment of area, I = ______________ mm

Figure 4: Load on Horizontal Member where

W1 located at middle, a (CASE 1)

CASE 1: Load located at Middle, a on Horizontal Member

Distance a = ______________ mm

Table 1: Experimental Results when Load located at Middle, a

on Horizontal Member

Horizontal Trust (N)

Applied Load (N)
Experimental Theoretical
2
4
6
8
10

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Figure 5: Load on Horizontal Member where

W2 located at b (CASE 2)

CASE 2: Load located at b on Horizontal Member

Distance b = _______________ mm

Table 2: Experimental Results when Load located at b on Horizontal Member

Horizontal Trust (N)

Applied Load (N)
Experimental Theoretical
2
4
6
8
10

Figure 6: Load on Vertical Member where

W3 located at c (CASE 3)
CASE 3: Load located at c on Vertical Member

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Distance c = _______________ mm

Table 3: Experimental Results when Load located at c on Vertical Member

Horizontal Trust (N)

Applied Load (N)
Experimental Theoretical
2
4
6
8
10

Figure 7: Load on Vertical Member (W1 located at a and W2 located at b) and

Horizontal Member (W3 located at c), CASE 4

CASE 4: Load located at a, b and c on Horizontal and Vertical Member

Distance a = ______________ mm
Distance b = ______________ mm
Distance c = ______________ mm

Table 3: Experimental Results when Load located at a, b and c

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Horizontal Trust (N)

Applied Load (N)
Experimental Theoretical
2
4
6
8
10

1. Draw the shape of the portal frame under test and give the important dimen-
sions. Indicate the position where the frame is loaded.
2. Using the data in the Tables 1 to 4, draw the graph of load verses reaction at
the roller support. Draw the best fit curve through the plotted points.
3. Choose a suitable load from the graph and compare with the calculated theor-
etical reactions.
4. In this present experimental, there are four (4) cases will be considered.

7.0 DISCUSSIONS/ANALYSIS

1. Analyze the frames using moment distribution or slope deflection methods.

Compare these results with those obtained experimentally.
2. From the experimental results obtained, state the relationship between ap-
plied load and the resulting horizontal reaction.
3. Comment on the accuracy of the experimental results when compared to the
theoretical value.
4. List the possible factors that affect the results of the experiment and suggest
some remedial measures.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

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LS11
PINNED ARCH

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Arch is one of the older forms of bridge with all the tensions replaced by
compressions. The main advantage an arch has over a beam is that it can carry a
much large load. Arches can be used to reduce the bending moments in long-span
structures. Since it rigid structures, it must also resist some bending and shear
depending upon how it is loaded and shaped. In particular, if the arch has a parabolic
shape and it is subjected to a uniform horizontally distributed vertical load, then from
the analysis of cables, it follows that only compressive forces will be resisted by the
arch. When an arch is loaded by gravity force, the pressure acts downwards on the
arch and has the effect of compressing it together instead of pulling it apart. The test
equipment used to determine the horizontal thrust of a pinned arch is shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1: Test Equipment

2.0 PRINCIPLES

Arch requires both horizontal and vertical reaction forces shows in Figure 1. This
horizontal reaction force also known as thrust which if it not properly restrained, can
cause the arch to collapse.

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Figure 2: Free body diagram of an arch

However, the arch that resist load in the compressive force may cause the arch
buckle. This is one of the disadvantages of arches that be subjected to the forces.
Therefore, the load case including to the arch analysis must involve stress, deflection
and buckling. Since the arch for this experiment is in indeterminate condition, the
flexibility method is one of the methods that are needed to determine the reaction
forces.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

The main purpose of the experiment is as follow:

1. To determine the horizontal thrust of a pinned arch under various loading con-
ditions. The results from the experimental work will be compared with the the-
oretical value.
2. To find the relationship between the loads and the horizontal reaction force in
a Two-Pinned Arch.
3. To prove that law of superposition can be applied in this experiment.

4.0 APPARATUS

1. A two-hinged arch model (see Figure 2).

2. Digital indicator.
3. Ruler
4. Weight hanger and various masses.

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Record the length, L and height, h of the arch and the loading applied.
2. Connect the load cell to the digital indicator
3. Switch on the indicator. For stability of the reading the indicator must
be switched on 10 minutes before taking readings.
4. If it is not zero press the tare button.

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5. Apply 2N vertical load (W) at point C and record the horizontal trust value
from digital indicator.
6. Increase the load gradually each time until maximum load and record the
readings into Table 2.
7. Repeat step 5 and 6 by applying incremental vertical loads at point E.

6.0 RESULTS

h = _________mm
L = _________mm

CASE1: Vertical load at C

a1 = _________mm
h1 = _________mm

Table 1: Loading position at point C.

HORIZONTAL THRUST FORCE, H

VERTICAL LOAD, W BALANCE LOAD, H EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
(N) (N) HORIZONTAL THRUST, HORIZONTAL THRUST,
H TEST = H (N) H THEORY (N)
2
4
6
8
10
12

CASE 2: Vertical load at E

a1 = _________mm
h1 = _________mm

Table 2: Loading position at point E.

HORIZONTAL THRUST FORCE, H

VERTICAL LOAD, W BALANCE LOAD, H EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
(N) (N) HORIZONTAL THRUST, HORIZONTAL THRUST,
H TEST = H (N) H THEORY (N)
2
4
6
8
10
12

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CASE 3: Vertical loads at C and E

Table 3: Loading position at point C and E.

VERTICAL LOAD, W HORIZONTAL THRUST FORCE, H

(N)
BALANCE LOAD, H
(N) EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
HORIZONTAL THRUST, HORIZONTAL THRUST,
C E H TEST = H (N) H THEORY (N)
2 2
4 4
6 6
8 8
10 10
12 12

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. Compare the test results of thrust value that is placed at increasing distances
from the support left with the equation as given below:

Where:
H = The horizontal thrust reaction at support B (N)
W = Load (N)
L = Span of the arch (m)
a = Load location distance is measured from the left-hand support (m)
h = The rise of arch (m)
2. Show some calculation examples of theoretical value, H theory, of arch hori-
zontal thrust for different loading location of W.
3. Plot the horizontal thrust, H versus vertical load, W for all the three cases.
Briefly, discuss the results.
4. Define the factors that effect the results and consequently what are the ne-
cessary preventive measures needed to improve the experimental results.
5. Draw the influence line diagram for H value, when one unit vertical load, W
moves from A to B. Give some comments on the results of the influence line.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

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LS12
REACTIONS AND FIXING MOMENTS OF A FIXED BEAM AND A
PROPPED CANTILEVER

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1: Continuous and indeterminate beams experiment

This guide describes how to set up and perform experiments related to

various beam problems, including statically determinate beams beam deflections,
continuous and indeterminate Beams. The equipment clearly demonstrates the
principles involved and gives practical support to your studies.

Figure 1 shows the Continuous and Indeterminate Beams experiment. The

equipment consists of a backboard with a dial indicator for measuring deflections
and a mechanism that measures beam end fixing moments. Three load cell piers
measure vertical beam reactions. Two of the load cells have variable height
knife-edges (which allow for sinking supports). The third has either a fixed
height knife-edge or a clamp to simulate an encastre beam condition.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

In this experiment we will use the equipment to investigate two beam

arrangements, shown in Figure 2:

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Figure 2: Beam arrangements set-up

The Continuous and Indeterminate Beams experiment fits into a Test Frame. Figure
2 shows the Continuous and Indeterminate Beams experiment in the Frame with a
load cell to bend the beams and a force display measure the force applied.

Before setting up and using the equipment, always:

1. Visually inspect all parts, including electrical leads, for damage or wear.
2. Check electrical connections are correct and secure.
3. Check all components are secure and fastenings are sufficiently tight.
4. Position the Test Frame safely. Make sure it is on a solid, level surface, is
steady, and easily accessible.
5. Never apply excessive loads to any part of the equipment

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the fix moment value for the fixed and propped cantilever beam.

4.0 APPARATUS

You will need the following equipment to perform this experiment:

1. The backboard unit set up in the Test Frame

2. The knife-edge and encastre fixing, load cell support
3. A Digital Forcemeter with leads
4. The thin “flexible” beam
5. A set of weights, weight hanger and a knife-edge hanger.

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Figure 3: Continuous and Indeterminate

Beams Experiment in the Structures Frame

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Put the load cell support onto the test frame and slide it to the 400 mm posi-
tion. Fix it securely with two screws on the front only. Remove the top clamp
plate from the load cell leaving the bottom plate in position.

2. Leaving the screw loose, using the hole at one end secure the beam to
the moment chuck on the backboard. Undo the moment arm locking
screw to allow the beam to rest fully on the load cell. Clamp the beam in the
load cell evenly and squarely with the two screws and the clamping plate.
Tighten the chuck screw and finally the moment arm locking screw.
3. Connect the moment arm to input 1 and the load cell to input 2 on the
digital force display. Select each reading in turn and use the relevant control
to zero the readings on the digital force display.

4. The equipment is now set up as a fixed beam. The left-hand end is set to
measure the fixing moment and the right-hand end is set to measure
the support reaction.

5. Apply a mass of 500 g to the beam 40 mm from the left-hand end. Take read-
ings of the moment arm force and support reaction force. Record the values
in Table 5 and repeat in 40 mm increments across the span of the beam.
Calculate the moment MA from the moment arm force. The moment arm
length is printed on the backboard.

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6. Release the moment arm clamp screw and undo the clamp screws on
the load cell support. Remove both clamp plates from the load cell
support to expose the knife-edge. Rest the beam back onto the knife-
edge and tighten the moment arm clamp screw. Rezero both the moment
arm and the load cell support using the set zero control. The equipment is
now set as a propped cantilever.

7. Repeat the experimental procedure used on the fixed beam for

propped cantilever. Record the results in Table 6. For both sets of results plot
fixing moment and vertical reaction versus position along the beam.

8. Calculate theoretical values of all the moments and reactions using the equa-
tions in Figure 5.

9. Comment on the accuracy of your results. Are the equations that describe
the support reactions derived from static equilibrium? If not why? Find a
method to derive the equations for the beam. Compare the fixing moments
and theoretical deflections for the propped cantilever and the fixed beams.
Give advantages and disadvantages for using a fixed beam or a propped can-
tilever for a simple bridge.

6.0 RESULTS

Table 1: Results for Experiment 2 (fixed beam)

Distance A (mm) Load W (N) Moment arm Force (N) MA (N) RB (N)

40 4.9

80 4.9

120 4.9

160 4.9

200 4.9

240 4.9

280 4.9

320 4.9

360 4.9

Table 2: Results for Experiment 2(Propped Cantilever)

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Distance A (mm) Load W (N) Moment arm Force (N) MA (N) RB (N)

40 4.9

80 4.9

120 4.9

160 4.9

200 4.9

240 4.9

280 4.9

320 4.9

360 4.9

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. What is the relationship between the experimental and theoretical values ob-
tained?
2. If it is needed to draw load versus MA and RB, explain how the experiment
procedure will be changed and explain how to obtained critical load from the
graph?
3. What are the precautions that should be taken in this experiment to ensure its
accuracy?

8.0 CONCLUSIONS

Refer to the objective.

9.0 REFERENCES/APPENDICES

1. Text book, reference books from the library or electronic references from the
internet.
2. Related photo or plate due to the experiment.

LS 13
SUSUPENSION BRIDGE AND CABLE
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10.0 INTRODUCTION

The Suspension Bridge is designed to be used in conjunction with the Universal

Structural Testing Frame. The apparatus enables the demonstration of the behaviour
of a typical suspension bridge, as it would be found in reality. The apparatus has the
following features:
- Double suspension cable with connecting rods.
- Centre joint to illustrate the bending moment in the bridge roadway.
- Various loading cases are possible, such as single load, moving load or distributed
load.
- Loading by means of weights applied on the bridge roadway.
- Measurement of the forces on the suspension cable by means of counter-weights.

11.0 PRINCIPLES

The suspension bridges belong to the old bridge architecture. The carrying compon-
ent is a hanging cable. Construction of suspension bridges with large span is pos-
sible by using cables, since light-weight cables can take large tensile loads. The
bridges with large spans are not exceptional suspension bridges. This concept made
it possible to bridge the ravines (valleys), wide rivers and straits without supporting
piles (buttress). The cable is susceptible to bending (hanging) and can take only
tensile loads. The cable loaded with a uniformly distributed load serves as model for
a suspension bridge.

The curvature of the cable is calculated from the following relation:

FH here is unknown horizontal force in the cable. Integrating twice and substituting
the boundary conditions, a relation for hanging is obtained,

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The term f is the maximum sag in the middle of the cable and L is the span. The
maximum cable tension is found at the position of the maximum slope, which is at the
edge. It results from the vector addition of the horizontal and vertical forces. The ver-
tical force is calculated in terms of the slope as follows:

Where results in for the maximum cable tension:

Or,

for the total load F = qL

12.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the behaviour of a typical suspension bridge, as it would be found in

reality.

13.0 APPARATUS

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The apparatus comprise of:

1. Suspension cable
2. Bridge roadway with centre joint
3. Connecting rods with various lengths
4. Fixed bearing on pulley
5. Support bearings with force gauge 0-40N
6. Weights hanger
7. A set of weights

14.0 PROCEDURES

1. Clamp the two fixed bearing (4) with the pulleys on the vertical sides of the
testing frame at 80mm distance from the top side.
2. Hang the two suspension cables (1) on the pulleys and hook the 4 weight
hangers (6) to them, each loaded with 5N weight.
3. Hang the 12 connecting rods (3) according to their lengths in the rings of the
suspension cable. The short connecting rods are in the middle.
4. Insert the bridge roadway (2) in the connecting rods where cross ends of the
rods sit in the cross grooves of the roadway.
5. Load the bridge roadway with three 5N-weights (two at the ends and one in
the middle).
6. Add weights with 1N step to the weight hangers at the end of the suspension
cables until the two parts of the bridge roadway become aligned horizontally.
This will be achieved when a total of approximately 2 x 7N are on each side.

15.0 RESULTS

A comparison with the theory it is found that:

Own Weight = ____________________N

Loading = ____________________N

Total Loading = ____________________N

16.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

17.0 CONCLUSION

Refer to the objective.

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HIGHWAY
&
TRAFFIC
LABORATORY

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HT01
LA ABRASION TEST

Reference Standard: ASTM C131

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The test is done in accordance with ASTM C131. The Los Angeles abrasion test is a
measure of degradation of mineral aggregates of standard grading resulting from a
combination of action including abrasion and grinding in a rotating steel drum
containing a specified number of steel spheres. The number steel charges depend
upon the amount and grading of the test sample. As the drum rotates, a self plate
picks up the sample and the steel spheres, carrying them until they are dropped to
the opposite site of the drum creating an impact crushing effect. The contents then
roll within the drum with an abrading and grinding action until the self plate impacts
and the cycle is repeated. After the prescribed number of revolutions, the contents
are removed from the drum and the aggregate portion is sieved to measure the
degradation as percent loss.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

The objective of the test is to obtain the Los Angeles number in the form of percent-
age wear of aggregates which reflects their resistance to degradation using the Los
Angeles testing machine.

3.0 THEORY

The Los Angeles test has been widely used as an indicator of the relative quality or
competence of various sources of aggregate having similar mineral compositions.
Specifications limit based on this test should be assigned with extreme care taking
into consideration the aggregate type and their performance history in specific end
uses. D.F Orchard suggests the following specifications using the LA value:-

a) The LA value should be equal to or less than 40% if aggregate is to

be used in concrete. For concrete wearing course lower values
should be specified.
b) The LA value should be equal to or less than 45% for road base
materials in lightly trafficked road.

The JKR Specification gives the following limits:-

a) Aggregate for use in concrete – maximum is 50%
b) Aggregate for use in bituminous road surfacing – maximum is 40%

The test is an important tool to measure the hardness of aggregates that are
recommended for use in highway projects. The test also will determine the quality of
the aggregate. The soft aggregates will be quickly ground to dust, whilst the hard
aggregates are quite resistant to crushing effect

4.0 APPARATUS

The apparatus used in this test consists of :-

iii) Los Angeles Abrasion machine
iv) Metal tray

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v) Sieves sizes: 19mm, 12.5mm, 9.5mm, 1.7mm and pan

vi) Sieve shaker
vii) Balance (accurate to 0.01g)

5.0 PROCEDURE

a) Sample Preparation

Approximately 5000g of aggregates including 2500 ± 10g of 19mm to 12.5mm, and

2500 ± 10g of 12.5mm to 9.5mm sizes are used in this test. Note that this is for ag-
gregates graded mainly between 20mm and 10mm size. Sample requirement of
other aggregate gradations such as 40mm to10mm, 10mm to 5mm, and 5mm to
2.5mm are given in the ASTM and CSA standards.

b) Test Procedure
i) The sample is washed and dried and later the weight is obtained.
ii) he sample is placed in L. A. Abrasion Machine.
iii) 11 steel balls are added in the machine.
iv) The drum is rotated for about 500 revolutions at 30 to 33 rpm.
v) After being rotated, the sample is removed from the drum and is sieved
on no. 12 sieve. Later the sample that is retained on the sieve is washed
and dried at the temperature of 105 to 110°C. The weight of the sample is
taken after the sample is cooling down.

6.0 RESULT

i. Calculation:
Percent wear (%) = weight loss x 100
Initial weight
ii. Table of calculation

Weight of Sample (g)

Aggregate Size (mm) Loss (g)
Before After
14 – 12.5
12.5 - 9.5

7.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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HT02
AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

Reference Standard: BS 812:Part 3, ASTM (1998). Millard, R.S (1993)

1.0 BACKGROUND

When a road aggregate has been manufactured to a specified grading it is

stockpiled, loaded into trucks, transported, tipped, spread and compacted. If the
aggregate is weak some degradation may take place and result in a change in
grading and/or the production of excessive and undesirable fines. Thus an aggregate
complying with a specification at the quarry may fail to do so when it is in the
pavement.

Granular base layers and surfacing are subjected to repeated loadings from truck
tires and the stress at the contact points of aggregates particles can be quite high.
These crushing tests can reveal aggregates properties subject to mechanical
degradation of this form.

Quarry plants such as crushers, screens, conveyors, etc are all subjected to wear
and these crushing tests can indicate the magnitude of the problem for design
purposes.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This test is done in accordance with BS 812: Part 3. The aggregate crushing value
gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradu-
ally applied compressive load. With aggregate of an aggregate crushing value higher
than 30, the result may be anomalous and in such cases the 10% finest value should
be determined instead.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to determine the mechanical strength of the

aggregate.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Open ended steel cylinder of nominal 150mm internal diameter with

plunger and base plate.
ii) A tamping rod with a 16mm diameter and 600mm long.
iii) Balance of 3kg minimum capacity
iv) British Standard sieves of Sizes 14.0mm, 10.0 mm and 2.36 mm Beaker
v) Compression testing machine which is capable of applying force of
400kN.
vi) Cylindrical metal measures for measuring the sample.

5.0 PROCEDURE

i) Samples are filled in thirds into the cylinder where each third is subjected
to 25 blows from the tamping rod.
ii) The surface of the cylinder is leveled and the plunger is inserted.

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iii) Sample is placed between the platens of the testing machine and is
loaded in a uniform rate so that the required 400 kN is reached in 10 min-
utes.
iv) The load is then released and the crushed material is removed.
v) The removed material is sieved on the 2.36 mm sieves and the weight of
the fraction passing the sieve is taken.

6.0 RESULT

Percent Wear = Weight Loss x 100 %

Initial Weight
Aggregate size Weight Weight Weight passing
Sample No.
(mm) before (g) after (g) 2.36mm sieve(g)

A 14 - 10

B 14 -10

Average 14 - 10

7.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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HT03
TEN PERCENT FINES

Reference Standard: MS 30:1971, D.F ORCHAD, Concrete Technology Vol. 2.

1.0 BACKGROUND

When a road aggregate has been manufactured to a specified grading it is

stockpiled, loaded into trucks, transported, tipped, spread and compacted. If the
aggregate is weak some degradation may take place and result in a change in
grading and/or the production of excessive and undesirable fines. Thus an aggregate
complying with a specification at the quarry may fail to do so when it is in the
pavement.

Granular base layers and surfacing are subjected to repeated loadings from truck
tires and the stress at the contact points of aggregates particles can be quite high.
These crushing tests can reveal aggregates properties subject to mechanical
degradation of this form.

Quarry plants such as crushers, screens, conveyors, etc are all subjected to wear
and these crushing tests can indicate the magnitude of the problem for design
purposes.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The ten percent fines value gives a measure of the resistance of an aggregate crush-
ing which is applicable to both weak and strong aggregate. The values of ten percent
fines are the load measured in unit KN or TONNE that imposed to the aggregate
crushing in order to obtain the percentage passing the sieve BS No. 7 (2.40mm)
within 7.5% to 12.5%.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to identify the resistance of an aggregate crushing

with corresponding to compressive load.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) An opened ended steel cylinder with plunger and base plate.

ii) A tamping rod.
iii) A balance of 3 kg minimum capacity.
iv) British Standard 410 test sieves of sizes 14.0min, 10.0min and 23.6mm
v) A compression testing machine with the force applied varied from 5kN to
500kN.
vi) A cylindrical metal measured for measuring the sample.

5.0 PROCEDURE

i) Samples are filled in thirds into the cylinder and each third is subjected 25
blows of tamping rod released at 50mm above the surface of aggregate.
ii) The surface of the aggregate is leveled and plunger is inserted.
iii) The apparatus with the test sample is placed between the platens of the
testing machine and loaded in an uniform rate for 10 minutes to cause a
penetration of ;

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a) 15 mm for rounded or partially rounded aggregates;

b) 20 mm for normal crushed aggregates;
c) 24 min for honeycombed aggregates
iv) The maximum force applied to produce the required penetration is
recorded.
v) Release the force and then the crushed material in the cylinder is re-
moved into a tray.
vi) The removed material is sieved through the 2.36 mm sieve and the weight
of the fraction passed the sieve is taken.

6.0 RESULT

Force required to produce 10% fines = [14x / (y + 4)]

Where:
x = is the maximum force (KN)
y = is the mean percentage fines from two tests at x KN force

Aggregate size Weight Weight Weight passing

Sample No
(mm) before (g) after (g) 2.36mm sieve (g)
A
B
Average

7.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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HT04
SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN (RING & BALL)

Reference Standard: ASTM (1998).ASTM D36-95, Millard, R.S (1993)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Unlike some substances for example water which changes from solid to liquid at 0C
bituminous materials do not have a definite melting point. Instead, as the temperature
rises these materials slowly changes from brittle or very thick and slow flowing
materials to softer and less viscous liquids. For this reason the determination of
softening point must be made by affixed, arbitrary and closely defined method if
results are to be comparable.

Being very simple in concept and equipment the ring and ball has remained a
valuable consistency test for control in refining operations particularly in the
production of air blown bitumen. It is also an indirect measure of viscosity or rather
the temperature at which the given viscosity is evident The softening point value has
particular significance for materials which are to be used as thick films such as joint
and crack fillers and roofing material. A high softening point ensures that they will not
flow in service. For bitumen of a given penetration determined at 25C the higher the
softening point the lower the temperature sensitivity.

2.0 SUMMARY OF TEST METHOD (ASTM 1998)

Two horizontal disks of bitumen cast in shouldered brass ring are heated at a con-
trolled rate in liquid bath each supports a steel ball. The softening point is reported as
the mean of the temperature at which the two disks soften enough to allow each ball
enveloped in bitumen to fall a distance of 25mm.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of the experiment is to determine the temperature at which a given

bitumen reaches a certain degrees of softness.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Steel ball of diameter 9.53mm and weighing 0.05g

ii) Tapered ring made of brass and conforming to the standard BSI
iii) Ball guide and Ring holder
iv) Thermometer
v) Beaker
vi) Burner

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) Bitumen is melted and pour the liquid into a pair of ring placed on plate.
Thermometer is place in the center of ring holder leveled with the bottom
of the ring.
ii) After specimen has cool ring is suspended in the distilled water in the
bath/beaker at 5C  2C. Bath temperature is maintained at that temper-
ature for 15 minutes.
iii) The steel balls are put on the surface of the bitumen in the ring.
iv) Bath liquid is stirred and heated to 5C  2C per minutes.

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v) Temperature is noted just after the ball is passed and dropped into the
base plate.

6.0 RESULT

Record the temperature indicated by the thermometer at the beginning of the heating
and at the end of each 1 minute interval.

Timer Temperature Timer Temperature(C)

reading(mins) (C) reading(mins)
0 8
1 9
2 10
3 11
4 12
5 13
6 14
7 15

The mean temperature of the two specimens (which shall not differ by more than1C)
is recorded as the softening point.

Number of Test Softening Point(C)

1.0 1
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
2
Average

HT05
PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

Reference Standard: ASTM (1998).ASTM D5-97, Millard, R.S (1993)

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

This is the most widely used method of measuring the consistency of a bituminous
material at a given temperature. It is a means of classification rather than a measure
of quality. The engineering term consistency is an empirical measure of the
resistance offered by a fluid to continuous deformation when it is subjected to
shearing stress.

The consistency is a function of the chemical constituents of bitumen, viz the relative
proportions of asphaltenes (high molecular weight, responsible for strength and
stiffness), resins (responsible for adhesion and ductility) and oils (low molecular
weight, responsible for viscosity and fluidity). The type and amount of these
constituents are determined by the source petroleum and the method of processing
at the refinery.

Penetration is related to viscosity and empirical relationships have been developed

for Newtonian materials. If penetration is measured over a range of temperatures, the
temperature susceptibility of the bitumen can be established.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The penetration of a bitumen is defined as the distance (in 1/10mm) to which a stan-
dard needle penetrates the material under known conditions of time, loading and
temperature. The load use is 100g which is applied vertically to the bitumen speci-
men for 5 seconds at a temperature of 25C.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of the experiment is to determine the hardness and consistency of

bitumen before it may be applied on the road

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Penetration Needle
ii) Water Bath
iii) Penetration Container
iv) Asphalt Sample
v) Thermometers
vi) Penetrometer

5.0 PROCEDURE

The penetration apparatus is specified in many standards throughout the world but
has always the same basic requirements as ASTM D5.

i) Specimens are prepared in sample containers as specified (ASTM D5-97)

and placed in a water bath at the prescribed temperature of test for 1 to
1.5 hours before the test.
ii) For normal test the precisely dimensioned needle, loaded to 100  0.05g,
is brought to the surface of the specimens at right angles, allowed to pen-
etrate the bitumen for 5  0.1s, while the temperature of the specimens is
maintained at 25  0.1 C. The penetration measured in tenths of a mil-
limeter (deci-milimeter, dmm).

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iii) Make at least three determinations on the specimen. A clean needle is

used for each determinations start each with the tip of the needle at least
10mm apart.

6.0 RESULT

Table of Penetration

Penetration(mm)
Sample
1 2 3 Average

(Note: Grade of Bitumen 40/50, 60/70, 80/100, 120/150 and 200/300)

7.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

HT06
MARSHALL MIX DESIGN (ASTM OR BS)

Reference Standard:

1.0 INTRODUCTION
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Before any asphalt mixes can be placed and laid on the road, the aggregate and the
binder types are generally screened for quality and requirement. Approximately 15
samples are required Optimum Asphalt Content (OAC). The prepared samples are to
be analyzed for bulk density, air void and stability. By using the Asphalt Institute
Method, the Optimum Asphalt Content are determined from the individual plots of
bulk density, voids in total mix and stability versus percent asphalt content. The
average of the 3 OAC values is taken for further sample preparation and analysis.

2.0 THEORY

Some of the requirements of an asphalt concrete paving mix are:

i) Stability
ii) Durability
iii) Flexibility
iv) Fatigue resistance : Thick Layers; Thin Layers
v) Fracture Strength : Overload Conditions; Thermal Conditions
vi) Skid resistance
vii) Impermeability
viii) Workability

All these properties are governed to some extent by binder type and content, degree
of compaction, aggregate gradation, and shape. It is clearly impossible for one single
test to cover all these factors but the Marshall Test gives the engineer considerable
help. The complete test reveals:
i) Stability
ii) Flow
iii) Density
iv) Voids in Total Mix (VTM)
v) Voids in the Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
vi) Voids filled with Binder (VFB)
vii) Resilient Modulus (MR)

These parameters plotted against binder content enable optimum to be obtained for
specific applications of the asphalt concrete or provide guidance for a change in the
aggregate composition.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To prepare standard specimens of asphalt concrete for the determination of stability

and flow in the Marshall apparatus and to determine density, percentage air voids
and percentage of aggregate voids filled with binder.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Marshall compactor
ii) Mixer
iii) Water Bath
iv) Marshall Compression Machine
v) Marshall Mould
vi) Sieve Shaker
vii) Oven

5.0 PROCEDURE

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i) The aggregate (about 1200g), graded according to the ASTM or BS stan-

dard are over dried at 170 – 180 0C (not more than 2800C ) for at least 4
hours.
ii) The required quantity of asphalt is weighed out and heated to a tempera-
ture of about 160 - 165 0C for at least 4 hours.
iii) The thoroughly cleaned mould is heated on a hot plate or in an oven to a
temperature 140 - 170 0C. The mould is 101.6mm diameter by 76.2mm
high and provided with a base plate and extension collar.
iv) A crater is formed in the aggregate, the binder poured in and mixing car-
ried out until all the aggregate is coated. The mixing temperature shall be
within the limit set for the binder temperature.
v) A piece of filter paper is fitted in the bottom of the mould and the whole
mix poured in three layers. The mix is then vigorously trowel 15 times
round the perimeter and 10 times in the center leaving a slightly rounded
surface.
vi) The mould is placed on the Marshall Compactor and given 50 blows.
vii) The specimen is then carefully removed from the mould and then marked.
Also the specimen is measured and weighed in air, water and saturated
surface dry (SSD).

6.0 TESTING

A few testing will be carried out for the asphalt mix, which includes:
a) Density and Void Analysis (ASTM D2726)
b) Resilient Modulus Test (ASTM D 4123)
c) Marshall Stability and Flow Test (ASTM D 1559)

6.1 DENSITY AND VOID ANALYSIS (ASTM D2726)

a) Bulk Density
If the specimen has a smooth compact surface, i.e. fairly impermeable, bulk density
is simply determined by weighing in air and water. Then:

Bulk Density, d = Gmb x w

Gmb = [ WD / (WSSD – WSUB) ]
Where,
d = Bulk density (g/cm3)
Gmb = Bulk Specific Gravity of the mix
w = density of water (= 1 g/cm3)
WD = mass of specimen in air (g)
WSUB = mass of specimen in water (g)
WSSD = surface dry mass (g)
b) Voids in Total Mix (VTM)
The percentage of air voids in the mix is determined by firstly calculating the
maximum theoretical density TMD (zero voids) and then expressing the difference
between it and the actual bulk density d as a percentage of total volume.

VTM = [1-(d/TMD)] x 100

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TMD = Gmm x w
Gmm = {1/[((1-Pb)/Gse) + Pb/Gb]}
Where,
d = bulk density
w = density of water (= 1g/cm3)
Gmm = maximum theoretical Specific Gravity of the mix
TMD = maximum theoretical density (g/cm3)
Pb = asphalt content, percent by weight of the mix
Gse = effective specific gravity of the mix
Gb = Specific Gravity of asphalt cement

c) Voids in the Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

The volume of void in mineral aggregate VMA is an important factor for the mixture
design.

VMA = 100 x {1 – [ Gmb (1 – Pb ) / Gsb ] }

Where,
Gmb = bulk Specific Gravity of the mix
Pb = asphalt content, percent by weight of the mix
Gsb = bulk specific gravity of the aggregate

d) Voids filled with Asphalt (VFA)

VFA = [(VMA – VTM) / VMA] x 100
*these calculations involve the manipulation of small differences so great precision is
needed for accurate results.

7.0 RESULT

Sample Binder Weight in (g) Bulk TMD VTM VMA VFA

(%) air water SSD Density (g/mm) (%) (%) (%)
(g/mm)

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1
2 4.5
3
Average
1
2 5.0
3
Average
1
2 5.5
3
Average
1
2 6.0
3
Average
1
2 6.5
3
Average

8.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

HT07
TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY ( UCC/ MCC )

1.0 INTRODUCTION

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Traffic count is done manually by recording each observed vehicles with a tick mark
on a prepared field form or use a multiple gang tally counter to ease the job. Counts
are usually samples of actual volumes although continuous counting is sometimes
performed for certain circumstances. Stopwatch is used to cue the observer (enu-
merator) to the desired count interval, and re-set the counter at the start of each in-
terval. The raw counts are tallied and summarized. Thus the number of vehicles
passing at the references (station) point in a unit time is the flow and commonly re-
ferred to traffic volumes in vehicles per hour.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this study are:-

i. To determine the vehicles composition in the traffic flow stream.
ii. To observe the traffic flow trend and movement pattern
iii. To determine peak hour volume and peak hour factor (if survey is done during
peak hour).

3.0 APPARATUS

i. Stop watch
ii. Clip board and field data form
iii. Safety Vest

4.0 PROCEDURE

i. Select and sketch the layout of the study area with census station numbered for
each junction arm. The census station must be a strategic location( safe for
the enumerator)
ii. Each numerator concentrates on one approach arm, each lane and one direc-
tion of flow (refer field data sheet).
iii. Count and classified vehicles using the field data sheet provided. Record at 15
minutes interval in the field data sheet.

5.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

Data from field work must be verify and check for its accuracy before further
analyzing is done. The results of the study may be presented in the following format:-

i. In a summary traffic flow tables

ii. Pie chart to show proportions of volumes by types of vehicles
iii. Histogram to illustrate traffic volume over time
iv. Intersection flow diagram which gives the direction and volume of all
movements.

6.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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SOIL MECHANIC
&
GEOTECHNIC
LABORATORY

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SG01
MOISTURE CONTENT/ PLASTIC LIMIT/ LIQUID LIMIT (ATTERBERG
LIMITS)

Reference Standard: BS1377: Part 2:1990 and BS1377:Part2:1990:5.3; ASTM

D4318 and BS 1377: Part 2: 1990:4.3; ASTM D427

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Simple classification tests have been devised which are used to sort soil into types
and provide a simple, but crude, indication of their engineering properties such as
permeability, strength and compressibility. Further classification within fine-grained
soils (i.e. CLAY that passes #200 sieve) is done based on soil plasticity. Consistency
varies with the water content of the soil. The consistency of a soil can range from
(dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid (wet). The water contents at which the
consistency changes from one state to the next are called consistency limits (or
Atterberg limits).

Figure 1 Moisture content versus volume relation

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2.0 PRINCIPLES

Fine grained soil can exist in any several states; which state depends on the amount
of water in the soil system. When water is added to dry soil, each particle is covered
with a film of adsorbed water. If the addition of water is continued, the thickness of
the water film on a particle increases. Increasing the thickness of water films permits
the particle to slide past one another easily. Recent research has suggested that
these several states are related to the strength of the soil.

Atterberg define the boundaries of states in term of limits, such as:

i) Liquid limit (LL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid

ii) Plastic limit (PL) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic
iii) Plasticity Index (PI) - The range of water content over which a soil has
a plastic consistency
iv) Shrinkage Limit (SL) – Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost

Figure 2: Consistency of fine-grained soil varies in proportion to the water content

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) To obtain basic index information about the soil used to estimate strength
and settlement characteristics as Plasticity Index, Plastic limit, Liquid limit
and Shrinkage Limit

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LIQUID LIMIT TEST (CONE PENETROMETER METHOD)

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Cone penetrometer
ii) Flat glass plate
iii) Metal cups
iv) Spatula
v) Moisture content tins
vi) Distilled water

Figure 3: Semi Automated Cone Penetrometer

5.0 PROCEDURE

i) Check the apparatus so that:

i) Mass of falling cone assembly to  0.1 g.
j) Stem falls freely when released.
k) Tip of cone can be felt through gauge when brushed with finger.
ii) Mix the soil (paste with the spatulas for at least 10 minutes, distilled water
must be added in successive stages to give a cone penetration of about
15 mm and mix well in. Note: Thorough mixing and kneading is the most
important feature of the test and must never be overlooked.
iii) Press the soil paste against the side of the cup, to avoid trapping air.
Press more paste well into the bottom of the cup, without an air pocket.
The small spatula is convenient for these operations. The top surface is fi-
nally smoothed off level with the rim using the straight edge.
iv) Adjust the tip of the cone with a few millimeters of the surface of the soil in
the cup. Hold the cone, press the release button and adjust the height of
the cone so that the tip just touches the soil surface.

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v) Lower the stem of the dial gauge to make contact with the top of the cone
shaft. Record the reading of the dial gauge to the nearest 0.1 mm (R 1). Al-
ternatively if the pointer is mounted on a friction sleeve, adjust the pointer
to read zero (i.e. R1 = 0).
vi) Set the timer to 5s, and then press the button and release it immediately.
Automatic re-locking of the stem is indicated by a click. The apparatus
must remain steady and must not be jerked.
vii) Record the dial reading to the nearest 0.1 mm (R 2). Record the difference
between R1 and R2 as the cone penetration. If the pointer was initially set
to read zero, the reading R2 gives the cone penetration directly.
viii) Lift out the cone and clean it carefully. Avoid touching the sliding stem.
Add a little more wet soil to the cup, without entrapping air, smooth off and
repeat procedure (5), (6) and (7).
ix) Two consecutive penetrations should be within 0.5mm or three within
1mm.
x) Take a moisture content sample of about 10 g from the area penetrated
by the cone, using the tip of a small spatula. Placed in a numbered mois-
ture content container, which is weighed, oven dried and weighed as in
the standard moisture content procedure in experiment 1.
xi) The soil remaining in the cup is remixed with the rest of the sample on the
glass plate together with a little more distilled water, until a uniform softer
consistency is obtained.
xii) Penetration range of the soil sample should be within 15 – 25 mm. Repeat
the procedure (3) – (10) with different volume of water to get at least 4
points evenly spaced.
xiii) The moisture content of the soil from each penetration reading is calcu-
lated from the wet and dry weightings as in the moisture content test.
Each cone penetration (mm) is plotted as ordinate, against the corre-
sponding moisture content (%) as abscissa, both to linear scales. The
best straight line fitting these points is drawn.
xiv) From the graph, the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration
of 20 mm is read off to the nearest 0.1%. The result is reported to the
nearest whole number as the liquid limit (cone test).

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PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

6.0 APPARATUS

i) Glass plate
ii) A separate glass plate for rolling of threads
iii) Spatulas
iv) Moisture content apparatus

Figure 4: Plastic Limit Apparatus

7.0 PROCEDURE

i) Take about 20 g of the prepared soil paste and spread it on glass mixing
plate so that it can partially dry. Mix occasionally to avoid local drying out.
ii) When the soil is plastic enough, it is well kneaded and then shaped into a
ball. Mould the ball between the fingers and roll between the palms of the
hands so that the warmth of the hands slowly dries it.
iii) When slight cracks begin to appear on the surface, divide the ball into two
portions each of about 10 g. Further divide each into four equal parts, but
keep each set of four parts together.
iv) One of the parts is kneaded by the fingers to equalize the distribution of
moisture, and then formed into a thread about 6 mm diameter, using the
first finger and thumb of each hand.
v) Roll the thread between the fingers of one hand and the surface of the
glass plate by uniform pressure. The pressure should reduce the diameter
of the thread from 6 mm to about 3 mm after between five and ten back-
and-forth movements of the hand. Note: It is important to maintain a uni-
form rolling pressure throughout; do not reduce pressure as the thread
approaches 3 mm diameter.
vi) Dry the soil further by moulding between the fingers again, not by contin-
ued rolling which gives a dried crust. From it into a thread and roll out
again as before, repeat this procedure until the thread crumbles when it
has been rolled to 3 mm diameter.
vii) Crumbling of the thread include falling apart in small pieces; breaking into
a number of short pieces tapered towards the ends; longitudinal splitting
from the ends towards the middle and then falling apart. Note: Crumbling
must be the result of the decreasing moisture content only, and not due to
mechanical breakdown caused by excessive pressure, or oblique rolling
or detachment of an excessive length beyond the width of the hand).

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viii) As soon as the crumbling stage is reached, gather the crumbled threads
and place them into a weighed moisture content container. Replace the lid
immediately.
ix) Repeat procedure (4) – (8) for the other pieces of soil, and place in the
same container. Weigh the container and soil as soon as possible, dry in
the oven overnight, cool and weigh dry, as in the standard moisture con-
tent procedure.
x) Repeat procedure (4) – (9) on the other set of four portions of the soil, us -
ing a second moisture content container.
xi) Calculate the moisture content of the soil in each of the two containers.
Take the average of the two results. If they differ by more than 0.5% mois-
ture content, the test should be repeated.
xii) The average moisture content referred to above is expressed to the near-
est whole number and reported as the plastic limit (PL) of the soil. The
method of preparation of the soil is reported, and so is the percentage of
material passing the 425 m sieve if it was sieved. The result is usually
reported on the same sheet as the liquid limit test.
xiii) The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit is calculated to
give the plasticity index (PI) of the soil:

PI = LL – PL

xiv) This value is also reported to the nearest whole number. If it is not possi-
ble to perform the plastic limit test, the soil is reported as non-plastic (NP).
This also applies if the plastic limit is equal to or greater than the liquid
limit: the latter can occur in some soils with a high mica content (Tubey
and Webster, 1978).

SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST

8.0 APPARATUS

i) Palette knife
ii) A separate glass plate for rolling of threads
iii) Spatulas
iv) Evaporating dish
v) Brass mould
vi) Silicone grease or petroleum jelly
vii) Drying oven
viii) Distilled water

9.0 PROCEDURES

i) Place a sample of about 150g from the material passing through the
425m test sieve, obtained as specified, on the glass plate or in the evap-
orating dish. Alternatively take a sample of natural soil from which coarse
particles have been removed and thoroughly mix it with distilled water in
the evaporating dish to make a readily workable paste.
ii) Add distilled water if necessary and mix thoroughly using the palette
knives until the mass become a smooth liquid limit of the soil. Note: The
required consistency will give a cone penetration of about 20 mm in the
cone penetrometer.

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iii) Place the soil/water mixture in the mould such that it is slightly proud of
the sides of the mould. Gently jar the mould to remove any air pockets in
the mixture.
iv) Level the soil along the top of the mould with the palette knife and remove
all soil adhering to the rim of the mould by wiping with damp cloth.
v) Place the mould where the soil/water can air dry slowly in the position free
from draughts until the soil has shrunk away from the walls of the mould.
Then complete the drying, first at a temperature not exceeding 65 0C until
shrinkage has largely ceased, and then at 105 0C to 100 0C to complete
drying.
vi) Cool the mould and the soil and measure the mean length of the soil bar.
If the specimen has become curved during drying, remove it carefully from
the mould and measure the lengths of the top and bottom surfaces. The
mean of these two lengths shall be taken as the length of the oven dry
specimen. Note: Should a specimen crack badly, or break, such that mea-
surement is difficult, the test should be repeated at a slower drying rate.

10.0 RESULT

i) Plot the moisture content versus penetration and determine the LL, PL
ii) Calculate the PI using formula
iii) Calculate the linear shrinkage of the soil

(1 – LD/L0) x 100

Where LD – the length of the oven dried specimen (mm)

11.0 DISCUSSION

i) What are the importance of these tests?

ii) Comment on the soil based on the result of your findings
iii) How do we classify non cohesive soil?

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ATTERBERG LIMITS TEST RESULTS

Soil description:
Sample type: Date started:

LIQUID LIMIT

1 2 3
Test number
Cone penetration mm
Average penetration mm
Container no.
Wet soil & container g
Dry soil & container g
Container g
Dry soil g
Moisture loss g
MOISTURE CONTENT %

PLASTIC LIMIT

1 2 3 Average
Test number
Container no.
Wet soil & container g
Dry soil & container g
Container g
Dry soil g
Moisture loss g
MOISTURE CONTENT g

SHRINKAGE LIMIT

Specimen reference

% passing 425m sieve

Initial length, L0 (mm)

Oven-dried length , LD (mm)

Linear shrinkage

(1 – LD/L0) x 100 %

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SG02
STANDARD PROCTOR TEST

Reference Standard: BS 1377:1975, Test 14; ASTM D 698; AASHTO T 99

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil compaction can be a very economical method of soil improvement, and it is often
used to make ground suitable for the foundations of roads and buildings. It is also
used in the placing of soil fills and in the construction of earth dams to ensure
suitable soil properties. The compaction is normally achieved through the input of
energy into the soil by impact, kneading, vibration or static means. Compaction is a
process that brings about an increase in soil density or unit weight, accompanied by
a decrease in air volume. There is usually no change in water content. The degree of
compaction is measured by dry unit weight and depends on the water content and
compactive effort. For a given compactive effort, the maximum dry unit weight occurs
at optimum water content.

Figure 1 Dry density-moisture content relationship for soil

2.0 PRINCIPLES

When soil is compacted usually by mechanical means, the solid particles are packed
more closely together, thus increasing the soil density while air is being removed.
The size of the individual soil particles does not change, neither is water removed. If
the percentage of air voids is zero, that is, the soil is totally saturated. Increasing the
water content for a saturated soil results in a reduction in dry unit weight. The relation
between the moisture content and dry unit weight for saturated soil is known as the
zero air voids line.

Figure 2: Soil solid particles are packed more closely together when compacted

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3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) To determine the relationship between the dry unit weight and the mois-
ture content using the standard rammer in Proctor method.

ii) To determine the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content
of a given soil

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Standard compaction mold (with base plate and collar)

ii) Standard compaction hammer (24.5)
iii) 10 to 12 moisture content cans
iv) Steel straightedge
v) Sample extruder
vi) Large mixing pan
vii) Large spoon
viii) Soil mixer (or other mixing tools, e.g., trowel, spoon or spatula)

Figure 3: British Standard 1 liter compaction mould (left) and 2.5 kg rammer for
BS ‘light’ compaction test (right)

5.0 PROCEDURE

i) Prepare about 3 to 4 kg of air-dry soil.

ii) Pulverize soil and use only the ones passing No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
iii) Conduct test for the first point at w of about 5% (by weight). Mix soil thor-
oughly.
iv) Weight the compaction mold (i.e., without the collar and base plate) and
record in data sheet.
v) Check the volume of mold (volume of standard mold is 1000 cm3)
vi) Fix the mold with the collar to the base plate.

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vii) Apply a quantity of moist soil in the mould such that when compacted it
occupies a little over one third of the height of the mould. Apply 25 free fall
blows from 300 mm above the soil by using the rammer. Distribute the
blows uniformly over a surface.
viii) Repeat the procedure above for the following two layers and make sure
there is excess soil on top of the mould.
ix) Detach collar and base plate.
x) Strike out soil at the top of mold by using the straightedge.
xi) Weight the mold and soil and record its mass on data sheet.
xii) Extrude soil from mold using the extruder.
xiii) Take soil samples and determine w (2 moisture content determination for
each compaction points).
xiv) Conduct at least 4 compaction points, i.e., sat at moisture content of
about 5%, 10%, 20% and 30% (by weight of dry soil).

6.0 RESULT

1. The dry unit weight γd can be computed from

where γt = wet unit weight of the soil

= (kN/m3)

W = mass of the wet compacted soil sample

V = volume of soil

m = moisture content of the compacted soil

m= =

Ws = mass of the dry soil sample

Ww = mass of water

2. To plot the zero air void curve

where G = specific gravity of the soil (assume G =2.70)

γw = unit weight of water 9.81 kN/m3 (or density 1.0 g/cm3)

S = degree of saturation

For zero-air-voids or 100% saturation, S = 1.

3. To calculate the amount of water to be added to the soil assume the initial
moisture content is 1.5%, and the mass of the soil is 2500g. Then

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which may be solved for the mass of dry soil W s which we take to remain constant.
Recalling that the assumed initial weight of water in the soil Ww = 0.015 Ws and that
Ws is constant, if the first required water content is 10%, the extra mass of water
required Ww can be calculated

Subsequent water to be added to change the moisture content by 3% can be found

from

7.0 DISCUSSION

i) From the test results, what is the maximum dry density and the optimum
moisture content of the soil sample
ii) Explain the zero air void line
iii) State factors affecting compaction

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Compaction Test Result

Description of Soil
___________________________________________________________________

Test Performed by __________________________

Date of Test __________________________
Blows/Layer __________________
No. of Layers _________________
Mass of rammer ____ N
Mold dimensions:
Diam. ______________ cm Ht. ___________cm Vol. _______________ cm3

Density and Unit weight:  = Mws /vol g/cm3; wet =  x 9.807 kN/m3

Assumed water content

Water content w%
Mass of soil + mold, g
Mass of mold, g
Mass of soil in mold, Mws
Wet unit weight, kN/ m3
Dry unit weight  kN/ m3

Water content, w%

Optimum moisture = ________________ % Maximum dry unit weight, d = _____ kN/ m3

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Standard Proctor Test Result

Water content Determination:

ASSUME WATER
5% 10% 20% 30%
CONTENT
CONTAINER NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Mass of container (m1) g

Mass of wet soil +

g
container (m2)
Mass of dry soil +
g
container (m3)
Mass of moisture
g
(m2 - m3)
Mass of dry soil
g
(m3 - m1)
Moisture content
w =(m2 - m3) %
(m3 - m1)
Average Moisture
%
Content

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SG03
DETERMINATION OF INSITU DENSITY TEST – SAND REPLACEMENT
METHOD

1.0 OBJECTIVE

This method covers the determination in-situ of the density of natural or

compacted fine- and medium-grained soils for which a 150mm diameter
sand-pouring cylinder is used in conjunction with replacement sand.

2.0 GENERAL

The method is applicable to layers not exceeding 150mm in thickness.

2.0 APPARATUS

a. A pouring cylinder.
b. Suitable tools for excavating holes in soil.
c. Cylinder, metal, calibrating container.
d. A balance readable to 1g.
e. Metal tray or container to take excavated soil.
f. The replacement sand shall be a clean closely graded silica sand which
provides a bulk density that is reasonably consistent. The grading of the
sand shall be such that 100% passes a 600 micron test sieve and 100%
is retained on the 63 micron test sieve.

3.0 CALIBRATIONS

3.1 Determination of the mass of sand in the cone of the pouring cylinder
3.1.1 Fill the pouring cylinder so that the level of the sand in the
cylinder is within about 15mm of the top. Find its total initial
mass, m1, to the nearest 1g and always use the same initial
mass for every calibration. Maintain this constant throughout
the tests for which the calibration is used. Allow a volume of
sand equivalent to that of the excavated hole in the soil (or
equal to that of the calibrating container) to run out. Close the
shutter on the pouring cylinder and place the cylinder on a
plane surface, e.g. a tray.
3.1.2 Open the shutter on the pouring cylinder and allow sand to run
out. Do not tap or otherwise vibrate during this period. When
no further movement of sand takes place in the cylinder, close
the shutter and remove the cylinder carefully.
3.1.3 Collect the sand on the tray that had filled the cone of the pour-
ing cylinder and determine its mass, m2 to the nearest 1g.
3.1.4 Repeat these measurements at least three times and calculate
the mean value of m2.
3.2 Determination of the bulk density of the sand ()
3.2.1 Determine the internal volume, V (in mL) of the calibrating con-
tainer.
3.2.2 Place the pouring cylinder concentrically on the top of the cali-
brating container after it has been filled to the constant mass,
m1. Keep the shutter on the pouring cylinder closed during this
operation. Open the shutter and allow the sand to run out. Do
not tap the pouring cylinder. When no further movement of

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sand takes place in the cylinder, close the shutter. Remove the
pouring cylinder with the sand remaining in it and determine
their combined mass, m3 to the nearest 1g.
3.2.3 Repeat these measurements at least three times and calculate
the mean value of m3.

5.0 PROCEDURE

5.1 Expose a flat area, approximately 450mm square, of the soil to be tested
and trim it down to a level surface, preferably with the aid of the scraper
tool. Brush away any loose extraneous material.

5.2 Lay the metal tray on the prepared surface with the hole over the portion
of the soil to be tested. Using this hole as a pattern, excavate a round
hole, approximately 150mm in diameter and the depth of the layer to be
tested up to a maximum of 150mm deep. Do not leave loose material in
the hole and do not distort the immediate surround to the hole. Carefully
collect all the excavated soil from the hole and determine its mass, m w, to
the nearest 1g. Remove the metal tray before placing the pouring cylin-
der in position over the excavated hole.

5.3 Place a representative sample of the excavated soil in an airtight con-

tainer and determine its moisture content, w.

5.4 Place the pouring cylinder, filled to the constant mass, m1 so that the
base of the cylinder covers the hole concentrically. Ensure the shutter on
the pouring cylinder is closed during this operation. Open the shutter and
allow sand to run out; during this period, do not vibrate the cylinder or the
surrounding area. When no further movement of the sand takes place,
close the shutter. Remove the cylinder and determine its mass, m 4 to the
nearest 1g.

6.0 CALCULATIONS AND EXPRESSION OF RESULTS

6.1 Calculate the mass of sand, ma (in g), required to fill the calibrating con-
tainer from the equation:

ma = m1 - m3 – m2

where
m1 is the mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into calibrating
container (in g);
m2 is the mean mass of sand in cone (in g);
m3 is the mean mass of cylinder and sand after pouring into calibrating
container (in g).

6.2 Calculate the bulk density of the sand, a (in Mg/m3, to the nearest 0.01
Mg/m3), from the equation:

ma
a = -----------
V

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where
V is the volume of the calibrating container (in mL)

6.3 Calculate the mass of sand required to fill the excavated hole, mb (in g)
from equation:
mb = m1 – m4 – m2

where
m1 is the mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into hole (in g);
m2 is the mean mass of sand in cone (in g);
m4 is the mean mass of cylinder and sand after pouring into hole (in g).

6.4 Calculate the bulk density of the soil,  (in Mg/m3, to the nearest 0.01
Mg/m3) from the equation:

mw
 = ( ----------- ) a
mb

where
mw is the mass of soil excavated (in g);
mb is the mass of sand required to fill the hole (in g);
a is the bulk density of sand (in Mg/m3)

6.5 Calculate the dry density, d (in Mg/m3, to the nearest 0.01 Mg/m3) from
the equation:
100
d = -----------
100 + w

where
w is the moisture content of the soil (in %)
m2 is the mass of gas jar, plate and soil (in g);
m3 is the mass of gas jar, plate, soil and water (in g);
m4 is the mass of gas jar, plate and water (in g).

7.0 RESULT

8.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

9.0 CONCLUSION

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IN-SITU DENSITY TEST (SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD)

In-Situ Density Test And Unit Weight

Mass of apparatus + Mass of sand (before g
Mass of apparatus + Mass of remaining sand (after) g
Mass of sand use in test g
Mass of sand (in metal tray) g
Mass of sand used in test hole g
Bulk density of sand, 1
3
g/cm
Volume of test hole, V mL
Wet mass of soil form hole G
Moisture content of soil, w %
Bulk density of soil, 2 g/cm3
Dry density of soil, d g/cm3

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SG 04
FINE ANALYSIS (HYDROMETER)

1.0 OBJECTIVE

To obtain and to determine the particle size the approximate particle size distribution.

2.0 APPARATUS

i) A hydrometer graduated 0.995 to 1.030 g/ml.

ii) Two 1 L graduated glass measuring cylinders with ground glass stoppers,
marked at 1 L volume.
iii) A thermometer to cover the temperature range 0 to 50°C, readable to
0.5°C.
iv) Test sieves comprising at least the 2mm, 600m, 212m, 63m sizes
and a receiver.
v) A balance readable to 0.01g.
vi) A drying oven.
vii) A stop clock or stopwatch readable to 1 s.
viii) A dessicator containing anhydrous silica gel.
ix) Four evaporating dishes, about 150mm in diameter.
x) A wide-mouth conical flask, of 1 L capacity.
xi) Two measuring cylinders, 100ml and 500ml capacity.
xii) A wash bottle containing distilled water.
xiii) A constant temperature bath.
xiv) Sodium hexametaphosphate solution. Dissolve 40g of sodium hexa-
metaphosphate in distilled water to make 1 L of solution.

Figure 3: Hydrometer and bulb

3.0 PROCEDURES

3.1 Calibration

i) Volume calibration of hydrometer.

ii) Determine the volume of the hydrometer, Vh , as follows:
iii) Weigh the hydrometer to the nearest 0.1g.
iv) Record the mass in grams as the volume of the hydrometer in ml.
v) Scale calibration of hydrometer

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a. Measure the distance, ( 9in mm), from the 100ml scale marking to the
1000mL scale marking on the sedimentation cylinder, to the nearest mm.
For a cylinder with a scale mark only at 1000mL, determine the 100mL
level by adding a measured 100mL of water.

b. Measure and record the distances from the lowest calibration mark on the
stem of the hydrometer to each of the major calibration marks, Rh .

c. Measure and record the distance, N, from the neck of the bulb to the bulb
to the nearest calibration mark.

d. The distance, H, corresponding to a reading, Rh , is equal to the sum of

the distances measured in 4.2b and 4.2c, (N + d1 , N + d2 , etc.).

e. Measure and record the distance, h, from the neck to the bottom of the
bulb as the height of the bulb.

f. Calculate the effective depth, HR (in mm), corresponding to each of the

major calibration marks, Rh , from the equation :

HR = H + ½ [ h – VhL/900]

Where
H is the length from the neck of the bulb to graduation
Rh (in mm);
H is the length of the bulb;
Vh is the volume of the hydrometer bulb (in mL);
L is the distance bewteen the 100mL and the 1000mL
scale markings of the sedimentation cylinder (in mm).

g. Plot the relationship between HR and Rh as a smooth curve.

3.2 Meniscus correction

i) Insert the hydrometer in a 1L cylinder containing about 800mL of water

ii) By placing the eye slightly below the plane of the surface of the liquid and
then raising it slowly until the surface seen as an eclipse becomes a
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straight line, determine the point where the plane intersects the hydrome-
ter scale.
iii) By placing the eye slightly above the plane of the surface of the liquid, de-
termine the point where the upper limit of the meniscus intersects the hy-
drometer scale.
iv) Record the difference between the two readings in 4.3b & 4.3c above as
the meniscus correction, Cm .

3.3 Preparation and Assembly

i) Weigh 50g of the test sample to 0.01g and obtain its initial dry mass, mo .
ii) Place the test sample in the wide-mouth conical flask.
iii) Add 100ml of the sodium hexametaphosphate solution to the soil in the
conical flask. Shake the mixture thoroughly until all the soil is in suspen-
sion.
iv) Transfer the suspension from the flask to the 63µm test sieve placed on
the receiver, and wash the soil in the sieve using a jet of distilled water
from the wash bottle. The amount of water used during this operation
shall not exceed 500ml.
v) Transfer the suspension that has passed through the sieve to the 1 L
measuring cylinder and make up to the 1 L graduation mark with distilled
water. Use this suspension for the sedimentation analysis.
vi) Transfer the material retained on the 63µm test sieve to an evaporating
dish and dry in the oven maintained at 105°C to 110°C.
vii) When cooled, re- sieve this material on the sieves down to 63µm size.
Weigh the material retained on each sieve to 0.01g.
viii) Add any material passing the 63µm test sieve to the measuring cylinder.

Sedimentation

i) Add any material passing the 63µm test sieve to the measuring cylinder.
ii) Insert the rubber bung into the cylinder containing the soil suspension,
shake it and place it in the constant-temperature bath so that it is im-
mersed in water at least up to the 1 L graduation mark.
iii) Add 100ml of the sodium hexametaphosphate solution to the second 1 L
sedimentation cylinder and dilute with distilled water to exactly 1 L. Insert
the rubber bung and place this cylinder in the constant temperature bath
alongside the first.

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iv) After at least 1 h, take out the cylinder containing the dispersion solution,
shake it thoroughly and replace it in the bath. Take out the cylinder con-
taining the soil suspension, shake it vigorously end-over-end about 60
times in 2 min and then immediately replace it in the bath.
v) At the instant the cylinder with the soil suspension is replaced upright in
the bath, start the timer. Remove the rubber bungs carefully from the
cylinders.
vi) Immerse the hydrometer in the suspension to a depth slightly below its
floating position and allow it to float freely.
vii) Take hydrometer readings at the upper rim of the meniscus after periods
of 0.5 min, 1 min, 2 min and 4 min.
viii) Remove the hydrometer slowly, rinse in distilled water and place it in the
cylinder of distilled water with dispersion at the same temperature as the
soil suspension. Observe and record the top of the meniscus reading, Ro.
ix) Reinsert the hydrometer in the soil suspension and take and record read-
ings after periods of 8 min, 30 min, 2 h, 8 h, and 24 h from the start of
sedimentation, and twice during the following day if appropriate. The pre-
cise times are not critical provided that the exact time period is recorded.
Insert the hydrometer slowly about 15s before a reading is due. Insert and
withdraw the hydrometer before and after taking each reading very care-
fully to avoid disturbing the suspension unnecessarily. Allow 10 s for each
operation. Avoid vibration of the sample.
x) Observe and record the temperature of the suspension once during
the first 15 min and then after every subsequent reading. Read the tem-
perature to an accuracy of ±0.5°C.

4.0 Result

Calculate the true hydrometer reading, Rh (in mm), from the equation :

Rh = Rh‘ + Cm

Where
Cm is the meniscus correction
Rh’ is the observed hydrometer reading

Obtain the effective depth, HR (in mm), at which the density of the suspension is
measured, corresponding to the reading, Rh , from the hydrometer scale calibration
curve.

Calculate the equivalent particle diameter, D (in mm), from the equation :

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D = 0.005531 H/(s – 1)t

Where
 is the dynamic viscosity of water at the test temperature (in
mPa.s) as shown in table 7;
HR is the effective depth at which the density of the suspension
is measured (in mm);
s is the particle density (in Mg/m3);
t is the elapsed time (in min)

Table 3: Viscosity of water

Temperature T Viscosity of water 

°C mPa.s
10 1.304
15 1.137
20 1.002
25 0.891
30 0.798

Note. Intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation.

Calculate the modified hydrometer reading, Rd , from the equation :

Rd = Rh‘ – Ro‘

Where
Ro‘ is the hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus
in the dispersion solution

Calculate the percentage by mass, K, of particles smaller than the corresponding

equivalent particle diameter, D (in mm), from the equation :

K = [100s/m(s – 1)] x Rd

Where
m is the mass of the dry soil used (in g);

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Hydrometer Sedimentation Test Result

Calibration and Sample Data

Hydrometer no.
Meniscus correction Cm
Reading in dispersant Ro‘
Calibration equation HR
Dry mass of soil m(g)
Particle density
(measured/assume) Mg/m3
Viscosity of water mPa.s
Test Data

Elapse Readin Effectiv Particle % finer

Temp Rd + Cm Rh‘-Ro‘
Date Time time (t g e depth Diameter than D
T Rh Rd
min) R h‘ HR mm D mm K%

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SG 05
DENSITY TEST

Reference Standard: ASTM D 2937-00

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The in situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of bearing capacity
of soils, for the purpose of stability analysis of slopes, for the determination of pres-
sures on underlying strata for the calculation of settlement and the design of under-
ground structures.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

This test is used to determine the in-place density of soils. This test can also be used
to determine density of compacted soils used in the construction of structural fills,
highway embankments, or earth dams. This method is not recommended for organic
or fibrous soils.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

This test is performed to determine the in-place density of undisturbed soil obtained
by pushing or drilling a thin walled cylinder. The bulk density is the ratio of mass of
moist soil to the volume of the soil sample, and the dry density is the ratio of the
mass of the dry soil to the volume the soil sample.

4.0 APPARATUS

1. Straightedges
2. Balance
3. Moisture canister
4. Drying oven
5. Vernier caliper

5.0 PROCEDURE

i. Extrude the soil sample from the cylinder using the extruder.
ii. Cut a representative soil specimen from the extruded sample.
iii. Determine and record the length (L), diameter (D), and mass (M) of the speci-
men.
iv. Determine and record the moisture content of the soil (w%).

(Note: If the soil is sandy or loose, weigh the cylinder and soil sample together. Mea-
sure dimensions of the soil sample within the cylinder. Extrude and weigh the soil
sample and determine moisture content)

6.0 RESULT

7.0 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS

1. Determine the moisture content, w%

2. Determine the volume of the soil sample, V in cm3

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V = ‫ ת‬D2 L
4

3. Calculate the bulk density of soil, ρt and bulk unit weight ɤt in g/cm3

ρt = Mt
V

ɤt = ρ t g

4. Calculate dry density of soil ρd , and dry unit weight ɤd in g/cm3

ρd = ρt
1+w

ɤd = ρ d g

(Note: 62.4 is the conversion factor to convert density in g/cm3 to unit weight in lb/ft3)

DENSITY TEST DATA SHEET

SPECIMEN NUMBER 1 2 3

MC = Mass of empty can (gm)

M CS = Mass of can + moist soil (gm)

M CDS = Mass of can + dry soil (gm)

M S = Mass of solid soil (gm)

M W = Mass of pore water (gm)

W = Water content (%)

REFERENCE:

1. Youventharan Duraisamy. 2009

Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual
Universiti Malaysia Pahang

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SG06
DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Reference Standard: BS 1377; EN DD ENV 1997-2; ASTM D3080

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soils are essentially frictional materials. They are comprised of individual particles
that can slide and roll relative to one another. In the discipline of soil mechanics it is
generally assumed that the particles are not cemented. One consequence of the
frictional nature is that the strength depends on the effective stresses in the soil. As
the effective stresses increase with depth, so in general will the strength. Near any
geotechnical construction (e.g. slopes, excavations, tunnels and foundations) there
will be both mean and normal stresses and shear stresses. The mean or normal
stresses cause volume change due to compression or consolidation. The shear
stresses prevent collapse and help to support the geotechnical structure. Shear
stress may cause volume change. Failure will occur when the shear stress exceeds
the limiting shear stress (strength)

Figure 1: Failure will occur when the shear stress exceeds the limiting shear stress

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2.0 PRINCIPLES

The limiting shear stress that may be applied to any plane in the soil mass is found to
be given by an equation of the form

‫ = ז‬c + δn tan θ

where c = cohesion (apparent)

θ = friction angle

This is known as the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The parameters c and  are not
generally soil constants. The Mohr-Coulomb criterion is an empirical criterion, and
the failure locus is only locally linear. Extrapolation outside the range of normal
stresses for which it has been determined is likely to be unreliable. In practice, the
state of stress in the ground will be complex. There are simple theories for two
special cases which are triaxial, used for analysis deviator stress, shear strain,
normal stress, volumetric strain, specific volume; and direct or simple shear for
analysis of shear stress, shear strain, normal stress, volumetric (normal) strain and
void ratio. The engineering strength of soil materials is often determined from tests in
either the shear box apparatus or the triaxial apparatus.

Figure 2: Principle of shear triaxial (left) and direct shear (right)

3.0 OBJECTIVES

To determine the shear strength of a dry cohesionless soil

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4.0 APPARATUS

i) Direct shear machine

ii) Tamper for compacting soil
iii) Auto balance
iv) Drying oven
v) Data acquisition system

Figure 3: Direct shear test machine

5.0 PROCEDURE

Preparation of sample

i) Weigh a large dish of dry sand of sufficient quantity to do at least 4 tests.

ii) Carefully assemble the shear box and fix into position.
iii) Measure the area of the shear box.
iv) Place the sand into the shear box to about 5mm from the top and then
place the loading block. Make sure the loading block is leveled.
v) Weigh again the container of the sand to determine the weight of materi-
als in sample (1).
vi) Obtain the thickness of sample by using the reference line in the loading
block.
vii) Apply a normal load of 5kg, (remember the total vertical load need to in-
clude the weight of loading block and the upper half of the shear box).
viii) Separate 2 parts of the shear box by advancing the spring screws in the
upper half of the shear box. (The space should be slightly larger than the
largest grain in the sample).

Testing

i) Weight the sample. Then place it into the shearbox assemblies

ii) Go to DS7 program, select machine - Shearbox.
iii) Select new sample. Fill in the sample parameter.
iv) Initialize all transducers relating to shearbox test (vertical displacement,
horizontal displacement, force)

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Consolidation Stage

i) Initialize all transducers relating to shearbox test (vertical displacement,

horizontal displacement, force)
ii) Decide on the Normal stress to be loaded on the sample.
iii) Load the weights as recommended by the software.
iv) Start count down and check the vertical displacement transducer reading
until a constant level is reached.

Shearing Stage

i) Start count down and check the vertical displacement transducer reading
until a constant level is reached.
ii) Switch on the shearbox machine.
iii) Set the test speed (for example 0.5 mm/minute).
iv) Start count down and press the run button on the shearbox machine.
v) Check the force reading until the force reading reaches the max value and
stop the machine when the value has started to drop. Stop stage.
vi) End all stages for sample A. Remove the sample and put it in the oven
and determine the dry weight.
vii) Prepare the next sample B.
viii) Repeat procedure (i) to (ii).
ix) Select next specimen for an existing sample.
x) Repeat stage (iv).
xi) Repeat stage (v) but set the normal stress to double of that at stage (vi).
xii) Repeat stage [Shearing Stage (i-vi)].
xiii) Prepare the next sample C
xiv) Repeat procedure [Shearing Stage (vii)] but set the normal stress to dou-
ble of that at stage [Shearing Stage (xi)].

The test is complete.

6.0 RESULT

Print the results obtained from the computer and present them in the report :

7.0 DISCUSSION

i) Explain the importance of this test

ii) How do we obtain shear strength of cohesive soil
iii) Comment on the result obtained

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SG07
VANE SHEAR TEST

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This test was developed to measure the undrained shear strength of very soft and
sensitive clay. The laboratory test can be performed on undisturbed samples, as well
as the standard-compaction test samples, as long as the soil is cohesive and does
not contain large grains (pebbles) of soil.

The vane consists of four thin rectangular blades or wings welded to a small circular
shaft. Generally the height of the vane is about twice its width. The vane is pushed
into the soil for at least twice its height and then twisted at a constant rate of 0.1 to
0.2 degree per second until the soil is ruptured.

From the maximum moment needed to rupture the soil and the surface area of the
cylinder, the shear strength at rupture is calculated by the following relationship.

Su = Tmax/[3.142 (0.5D2H + 0.167D3)]

Where Su = undrained shear strength of soil, kPa or psf

Tmax = maximum torque required to rotate rod which shears the clay, kN-m
or Ibf-ft
H = height of vane (12.7mm), m or ft
D = diameter of vane (12.7mm, 19mm, 25.4mm), m or ft

This equation assumes that the stress distribution on the two ends of the vane is
uniform and that the cylindrical surface failed has a diameter and height equal to that
of the vane.

4.0 OBJECTIVE
i) To measure undrained shear strength of soil
ii) To find shear strength of a given soil specimen

3.0 APPARATUS

i) Vane shear apparatus.

ii) Specimen.
iii) Specimen container.
iv) Callipers.

4.0 PROCEDURES

1. Attach the sample container securely to the base of the vane apparatus, with
the sample axis vertical and located centrally under the axis of the vane.
2. Trim the upper surface of the sample flat and perpendicular to the axis,
3. Select a torsion spring that is most appropriate for the estimated strength of
the soil and assemble it into the vane apparatus.
4. Set the pointer and the graduated scale on the torsion head to their zero
readings.

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5. Lower the vane assembly to push the vane steadily into the sample to the
required depth. The top of the vane should be at a distance not less than four
times the blade width below the surface.
6. Apply torque to the vane by switching on the vane apparatus.
7. Record the maximum angular deflection of the torsion spring and the angle of
rotation of the vane at the instant of failure.
8. Raise the vane steadily. As it emerges from the sample prevent excessive
disturbance due to tearing of the surface. Wipe the blades clean.
9. Repeat 4 to 8 with the vane positioned at two or more additional locations at
the same level in the sample.
10. Calculate the maximum torque , Tmax. and undrained shear strength of soil,
Su.

5.0 RESULT

T=Spring
Initial Final Constant/1 Average Spring
Difference S=TxG
Reading Reading 80x 'S' Constant
Difference
S.No (Deg.) Kg/cm2
(Deg) (Deg.) Kg/cm2 Kg-cm
Kg-cm

6.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

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SG08
FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

Reference Standard: BS 1377:1990, KH Head, Vol. 2 - 10.7.2

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Permeability or hydraulic conductivity is the property of soil allowing it to transmit wa-

ter. Its value depends largely on the size and number of the void spaces, which in
turn depends on the size, shape, and state of packing of the soil grains. Flow of wa-
ter in soil or the degree of permeability depends on several factors such as the
porosity of the soil, type of soil, viscosity of the fluid (temperature dependent), and
the total head (difference in energy). Soils exhibit a very wide range of permeabilities
and while particle size may vary by about 3-4 orders of magnitude, permeability may
vary by about 10 orders of magnitude. Permeability is often estimated from correla-
tions with particle size. For instance, the permeability of a granular soil is influenced
by its particle size distribution, and especially by the finer particle. The smaller the
particles, the smaller the voids between them and therefore the resistance to flow of
water increases (i.e. the permeability decreases). It is important to know the amount
of water that will enter a pit during construction, or the amount of stored water that
may be lost by percolation through or beneath a dam.

Figure 1 Typical permeability ranges

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2.0 PRINCIPLES

The falling head permeability test is used for measuring the permeability of soils of
intermediate and low permeability (less than 0.0001 m/s), i.e. silts clay, a relatively
short sample is connected to a standpipe, which provides both the head of water and
the means of measuring the quantity of water, flowing through the sample. Several
standpipes of different diameters are normally available from which can be selected
the diameter most suitable for the type of material being tested.

Figure 2: Principle of falling head permeability test

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) To identify the permeability of the soil soils of intermediate and low per-
meability (less than 0.0001 m/s)
ii) To determine the coefficient of permeability of silt and clay soil using fall-
ing head method

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Falling head test apparatus

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Figure 3: Falling head test apparatus

5.0 PROCEDURE

Preparation of apparatus

i) If the areas of cross-section, a, of the three manometer tubes are not

known, they should be determined. See that the cell body is clean and
dry, and weigh to the nearest 0.1 g, m1. Measure the mean internal diam-
eter, D, to the nearest 0.5 mm.

Preparation of sample

i) A cylindrical test specimen may be obtained from a block sample of soft

or fairly firm clay by pushing a U-100 cutting shoe, which has a sharp cut-
ting edge. The block sample should be firmly supported on a flat surface,
but the sides around the sampling location should not be laterally re-
strained.
ii) The tube should be pushed in squarely with a steady pressure, for a dis-
tance of about 90 mm. Before withdrawing the tube it should be rotated
one complete turn to shear off the soil at the end.
iii) The sample may be prepared in the usual manner with its axis vertical, for
measurement of vertical permeability, or with its axis horizontal (or parallel
to bedding) for measurement of horizontal permeability (or permeability
parallel to bedding).
iv) It is essential to ensure that the sample is a tight fit in the cell body, and
that there are no cavities around the perimeter through which water could
pass. Gaps or cavities should be well packed with the fine matrix portion
of the soil, or with plasticine. Close the cell.
v) Weigh the sample in the cell to the nearest 0.1 g, m2.
vi) Use some of the soil trimmings for determining the moisture content of the
sample.

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Testing

i) Control that valves A, B, C, D, E, and F are closed.

ii) Place the permeameter cell containing the sample in the cylinder (see fig-
ure).
iii) Fill the cylinder with de-aired water.
iv) Open valve B and F and when the water has reached level 1, close valve
B.
v) Open valve A and start the vacuum pump (50 cm Hg) Due to this vacuum
the test sample will become saturated with water from the bottom to the
top.
vi) Close valve A if the water reaches level 2 and stop the vacuum pump. 7.
Open respectively valves C, D and E as long as necessary to fill respec-
tively the tubes 3, 4 and 5.
vii) Close valve F.
viii) Fill the cylinder up to level 6 with water.
ix) Choose for the permeability measurement tube 3, 4 or 5 depending on the
expected permeability of the sample.
x) Measure the start level in the tube y1.
xi) Open the valve of the in 10 mentioned tube and open valve B. 13.Mea-
sure after a certain time interval, t, and the water level in the 10 men-
tioned tube y2.
xii) Repeat this several times until you measure a constant value. 15. Mea-
sure the water level in the cylinder hO.
xiii) Close all the valves.

6.0 RESULT

The permeability of the sample is calculated by:

Where:
Kt = permeability (m/s)
a = cross section area of used manometer tube (mm2).
A = cross section area of sample in permeameter cell (mm2).
T = measured time interval (s).
L = length of sample (m).
h1 = start level manometer tube = y1 - hO (m).
h2 = end level manometer tube =y1-hO (m).

If necessary the permeability can be expressed as the permeability at 20 °C by

multiplying it by a factor obtained from the temperature conversion table 8.1.1.

Remarks :Permeability can also be derived from data obtained during an oedometer
test.

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7.0 DISCUSSION

i) What are the importance of these tests?

Falling Head Permeability Test Result

Permeameter Cell Dimension


Diameter,  = mm

Length, L = mm
L
Area, A = mm

Manometer Diameter Start level End level Time, t

tube  h1 (m) h2 (m) (sec)
T1

T2

T3

Manometer Time, t Radius, r Area, A

H1/h2 Log h1/h2 Axt
Tube (sec) (m) (m2)
T1

T2

T3

Permeability of the soil

T1 =
T2 =
T3 =

SG09
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UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

Reference Standard: BS 1377: 1975, Test 20, ASTM D 2166

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The unconfined compression test is usually made on undisturbed samples. It is rea-

sonably simple and rapid to perform. It gives a very good measure of the shearing
strength of cohesive soils.

In somewhat granular soil its application is limited, but it does provide a good supple-
mentary test for more complex strength tests. The unconfined compression test is
limited in that test conditions can be varied very little. Hence, the test may provide a
good measure of the in-situ strength, but may provide only limited strength data, as
the stress conditions change due to loading or construction.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

This method can be used for determining the shear strength of soil for cohesive soil,
while the specimen is sheared at constant rate of axial deformation until failure oc-
curs.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) To determine Unconfined compression Test, which gives a shear strength

of cohesive soil.
ii) To observe the mode of failure and determination of sensitivity of the soil
specimen.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Compression device
ii) Hand extruder for 38mm diameter
iii) End trimming tool
iv) Trimming knife, wire saw
v) Balance
vi) Drying oven
vii) Remoulding apparatus
viii) Moisture content container

5.0 PROCEDURES

1. Prepare undisturbed specimens from large undisturbed samples.

2. Handle specimens carefully to prevent disturbance, changes in cross section
or loss of water content.
3. Extrude the specimen with the hand extruder. Measure the dimension of
specimen (in this case diameter 38 mm) and weighed to 0.1g.
4. Determine the moisture content of the specimen (refer to Experiment 1.)
5. Place the specimen in the loading device so that it is centered on the bottom
platen.
6. Adjust the loading device carefully so that the upper platen just makes contact
with the specimen.
7. Zero the deformation indicator and the providing ring dial gauge.

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8. Record load, deformation and time values at 20seconds intervals to define

the shape of the stress-strain curve. Successive loads are determined by
multiplying proving ring dial readings by the providing calibration factor.
9. Continue loading until the load values decrease with increasing strain.
10. Indicate the rate of strain in the report of the test data.
11. Calculate the bulk density and dry density of the specimen.
12. Make a sketch on the chart or back of it to indicate the mode of failure of the
specimen. Measure its inclination to the horizontal to the nearest 1 by using
a protractor. Record any other features which are visible. Note: Make the
sketch before removing it from the platen if the specimen is likely to fall apart.
13. Carry on a remoulded test as given in Part 2.

PART 2

1. Enclose the removed specimen from part 1 in small polythene beg. Add a
little more soil with same moisture content if necessary.
2. Remould it by squeezing and kneading it with the fingers for a few minutes.
3. Take the soil out and work it into a 38mm diameter split mould as quickly as
possible to avoid moisture loss.
4. Removed the specimen from the split mould, measure and weight the
specimen.
5. Place it in the machine and repeat the procedure (5) to (10) in Part 1.

SPECIMEN DATA

l1 = ______________mm; l2 = _______________mm

l1 = specimen length of Part (I)

l2 = specimen length of remoulded test (Part II)

COMPRESSION DATA

Proving ring calibration __________kN/div

Ho= Initial height of the specimen

Ao= Initial area of the specimen

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Deformation Cross- Proving Applied Axial Load per

Unit Strain, 
Dial, H Sectional Ring Dial Load, P unit area
(mm/mm.)
(mm.) Area, A (mm.2) (mm.) (kN) (kN/mm2)
(2) = H (3) = Ao (5) = (4) X
(1) Ho 1- (4) proving ring (6) = (5)/(3)
calibration

GRAPH

A graph of Load per unit area versus Unit strain should be prepared. From this graph,
the unconfined compressive strength may be evaluated as either the maximum value
of load per unit area or the load per unit area at 15% strain, whichever occurs first.

CALCULATION

1. (a)
Compressive stress () = ___________kN/mm2
Unconfined compressive strength qu =  x 1000
= ________kN/m2
Deflection  = ___________mm
Strain  =  x 100 = ____________%

Wet density w = __________

Dry density d = __________

(b)
Compressive stress () = ___________kN/mm2
Unconfined compressive strength qu =  x 1000
= ________kN/m2
Deflection  = ___________mm
Strain  =  x 100 = ____________%
l

2. Calculate the sensitivity St of the specimen.

Given St = qu / qr
St = ________

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OBSERVATION:

1. Briefly describe the mode of failure you have obtained for the specimen. State
which group of failure mode does the specimen belong to.
2. Why do we need to know the sensitivity of the clay, state the specimen sensi-
tivity.

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SG10
UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TEST

Reference Standard: BS1377: Part 2:1990 and BS1377:Part2:1990:5.3; ASTM

D4318 and BS 1377: Part 2: 1990:4.3; ASTM D427

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The UU test is applicable to undisturbed sample in which no change in moisture

content from the insitu value can be permitted. Test can be carried out over a range
of moisture content to enable Mohr envelopes for the required to be interpolated. The
UU test procedure is useful for determining the total strength parameters for soils that
have suffered disturbances or moisture change during sampling.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

This method can be used for determining the undrained shear strength of cohesive
soil when it is subjected to a constant confining pressure and to strain controlled axial
loading, when no change in total moisture content is allowed.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

To establish a procedure for determining the Unconsolidated Undrained Test by

Triaxial compression without measurement of pore pressure, which gives shear
strength of cohesive soil.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Sample extruder.
ii) Triaxial cell.
iii) Scale.
iv) Sampling tube.
v) Wire saw.
vi) Vacuum source.
vii) Oven.
viii) Calipers.
ix) Balance sensitive to 0.1g.
x) Evaporating dish.
xi) Rubber membrane.
xii) Membrane stretcher.
xiii) 38mm internal diameter sampling tube.
xiv) Strain controlled compression machine.
xv) Unconfined compression testing device.
xvi) Porcelain evaporating dish.

5.0 PROCEDURES

a) Triaxial Specimen

1) Bulk Sample are about 38mm diameter x 76mm in height. In any case, the
length-to-diameter ratio should be between 1 and 2.
2) After the specimen is prepared, obtain its height, Lo (in mm), diameter, Do (in
mm) and mass (in g) with sufficient accuracy to enable the bulk density to be
calculated to an accuracy of +1%.

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3) For multi-stage, the height is approximately equal to twice the diameter. The
specimen is usually of the same diameter (typical about 100mm).
4) Place the specimen that is to be tested first between end caps in the mem-
brane as quickly as possible to prevent loss of moisture.
5) After preparing the test specimen, break open the remainder of the sample
and record a detailed description of the soil fabric.
6) In the triaxial cell, the specimen can be saturated by connecting the drainage
line leading to the bottom of the specimen to a saturation reservoir. During
this process, the drainage line leading out of the top of the specimen is kept
open to the atmosphere. The saturation of clay specimens takes a fairly long
time.
7) For unconsolidated-undrained test, if specimen saturation is not required,
nonporous plates can be used instead of porous stones at the top and bottom
of the specimen.
8) Unconsolidated-Undrained Test
9) Place the triaxial cell (with the specimen inside it) on the platform of the com-
pression machine.
10) Make proper adjustment so that the piston of the triaxial cell just rest on the
top platen of the specimen.
11) Fill the chamber of the triaxial cell with water, ensuring that all the air is dis-
placed through the air vent. Apply a hydrostatic pressure, σ3, to the specimen
through the chamber fluid. Note: All drainage to and from the specimen
should be closed now so that drainage from the specimen does not occur.
12) Check for proper contact between the piston and top platen on the specimen.
Zero the dial gauge of the proving ring and the gauge used for measurement
of the vertical compression of the specimen. Select a rate of axial deformation
such that failure is produced within a period of 5min to 15min. Engage the ap-
propriate gear on the compression machine. Set the compression machine for
a strain rate of about 0.5% per minute and turn the switch on.
13) Record readings of the force-measuring device and the deformation gauge at
regular intervals of the latter, so that at least 15 sets of readings are recorded
up to the point of failure.
14) Suitable intervals for a medium compressibility soil are typically 0.25% strain
up to 1% strain, and 0.5% strain thereafter. For a very stiff soil which is likely
to fail suddenly at a small strain, readings should be taken at frequent inter-
vals of force rather than of strain to obtain the required number of readings.
15) Continue the test until the maximum value of the axial stress has been
passed and the peak is clearly defined, or until an axial strain of 20% has
been reached.
16) After completion of the test, reverse the compression machine and lower the
triaxial cell and then shut off the machine. Release the chamber pressure and
drain the water in the triaxial cell. Then remove the specimen and determine
its moisture content.
17) Calculation.
18) Calculate the final moisture content of the specimen, w

w(%) = moist weight of specimen – dry weight of specimen (100)

Dry weight of specimen

19) Calculate the initial area of the specimen

Ao = πDo2
4
20) Calculate the triaxial strain as

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= ΔL
Lo
Where ΔL = change in length measured by the axial
deformation gauge (in mm)

21) Graph
22) Draw a graph of the deviator stress (%) vs. axial strain (%). From this graph,
obtain the value of Δσ at failure (Δσ= Δσf).
23) The minor principle stress (total) on the specimen at failure is σ3 (i.e., cham-
ber confining pressure). Calculate the major principle stress (total) at failure
as:-

σ1 = σ3 + Δσf
24) Draw a Mohr’s circle with σ1 and σ3 as the major and minor principle stresses.
The radius of the Mohr’s circle is equal to cu.
25) Calculate the cross-sectional area, A (mm2), of the specimen, on the assump-
tion that it deforms as a right cylinder,

A= Ao .
1- Δ

26) Calculate the principal stress difference, ie. the deviator stress, (σ1- σ3) (in
kPa).

(σ1 – σ3) = P/A x 1000

27) Calculate the value of the shear strength, Cu (in kPa)

Cu = ½ (σ1 – σ3)f
28) Calculate the bulk density of the specimen, σ (in Mg/m3)

σ = 1000mo
AoLo

Where mo = total mass of the specimen (in g)

6.0 DISCUSSION

What are the importance of these tests?

7.0 RESULT

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SG08
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION TEST (ODOMETER TEST)

Reference Standard: BS1377: Part 5:1990: 3

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The odometer consolidation test is used for the determination of the consolidation
characteristics of soil for low permeability. The compressibility of soil which is
measure of the amount by which the soil will compress when loaded and allowed

SG11
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION TEST (ODOMETER TEST)

Reference Standard: BS1377: Part 5:1990: 3

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The odometer consolidation test is used for the determination of the consolidation
characteristics of soil for low permeability. The compressibility of soil which is
measure of the amount by which the soil will compress when loaded and allowed
consolidating.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The test is carried out by applying a sequence of seven vertical loading and three
unloading to laterally confined specimen having a height of 20mm and 50mm
diameter. The vertical compression under each load is observed over a period of
time. Since no lateral deformation is allowed, it is a one dimensional test, from which
the one dimensional consolidation parameter are derived, other parameters that are
determined from the test are the pre-compressions stress, Pc and compression index
Cc.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

To obtain the amount of settlement and the time is needed for the sample to consoli-
date. Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement of the soil surface corre-
sponding to the volume change at any stage of the consolidation.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Consolidation press or load frame.

ii) Apparatus of the test:
1. Consolidation cell
i. Consolidation ring (cutting ring), 75mm internal diameter and
20mm high of stainless steel or plated brass or gunmetal, rigid
with polished internal surface and cutting edge.
ii. Cell body and base (watertight)
iii. Consolidation ring retainer and fixing screws or nut.
iv. Loading cap (pressure pad) .
v. Two porous discs of ceramic ware, sintered bronze or sintered
fused aluminums oxide and free draining with plane upper and
lower surface.
iii) Rigid stand or bench to which the load frame can be bolted.
iv) Calibrated masses, the exact value of which should be known to an accu-
racy of 1%:

Slot weights 10no. x 10kg

5no. x 5kg
2no. x 2kg
2no. x 1kg
2no. x 500g
v) Two wire-saws, one of a fine piano wire and other a spiral wire-saw.
vi) A metal straight edge such as a steel strip about 300mm long, 25mm wide
and 3mm thick with one beveled edge.
vii) A flat glass plate (a convenient size is one 10mm thick and 500mm
square).
viii) Means of measuring the height of the test specimen or depth of the
consolidation ring to an accuracy of 0.1mm, eg vernier caliper of
micrometer screw gauge.
ix) Apparatus for moisture content determination.

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x) Filter paper whatman no 54 or similar grade. One filter paper to be place

on top of the test specimen and shall have a diameter equal to the inside
diameter of the consolidation ring; one filter paper to be place at the
bottom of the specimen shall have a diameter which need not less than
outside diameter of the consolidation ring.
xi) A supply of water at room temperature.
xii) A watch glass or metal tray, some what larger in diameter than the
consolidation ring.

5.0 PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL

CONSOLIDATION (OEDOMETER) TEST

1. Weight the sample and measure the height. Put it into the consolidation cell
and install the vertical displacement transducer on top of the cell.
2. Go to DS7 program. Select machine - Oedometer.
3. Select new sample. Fill in the sample parameter.
4. Initialize the vertical displacement transducer.
5. Consolidation.
5.1 First stage – load an initial weight of 250g on the lever.
5.1.1 Start count down and check the vertical displacement transducer
reading until a constant level is reached. Stop stage.
5.1.2 Repeat procedure (5) but double the weight on the lever on each
incremental load. (500g, 1kg, 2kg, 4kg, 8kg, 16kg, 32kg)
6. Unloading stage
6.1 Unload the weights on the lever to ¼ of the last stage. (8kg)
6.2 Repeat stage (7.1)
8. End all stages. Weigh the wet sample. Dry the sample in the oven and weigh
the dry sample.

The test is complete.

6.0 RESULT

i) The H in mm shall be calculated from each load increment. The equiva-

lent height of the solid particles, Hs in mm, shall be calculated from equa-
tion:

Hs = Ms X 1000
GsPw X A

Where ;
Ms = the dry mass of specimen (g)
Gs = the specific gravity of the soil particle.
A= the area of the specimen (mm2)
Pw = the density of water (Mg/m3)

ii) The void ratio at the end of each loading or unloading stage shall be cal-
culated from the equation

e = H – Hs
Hs

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iii) The coefficient of volume compressibility, mv in m 2 shall be calculated as

follow;
Mv = H1 – H2 X 1000
H1 P1 – P2

Where ;

H1 = is the height of the specimen at the start of a

loading increment (in mm)

H2 = is the height of the specimen at the end of that in-

crement (in mm)

P1 = is the pressure applied to the specimen for the

previous loading stage (in kPa)

P2 = is the pressure applied to the specimen for the

loading stage being considered (in kPa).

iv) Coefficient of consolidation Cv. Use one method between two method of
Square root of time fitting method and Logarithm of time fitting method.
v) Square root of time fitting method, draw the straight line which best fits the
early portion of the plot between the compression gauge readings and the
square root of elapse time shall be extended it to intersect the ordinate of
zero time, this intersection represents the corrected zero point. Draw the
straight line shall then be drawn through the corrected zero point which at
all points which at all point has abscissae 1.15 as great as those of the
best fit line previously drawn. The intersection of this line and curve drawn
through the plotted results shall be taken as the 90% primary compres-
sion point. Its abscissa, t90 shall be read off from the graph and the coeffi-
cient of consolidation, Cv (in m2/year), computed from the following equa-
tion;

Cv = 0.111 H2
T90

Where;
Cv = the average thickness for the load increment (mm);
T90 = expressed in minutes.

Logarithm of time fitting method, the two straight portions of the laboratory
curve when the compression gauge reading are plotted against the loga-
rithm of time shall be extended to intersect to give the point of 100% pri-
mary compression. The corrected zero point shall be located by marking of
the different in ordinate between any two points on the initial portion of the
curve, which is parabolic with, time in the ratio of 1 to 4, and laying off an
equal distance above the upper point. The corrected zero point thus ob-
tained shall be checked by retrial. With the zero and 100% points known,
the 50% primary compression shall be located and its time, t 50 (minutes),
obtained. The consolidation coefficient, Cv in m 2/year, shall then be com-
puted from the following equation:

Cv = 0.026 H2
T50

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7.0 DISCUSSION

What are the importances of these tests?

SG12
MACKINTOSH PROBE

Reference Standard: BS 1377: part 9, clause 3.2, DIN 4094, parts 1 and 2; ISSMFE
1977

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Mackintosh or JKR probes are usually used in preliminary S.I to acquire the
undrained shear strength (indirectly through correlations) and consistency of the
subsoil layering for very soft to soft soils. It assists in interpolation between boreholes
or piezocones. Figure 1 shows the probe details. This method is also effective in
identifying localized soft or weak materials or slip plane. However the major limitation
of the method is shallow depth.

Figure 1. Mackintosh and JKR probes

2.0 PRINCIPLES

In spite of the controversy over the use of light dynamic cone penetrometer, it is
widely used in Malaysia as a tool for preliminary site investigation works. Currently in
use is a proprietary penetrometer known as a Mackintosh Probe which is essentially
a mining respecting tool but adapted for use as a sounding probe by engineers.
Some details of the Mackintosh probe has been described by Jewkes (1954) and
Chin et al (1970) conducted laboratory tests to rely the relationship between the
penetration resistance of the Mackintosh probe and the ultimate bearing capacity of
remoulded residual soils. Chan and Chin (1972) gave correlation between the
Mackintosh probe and the standard Penetration test for cohesive soils.

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Figure 2.1: Allowable Bearing Capacity v.s JKR Dynamic cone penetration resistance
(After Ooi and Ting ,1975)

Figure 2.2: Comparison between JKR probe and SPT

3.0 OBJECTIVES

To determine the thickness of soft deposit such as peat

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Steel rods dia. 12.5 mm, and length of each rods is 4 ft (120 cm)
ii) Coupling
iii) Cased harden steel pointer of 25 mm. diameter and 30º cone
iv) Drop hammer
v) Drive head

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Figure 3: Mackintosh probe apparatus

5.0 PROCEDURES

a) Preparation of apparatus

i) The pointer is screwed onto the lower end of the rod.

ii) More rods can be connected to one another via a coupling.
iii) The rods are threaded at the ends after it has been built up to 14 mm by
welding. Bearing of the rod before welding is necessary to ensure that
brittle failure due to welding stresses does not occur.

b) Testing

i) Put mackintosh probe on soil with the cased harden steel pointer screwed
onto the lower end of the rod.
ii) Mark every 30 cm on rod until it reaches the required depth.
iii) Records the total number of blows required for the pointer to penetrate a
distance of 30 cm depth in a given table.

iv) Stop the test if the total number of blows reaches 400 blows at every 30
cm depth because it is means the pointer has raised a hard layer. If the
steel rod has penetrate to 18 m depth but the total number of blows didn’t

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reach 400 at a distance of 30 cm depth, then stop the test because it has
raised a maximum limit.
v) The probe, depending on the ground conditions, can be used to a maxi-
mum depth of 18 m.

6.0 RESULT

i) The total number of blows for Mackintosh Resistances; if number of blows

< 10; it means the ground consist sandy silt, clay and cohensionless soil
where it’s not stable. The pile can be penetrating to the ground for
distributed the load.
ii) The total number of blows for Mackintosh Resistances; if 10< number of
blows<40; it means the ground consists wet, fine sand or sand consist
clay with a different grading from soft until firm clay. From bearing plate
test, it gives that for settlement less than 0.15 in. for every 30 cm depth of
soil, the load is still in elastic condition.
iii) The total number of blows for Mackintosh Resistances; if number of
blows>40; it means the ground consists wet sand and sandy clay with a
different grading from firm until very hard. From bearing plate test, it gives
that the ratio between load and settlement are nearest to constant.

7.0 DISCUSSION

i) Discuss and classify the type of soil from the ground in this test
ii) Discuss the pros and ‘cons of this test

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Mackintosh Probe Test Result

Project:
______________________________________________________________

Job No.:____________________________________________

Location of Project: ___________________________________

Boring: _____________________Sample No.: ______________

Description of Soil:
___________________________________________________________________
___

Test Performed by: ___________________________________

Date of Test: ________________________________________

Blows/Layer: ________________________________________

No. of Layers: _______________________________________

Mass of rammer: _____________ N

Mold dimensions:-

Diameter: __________________ cm

Height: ____________________ cm

Volume: ___________________ cm3

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HIDRAULIC
&
HYDROLOGY
LABORATORY

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HH01
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Venturi is a device for measuring the discharge along a pipe. The fluid flowing in
the pipe is led through a contraction section to a throat, which has a smaller cross-
sectional area than the pipe, so that the velocity of the fluid through the throat is
higher than that in the pipe. The increase of velocity is accompanied by a fall of
pressure, where the magnitude depends on the rate of flow. By measuring the
pressure drop, the discharge will be calculated. Beyond the throat the fluid decelerate
in a pipe of slowly diverging section, the pressure increases as the velocity falls.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

Consider the flow of incompressible fluid through the convergent-divergent pipe

shown in Fig. 1. The cross-sectional area at the upstream (section 1) is A 1, at the
throat (section 2) is A2, and at any other arbitrary (section n) is An. Peizometer tubes
at these sections registered as h1, h2 and hn as shown.

Figure 1: Ideal conditions in a Venturi meter

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Assuming that there is no loss of energy along the horizontal pipe, and that the
velocity and peizometer heads are constant across each of the sections considered,
then Bernoulli’s theorem states that

(1)

in which u1, u2 and un are the velocities of flow through section 1, 2 and n. The
equation of continuity is:

(2)

in which Q denoted the volume-flow or discharge rate.

Substituting in equation (1) for u1 from equation (2):

(3)

and solving this equation for u2 leads to:

(4)

In practice, there is some loss of energy between sections 1 and 2, and the velocity
is not absolutely constant across either of these conditions. As a results, measured
values of Q usually fall a little as calculated from equation (3) and this discrepancy is
usually written as:

In which Cd is known as the flow coefficient of the Venturi meter, which (5)
can be
established by experiment. Its values vary slightly from one meter to another, and

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even for a given meter it may vary slightly with discharge, usually lies within the
range 0.92 – 0.99.

The ideal pressure distribution along the convergent-divergent pipe can be derived
from Bernoulli’s equation:

(6)

For the purpose of calculation and comparison of the experimental results, it is

convenient to express (hn – h1) as a fraction of the velocity head at the throat of the
meter, i.e.

(7)

Substituting on the right hand side area ratios in place of velocity ratios from the
equation of continuity (2), the ideal pressure becomes:

(8)

3.0 OBJECTIVES

viii) i) To determine the variation of flow coefficient, C d with Q through the

Venturi meter.
ii) To make comparison between the measured and ideal pressure distribution
along the Venturi meter.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Venturi meter apparatus.

ii) Flow measurement tank.
iii) Stop watch.

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Figure 2: Arrangement of Venturi meter apparatus

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) Open the control and supply valve to allow the water flow for a few seconds to
clear air pockets from the supply system.
ii)Close the valve gradually, so that the meter is subjected to increase pressure,
which will cause water to pass up the peizometer tube.
iii) When the water levels have risen to a convenient height, close the bench valve.
iv) Open the control valve successively to allow the water flow, record the water
level in peizometer tubes along the Venturi meter.
v) Measure the flow rate by collecting the volume of water in the weighing tank and
time.
vi) Repeats steps 4 and 5 for a different water level.

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HH02
CENTRE OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic structures constructed for the purpose of retaining water are subjected to
hydrostatic forces as long as water is at rest. Therefore, it is important to determine
the magnitude, the direction and the location of these forces.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

Resultant force, F on submerged flat surface is given by,

F = ρghA (1)

ρ = fluids density (kg/m3)

g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h = the vertical distance from centroid of the area (CG) to the fluid surface
A = area of submerged surface (m2)

The force, F is acting through centre of pressure, CP and it is at y p distance from

O (Fig. 1). O is the interception point of the surface water line and the plane sur-
face. The distance of yp is measured in the direction of the plane surface.

CG

CP

Figure 1: Schematic of Centre of Pressure Apparatus

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From theory, yp is:

yp(theory) = y + IPG (2)

Ay

where, IPG = 2nd moment of area of the submerged surface.

For rectangular shape, IPG is,
= bd3/12 (m4) (3)
A = area of plane section,
= bd (4)
y = distance from the centre of gravity (CG) to O
(Fig. 1)

Refer to Fig. 1, y is given by,

y = h / cos θ (5)

where h is the vertical distance from centre of gravity of the submerged surface
to (CG) to the water surface. But the magnitude of h is given by,

h = (h1 + h2) / 2 (6)

By taking moment at P,

Fy = Wgs (7)

but

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y = yp + R1 – (h1 / cos θ) (8)

where R1 is the radius of the water container. Thus the value of experimental yp is

yp(experiment) = y – R1 + (h1 / cos θ) (9)

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) To determine the magnitude of hydrostatic force which acting on vertical and

inclined plane submerged surfaces.
ii) To determine the location of hydrostatic force, y p (both theoretical and
experimental by experimental and theoretical, yps.
iii) To compare theoretical and experimental yp values.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Hydrostatic pressure equipment

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) Adjust the container of the hydrostatic pressure to make sure its plane sur-
face is in vertical section.
ii) Measures: (a) width of the plane surface, (b) height of the plane surface, (c) ra-
dius of the water container and (d) the length of lever arm.
iii) Pour the water into the balancing container
iv) Attach the load of 350 g to the container arm.
v) Add the amount of water as in step (3) to balance up the load attached in step
(4) and make sure the lever arm is in horizontal position.
vi) Measure and record h1 and h2.
vii) Repeat steps (4) to (6) for loads 400 g and 450 g.
viii) Repeat steps (2) to (7) by adjusting the plane surface to make an angle of 20 0 to
vertical.

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HH03
LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The capacity to do work is called energy. Water flow in pipelines require energy. The
energy is in a form of elevation, velocity and pressure. Between points of flow, there
also occur lost of energy or what is called head loss.

The head loss effects pressure and/or velocity within the pipelines. This in turn
impact the flow capacity of water within a piping system.

The science in hydraulics is primarily concerned with determination of the magnitude

of energy loss or head loss (hL) under various circumstances.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

Total energy at a given location in a piping system is :

Total Energyn = Pressure head + pn Elevation head zn + Velocity head V2n

 2g

Based on the law of conservation of energy, the total energy at each point in the
piping system is:

p1 + z1 + V12 = p2 + z2 + V22
 2g  2g
where:
v = average velocity (m2/s)
p = static pressure (N/m2)
z = height above datum (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )
1, 2 = location in the piping system.

However in the actual situation, there is energy loss due to friction in pipe during the
flow of the water. Thus, the equation above include the head loss or energy loss.
p1 + z1 + V12 = p2 + z2 + V22 + HL 1-2
 2g  2g

where:
HL 1-2 = Head losses between point 1 and 2

In the experimental test, the piezometric head can be measured which is the reading
on the manometer tube. The above formula can be simplified by substituting
piezometric head (equation 1) into the formula:

h1 + v12 = h2 + v22 + HL 1-2

2g 2g

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where;
h1 is a piezometric head (reading at point 1).
h2 is a piezometric head (reading at point 2).

From the experiment find h1 and h2. The value of v1 and v2 can be found by solving
the continuity equation (Q=v/A). Thus, HL 1-2 can be determine for each flow rate (Q)
tested. The experiment should have at least 5 flow rates (Q). This can be done by
adjusting the opening of the valve so that flow rate will be different each time tested.

Formula of head loss in piping system components.

Head Losses for expansion

HL 1-2 = (v1 – v2 ) 2
2g

Head Losses for contraction

HL 1-2 = K V2 2
2g

where loss coefficient K depends upon area ratio between point 1 and 2.

Table 1: Loss coefficient for sudden contraction.

A2/A1 K A2/A1 K
0 0.50 0.4 0.30
0.1 0.46 0.6 0.18
0.2 0.41 0.8 0.06
0.3 0.36 1.0 0

Head Losses for straight long pipe

HL calculation for long pipes is:

HL = 4 f L v 2 2
2gd

where:
f = friction factors.
L = pipe length
d = pipe diameter

f depends on Moody Diagram – which is a chart of froude versus Reynolds number

for certain type of pipe.

Figure 1 is a Moody Diagram. Use smooth pipe (copper) chart to

figure out the froude number.

Reynolds number (R) calculation is:

R=v.D
v

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where v is average velocity D is diameter and v is viscosity of water

v depends on Temperature. v for 20o C is 1x10-6 m2/s

(Find viscosity table in the internet to verify the 20o C value)

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LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM

The equipment

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Figure 1: Moody Diagram

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3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) The experiment should verify the law of conservation of energy in piping sys-
tem.
ii) To determine the relationship between head loss and flow in piping system.
iii) To confirm head loss from experiment to head loss calculated from known for-
mula.

4.0 APPARATUS

Components in the piping system are;

i) A pump
ii) Pipe components: Long pipe section, expansion section, contraction sec-
tion etc.
iii) Volumetric tank
iv) Manometer tube
v) Valve
vi) Stop watch

5.0 PROCEDURES

Water is pumped into the piping system and flow out into a volumetric tank.
By measuring amount of water flow (V) into the volumetric tank and by timing
the flow (t), a flow rate (Q=V / t) can be calculated. Two manometer tubes are
attached to each section being investigated. Reading at the manometer tube
is called a piezometric head (h) which is pressure head (p / ) plus elevation
head (z).
piezometric head (h) = pressure head (p / ) + elevation head (z).

Based on the piezometric head, flow rate and formula of head loss in piping
system, it is enough to verify the objectives of this test.Three components in
the piping system that will be tested are a long pipe, an expansion section
and a contraction section.Take note that the test equipment has two pipe
lines which are parallel; a dark blue pipe line and a light blue pipe line. The
long pipe is located in the dark blue pipe line. Expansion and contraction
sections are located in the light blue pipe line. In order to test and take
measurement in the long pipe, valve on the light blue pipe line should be fully
closed and valve in dark blue pipe line should be open. Take at least 5 flow
rates (Q) by adjusting the open valve.

i) Turn on the pump

ii) Open the valve that is near to the pump (full opening).
iii) Let the water flow into the tank by opening both the valve on dark blue
pipeline and light blue pipeline. Make sure the hole in the tank is open.

DATA FOR LONG PIPE.

For 1st test data.

i) Close the valve that is on the light blue pipeline
ii) Start timer and close the hole in the tank.
iii) Read the reading at point M and N on the dark blue pipeline.
iv) Stop timer when the tank is filled with 5 liters of water. This will be the first
flow rate for long pipe.
v) Open back the hole.

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For 2nd test data.

vi) Adjust the opening of the valve on dark blue pipeline (semi closed).
vii) Start timer and close the hole in the tank.
viii) Read the reading at point M and N on the dark blue pipeline.
ix) Stop timer when the tank filled with 5 liters of water. This will be the first
flow rate for long pipe.
x) Open back the hole.

Repeat step 6 to 9 until you get 5 flow rates. Make sure the time between the tests is
about 20-25 seconds differences.

DATA FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION SECTION.

For 1st test data.

xi) Close the valve that is on the light blue pipeline
xii) Start timer and close the hole in the tank.
xiii) Read the reading at point M and N on the dark blue pipeline.
xiv) Stop timer when the tank is filled with 5 liters of water. This will be the first
flow rate for long pipe.
xv) Open back the hole.

For 2nd test data.

xvi) Adjust the opening of the valve on dark blue pipeline (semi closed).
xvii) Start timer and close the hole in the tank.
xviii) Read the reading at point M and N on the dark blue pipeline.
xix) Stop timer when the tank filled with 5 liters of water. This will be the first
flow rate for long pipe.
xx) Open back the hole.

Repeat step 6 to 9 until you get 5 flow rates. Make sure the time between the tests is
about 20-25 seconds differences.

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HH04
IMPACT OF JET

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A free jet is formed when a fluids is discharged from a nozzle or orifice. Disregarding
very small velocities of flow, it is found that the jet becomes completely turbulent at a
short distance from the point of discharge.

2.0 Principles

The force exercised by a jet on a surface is given according to the incidence angle of
the jet,  by:

Fy =  Q (V – V cos ) (1)

V=Q/A (2)

where,
Fy - Impact force
 - density of liquid

Q - volume flow rate

For a flat surface,  = 90, Equation (1) will then be

Fy =  Q (Q/A - 0) =  Q2/A (3)

For a curved flat surface,  = 120, Equation (1) will then be

Fy =  Q (Q/A + Q/2A) = 3/2  Q2/A (4)

For a hemispheric surface, = 180, Equation (1) will then be

Fy =  Q (Q/A + Q/A) = 2  Q2/A (5)

3.0 Objective

i) To verify the dependence of forces with the impact surface.

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4.0 Apparatus

i) An impact of jet apparatus equipped with a flat plate and curve plate (Fig 1).
ii) Stop watch.
iii) Weights.

Figure 1: Arrangement of Apparatus

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) Dismantle the top that leans on the transparent tray of the deposit in order to put
the plane surface in the place of the impact and hold the vertical bar that is part of
the force calibration system assembled on that top. Cover the deposit again.
ii)Place the set in the channel of the Hydraulic Bench connecting water inlet to its
drive.
iii) Adjust the index of the caliber until it is at the same height as the signal of the of
the auxiliary platform.
iv) Place a mass on the platform.
v) Start the operation of the pump of the hydraulic Bench. Allow the water passage
to crash againts the surface and adjust the signal of the platform to be at the
same height as the caliber index. In this balance situation, measure the outlet
flow by the nozzle and record the value of the mass placed on the platform.
vi) Repeat the above procedures by increasing the masses and flows, step by step.

vii) Repeat the whole process for the curved surface and the hemispheric sur-
face.

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HH05
CALIBRATION OF A PRESSURE GAUGE (DEAD WEIGHT PRESSURE)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device for measuring pressures. The Bourdon

pressure gauge shown in Fig 1 has a transparent dial through which the construction
may be viewed. The Bourdon pressure gauge consists essentially of a thin-walled
tube of oval cross-section, which is bent to a circular arc encompassing
approximately 270°. It is rigidly held at one end, where the pressure is admitted.
When pressure is applied, the tube tends to straighten, so that the free end moves
slightly.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

This movement operates a mechanism which drives a pointer round the graduated
dial, the movement of the pointer being proportional to the applied pressure. The
construction of the dead weight tester is also shown in Fig 1. A cylindrical piston, free
to move vertically in a closely-fitting cylinder, is loaded with known weights. The
space below the piston is filled with water, and the pressure is transmitted by the
water to the gauge under test through a transparent hose. The pressure generated
by the piston is easily found in terms of the total weight supported and the cross-
sectional area of the piston. The theoretical pressure exerted by the load assigned on
this cylindrical piston is given by:

P = F/A (1)

Where, P = pressure (N/m2)

F = force (N)
= mg
A = cross-sectional area of piston (m2)
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

3.0 OBJECTIVE

i) To perform calibration of a pressure gauge by comparing the experimental

and theoretical pressures.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Bourdon Gauge Pressure

ii) Weights

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Figure 1: Apparatus for calibration of pressure gauge

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) The weight of the piston, and its cross-sectional area, should be noted.
ii) To fill the cylinder, the piston is removed, and water is poured into the cylinder
until it is full to the overflow level.
iii) Any air trapped in the tube may be cleared by tilting and gently tapping the
apparatus. In point of fact, a small amount of air left in the system will not af-
fect the experiment, unless there is so much as to cause the piston to bottom
on the base of the cylinder.
iv) The piston is then replaced in the cylinder and allowed to settle. A spirit level
placed on the platform at the top of the piston may be used to ensure that the
cylinder stands quite vertically.
v) Weights are now added in convenient increments, and at each increment the
pressure gauge reading is observed.
vi) A similar set of results is then taken with decreasing weights.
vii) To guard against the piston sticking in the cylinder, it is advisable to rotate the
piston gently while the pressure gauge is being read.

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HH06
FLOW OVER WEIR

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As the depth of flow above the base of a notch is related to the volume flow rate
through it, the notch forms a useful flow measurement device. The classical results
for flow over notches are obtained by an application of the Bernoulli equation, from a
point well up-stream to a point just above the notch.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

This approach requires a number of very substantial assumptions and it yields the
following results:

For rectangular notch ____

Q = 2/3 Cd b 2.g h2/3
Where:
Cd is the unloading coefficient
b is the width of the neckline or the width of the weir
h is the height of the load or the height of the water on the crest or weir
threshold.

For the V-shape weir

___
Q = 8/15 Cd  2g tan /2 h5/2

Where:
Cd is the unloading coefficient
/2 is the vertex semi-angle or the neckline
h is the load height

The coefficient Cd is required to accommodate the effects of the simplified

assumptions in the theory. These can be rearranged to give:

For Rectangular notch

Cd = 3Q
____
2 b (2g) H 3/2

For Vee notch

Cd = 3Q __
____
8 tan (/2) (2g) H 5/2

3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) To determine the characteristics of open-channel flow over, a rectangular

notch and then a triangular (Vee) notch and
ii) To determine values of the discharge coefficient, Cd for both notches.
4.0 APPARATUS

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i) Set of flow over weir apparatus

ii) Hydraulic Bench
iii) Stop watch

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) Place the support with the nonius at the half, approximately, of the distance
between the weir and the screen
iii) Supply water to the channel until it unloads through the weir Close the supply
control valve and stop the pump
iv) Let the water level in the channel to stabilize
v) Once a minimum precise contact between the point of the lancet, or the tan-
gency
point of the hook, and the free surface of water has taken place, adjust and
immobilize the nonius of the caliber to zero.
vi) Supply water to the channel adjusting the flow control valve to obtain,
successively, step increments of the load height, h
vii) In each step increment of the flow, and once the regimen conditions are stabi-
lized, measure and note down the value of the load height as well as the flow
using the scale in the volumetric tank and the chronometer
viii)With the values obtained in the practice, complete the following table.

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HH07
OPEN CHANNEL

HH07A
Open Channel: Flow Over A Sharp Crested Weir

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The sharp crested weir is frequently used as a device for measuring discharge in a
channel. It is simple to install, and provided that it conforms to prescribed
requirement, it may be used with confidence in conjunction with standard calibration
data. In this experiment we establish the relationship between head over the weir and
discharge.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The discharge, Q in L/s is obtained simply by dividing W in kgf by t in s, since the

weight of one liter of water is one kgf. To obtain the value of C, we see from equation
(1) that
C= Q (1)
2 x B x (2gh3/2)1/2
3

3.0 OBJECTIVE

i) To establish relationship between head over the weir and discharge for a
sharp crested weir.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Sharp crested weir with air vent

ii) Dial Vernier depth gauge
iii) Steel rule
iv) Stop watch

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) Set the channel horizontal using screw jack checked by depth gauges at both end.
ii)Measure height of weir by steel rule.
iii) Place weir vertically in the channel approximately 0.5 m upstream of the outlet.
iv) Rest a depth gauge on the weir crest and use the reading as a reference.
v) Admit water to the channel using control valve until a convenient maximum flow
is obtained.
vi) The discharge is then measured by timing the collection of a known weight of wa-
ter.
vii) During the timed interval, the head over the weir is measured using the depth
gauge at distance of 0.3 meter upstream of the weir.
viii)The flow is then reduced in stages where the discharge rate and the head above
the weir is measured at each stage with weir head ranging from 50 mm to 25
mm.

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HH07B
Open Channel: Flow Over A Venturi Flume

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Ventri flume is formed by a smooth contraction in the cross-section of a channel,

along which the water accelerates to a throat, followed by a smooth expansion back
to the original cross-section. In the expanding section the water may continue to
accelerate in a supercritical flow, or it may decelerate in a subcritical flow. If there is
supercritical flow in the expanding section, the conditions at the throat must be
critical. This feature permits the flume to be used as measuring device, needing only
measurement of the upstream head to obtain the discharge. Compared with the weir
it is usually more expensive to build, but it has the advantages of utilizing a lower
head than that required by a weir, and of being effectively self-cleaning.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The discharge, Q in L/s is obtained simply by dividing W in kgf by t in s, since the

weight of one liter of water is one kgf. The velocity upstream V1 is obtained simply by
dividing Q by the cross sectional area of the flow upstream, and to obtain the result in
m/s we use SI units, as follows:

V1 = (Q/1000) (1)
(B/1000) (y1/1000)

in which V1 appears in units of m/s provided that Q is in unit of L/s and both B and y 1
are units of mm. The specific energy is obtained from

E = y1 + V12 (2)
2g

by taking account the appropriate units. To obtain E in unit of mm, V 12/2g is also
expressed in mm, so that

E = y1 + 1000 V12 (3)

2g

in which V1 is in unit of m/s and g in unit of m/s2. Finally, C is obtained from

C= (Q/1000) (4)
(Bc/1000) (g)1/2 [2/3(E/1000)]2/3
3.0 OBJECTIVES

i) To observe the use of the Venturi flume as a measuring device through

measurement of upstream head to obtained discharge.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Venturi flume
ii) Depth gauge
iii) Internal calipers

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iv) Steel rule

v) Pitot tube
vi) Sluice gate
vii) Stop watch

5.0 PROCEDRUES

i). Set channel to a mild slope of 1/1500

ii). Set the Venturi Flume carefully in position at a station approximately 2 meter up-
stream of the outlet from the channel.
iii) Place the leading edge of the contraction at a convenient point of the scale
(say at 3 meter point)
iv) Measure the width of the channel and the throat of the flume.
v) Set depth gauge so that it reads zero just as it touches the channel bed.
vi) Set the pitot tube so that the division which are marked at 10 mm intervals repre-
sent 10 mm steps from the channel bed.
vii)Admit water into the channel by opening the control valve and observe the flow
through the flume (flow accelerate along the contraction and the diverging por-
tions, becoming supercritical in the diverging section and remaining supercritical
right up to the channel outlet).

viii) By reducing the sluice gate opening at the outlet, observe the following, a stand-
ing wave is produced between the Venturi Flume outlet and the sluice gate.
When the standing wave advances to the throat, the flow there ceases to be criti-
cal and the upstream level will then rise.
ix) Start the experiment with maximum flow, collect the discharge of supercritical
flow over a timed interval and measure the depth at a point 0.3 m upstream.
x) Reduce the flow in steps and time the collected discharge and depth at 0.3 m up-
stream.

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HH08
SERIES AND PARALLEL PUMP TEST SET

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Pumps are used to transfer fluid in system, either to the same level or to a new
height. The flow rate depends on the height to which the fluid is pumped, and the
relationship between “head” and flow rate is called the “pump characteristics”. This
has to be determined experimentally for a pump and series and parallel pumps. Test
set provides a low cost and effective way of demonstrating how this is achieved, and
enabling more detailed experiments to be done.

Often in civil engineering applications a single pump deliver the flow rate or head
necessary for a particular need, and two ( or more in practice ) can be combined in
series to increase the height to which the fluid can be pumped, or in parallel to
increase the flow rate.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

Centrifugal pumps are commonly used for conveying fluids like liquids or even semi-
solids from one level or location to another.

An impeller consisting of a disc which carries a number of curved vanes, rotates

within a fixed spiral chamber called the volute. Rotation of the impeller will cause
liquid to be drawn in from the inlet pipe into the rotating passages between the
vanes. The centrifugal effect of rotation would produce an increase in pressure
normally known as total head. The fluid is discharged from the rotating passages with
the spiral chamber, which delivers to the outlet pipe.

Pumps in Series and Parallel

(1) Two or more pumps may be connected in series. The characteristics of two
pumps in series is obtained by doubling the values of head on the character-
istic of a single pump as indicated in Figure 1.

(2) Pumps connected arallel shown in Figure 2, the characteristics are calcu-
lated.

Figure 1 : Pumps Operating in Series.

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Figure 2 : Pumps Operating In Parallel.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

i) To study the performance characteristics of a single centrifugal pump and two

of similar pumps operating in series and parallel.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Series and Parallel Pump Test Set

ii) Volumetric Hydraulic Bench

5.0 PROCEDURES

i) Measure the dimensions of the stainless steel collection tank.

ii) Arrange the operation flow sequence for a single pump.
iii) Start the pump/pumps and regulate the flow. Record the time required to
collect water in the measuring tank for 5 liters.
iv) Read the values of pressure from the pressure gauge, for a specified voltage
and current.

v) Repeat steps (iii) and (iv) with for different flow rates.

vi) Compute the efficiency of power input and output of the pumps/pumps.

Power output = ρ g Q H P ,where H = head

ρg

Power input = voltage x current x power factor

Where power factor <1

Efficiency, η = Power output

Power input
= ρgQH ,W = electrical power input to pump
W

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vii) Draw the pumps characteristics curves Q vs H, Q vs. Power output and Q vs.
efficiency.

viii) Arrange the operation flow sequence for two pumps in series according to
experiment instructor. Repeat the steps from (iii) to (vii).

ix) Arrange the operation flow sequence for two pumps in parallel according to
experiment instructor. Repeat the steps from (iii) to (vii).

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HH09
RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIP (HYDROLOGY APPARATUS)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The derivation of relationship between the rainfall over a catchment area and the
resulting flow in a river is a fundamental problem for the hydrologist. To facilitate
comparisons of values for rainfall and river discharge which are expressed in similar
terms.

2.0 PRINCIPLES

The amount of precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) falling on a catchment area is normally
expressed in millimeters (mm) depth, but may be converted into a total volume of
water, cubic meter (m3) falling on the catchment. Alternatively, the river discharge
(flow rate), measured in cubic meter per second (m 3/s) for a comparable time period
may be converted into total volume (m3) and expressed as an equivalent depth of
water (mm) over the catchment area. The discharge, often termed runoff for the
defined period of time, is then easily compared with rainfall depths over the same
time period. Estimating runoff or discharge from rainfall measurements is very much
dependent on the timescale being considered. For short durations (hours) the
complex interrelationship between rainfall and runoff is not easily defined, but as the
time period lengthens, the connection becomes simpler. On an annual basis, a
straight-line correlation may be obtained.

Naturally, the size of the area being considered also affects the relationship. For very
small areas of a homogenous nature – a stretch of motorway, say – the derivation of
the relationship could be fairly simple; for very large drainage basins on a national or
even international scale and for long time periods, differences in catchment affects
are smoothed out giving relatively simple rainfall-runoff relationships.

Fig. 1 illustrates the streamflow hydrograph and rainfall hyetogram. The hydrograph
of discharge against time has two main components, the area under hump, labellled
surface runoff (which is produced by a volume of water derived from the storm
event), and the broad band near the time axis, representing baseflow contributed
from groundwater.

Figure. 1: Rainfall Hydrograph

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At the beginning of the rainfall, the river level (and hence the discharge) is low and
the period of time elapses before the river begins to rise. During this period the
rainfall is being intercepted by vegetation or is soaking into the ground and making
up soil-moisture deficits. The length of the delay before the river rises depends on the
wetness of the catchment before the storm and on the intensity of the rainfall itself.

When the rainfall has made up catchment deficits and when surfaces and soil are
saturated, the rain begins to contribute to the streamflow. The proportion of rainfall
that finds its way into a river is known as the effective rainfall, the rest being lost (to
quick runoff) in evaporation, detention on the surface or retention in the soil. As the
storm proceeds, proportion of effective rainfall increases and that of lost rainfall
decreases (loss curve).

The main aims of the engineering hydrologist are to quantify the various components
of the hyetogram and the hydrograph, by analyzing past events, in order to relate
effective rainfall to surface runoff, and thereby to be able to estimate and design for
future events.

3.0 OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the experiment is to determine the hydrograph curve

(Discharge versus time) for:

i) Storm occurs in the upstream part of the catchment.

ii) Storm occurs in the whole catchment area.
iii) Multiple storms occurs in the whole catchment area.

4.0 APPARATUS

i) Rainfall-runoff equipments
ii) Stop watch.

5.0 PROCEDURES

Case 1: To determine the flow depth – discharge

i) Make sure the pipe direction towards the flow depth gauge container and not
towards the catchment area.
ii) Adjust the valve to a fixed discharge value.
iii) Let the water flow to the depth gauge container until the water surface is
stable. Record the flow depth and use the table given.
iv) Repeat step (b) and (c) for a few more discharge values.

Case 2: To determine rainfall hydrograph for the whole catchment area

i) Open the valve and allow the rain falling to cover the whole area and quickly
start the stop watch.
ii) Allow the rainfall occurs for a few minutes and then close the valve. Look at
the flow depth gauge container for any changes on the depth.

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iii) Water level in the flow depth gauge container will increase slowly. Record the
depth against time until the level falling down to consistently low level and
use the table given.

Case 3: To determine the rainfall hydrograph at the upstream area

i) Repeat the steps as in the Case 2 for the rainfall at upstream only

Case 4: To determine the multiple rainfall hydrograph at the whole area

i) Repeat the steps as in the Case 2 for the multiple rainfall by allowing the
rainfall for a few minutes and then stop the rainfall for a few minutes and
next start the rainfall again and stop the rainfall and so on.

Pump Efficiency

Pump efficiency is calculated from η = Q∆p

W

Where Q is the flow through each pump and ∆p is the pressure rise across it. Care
should be taken when calculating the individual efficiency of pumps in series and par-
allel.

In series, the flow through each pump is equal to the measured flow, but the pressure
rise across the upstream pump is approximately ( p1 – p2 ).

For parallel flow, the flowrate through each pump is half the measured value.

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ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
LABORATORY

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EE01
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is usually defined as the amount of oxygen

required by bacteria while stabilising decomposable organic matter under aerobic
conditions. The term ‘decomposable’ may be interpreted as meaning that the organic
matter can serve as food for the bacteria and energy is derive from its oxidation.

In aerobic processes (O2 is present), heterotropic bacteria oxidise about 1/3 of the
colloidal and dissolved organic matter to stable end products (CO 2 + H2O) and
convert the remaining 2/3 into new microbial cells that can be removed from the
wastewater by settling.

The overall biological conversion proceeds sequentially, with oxidation of

carbonaceous material as the first step known as carbonaceous oxygen demand
(see Figure E2-1):

Organic matter + O2 CO2 + H2O + new cells

Under continuing aerobic conditions, autotrophic bacteria then convert the nitrogen in
organic compounds to nitrates (known as nitrification oxygen demand)

Organic-Nitrogen Ammonia-Nitrogen (decomposition)

and

NH3 - N + O2 Nitrate-Nitrogen (nitrification)

Nitrifying bacteria

Nitrification oxygen
demand
BOD (mg/L)

Ultimate carbonaceous BOD

BOD 5-days

Carbonaceous oxygen demand

Time, days

Figure E2-1 : BOD curve

The ultimate BOD (Lo) is defined as the maximum BOD exerted by the waste.
The carbonaceous oxygen demand curve can be expressed mathematically as

BODt = Lo(1-10-KT)

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where BODt = biochemical oxygen demand at time t, mg/L

Lo = ultimate BOD, mg/L
t = time, days
K = reaction rate constant, day-1

Most biological processes speed up as the temperature increases and slow down as
the temperature drops. The rate of utilization is affected by temperature the
relationship for the change in the reaction rate constant (K) with temperature is
expressed as

where KT = reaction rate constant at temperature T, per day

K20 = reaction rate constant at 20oC, per day
 = temperature coefficient = 1.047
T = temperature of biological reaction,oC

Ultimate BOD (Lo)

where
L
T o = ultimate BOD at temperature T, mg/L
L
20 o = ultimate BOD at 20oC, mg/L

2.0 OBJECTIVE

1. To determine the pollutional strength of domestic and industrial wastes in

terms of the oxygen that they will require in oxidation process.
2. To determine the constant rate value, K

3.0 APPARATUS

1. BOD bottles
2. BOD incubator (Temperature = 20oC)

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4.0 REAGENTS

Phosphate buffer
Dissolve each 8.5 g KH2PO4, 21.75 g K2HPO4, 33.4 g Na2HPO4 7H2O dissolved 1.7 g
NH4CI in distilled water to prepare 1 litter of solution. Adjust pH 7.2.

Magnesium Sulphate
Dissolve 27.5 g MgSO4.7H2O in distilled water to prepare 1 litre of solution.

Calcium Chloride
Dissolve 27.5 g of anhydrous CaCI2 in distilled water to prepare 1 litre of solution.

Ferric Chloride
Dissolve 0.25 g FeCl3 6H2O in distilled water to prepare 1 litre of solution.

5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Prepare dilution water in a glass container by bubbling compressed air in

distilled water for about 30 minutes. Add 1 ml each of phosphate buffer,
magnesium sulphate, calcium chloride and ferric chloride for each litre of
dilution water & mix thoroughly.
2. Neutralise the sample to pH around 7.0 by using 1 N NaOH or H2SO4.
3. Since the DO in the sample is likely to be exhausted, it is usually necessary to
prepare a suitable dilution of the sample according to the expected BOD
range. See the table given below for the dilution of the sample

Volume of sample (mL) Range of BOD value (mg/L)

0.02 30 000 – 105 000
0.05 12 000 – 42 000
0.10 6 000 – 21 000
0.20 3 000 – 10 500
0.50 1 200 – 4 200
1.00 600 – 2 100
2.00 300 – 1 050
5.00 120 – 420
10.00 60 – 210
20.00 30 – 105
50.00 12 – 42
100.00 6 – 21

4. Prepare dilutions in the bucket, mix the content thoroughly. Fill the water into
the BOD bottles. Determine the DO content with oxygen meter and after that
keep it in the BOD incubator at 30oC.
5. Determine DO content in the sample bottles for day 1, 2 and 3.

6.0 CALCULATION

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where:

BOD = biochemical oxygen deman, mg/L

DOi = initial DO of the diluted waste water sample about 15 min. after
preparation, mg/L
DOt = final DO of the diluted wastewater sample after incubation for t days,
mg/L

P = dilution factor

From the experiment results of BOD for various values of t, calculate [time/BOD t]1/3
for each day.

Plot [t/ BODt]1/3 versus t

7.0 RESULT

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

pH value ______________
NaOH or HCl volume ______________

DO0 DOt BODt

Time, t (t/BODt)1/3
( mg/L ) ( mg/L ) ( mg/L)

5.0 DISCUSSION

i) Plot (t/BODt)1/3 versus t.

ii) From the graph, determine the intercept (A) and slope (B) and calculate
the K value where K = 2.61 (B/A).
iii) Calculate value of BOD5 at 20oC.

9.0 CONCLUSION

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EE02
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)- OPEN REFLUX METHOD)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The COD test is used to determine the organic strength of wastewaters. The basis of
the test is that all organic compounds, with some exceptions, can be oxidized by
strong oxidizing agents under highly acidic conditions. The COD test can be
completed much quicker than the BOD test (about 3 h compared to 5 days for BOD
determination). However, it does not differentiate between biodegradable and non-
biodegradable organic matter in the samples.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the chemical oxygen demand of the given wastewater samples.

3.0 PROCEDURES

(a) Place 1 gram mercuric sulphate, HgSO4 into 2 refluxing flasks. Label the
flasks as ‘blank’ and ‘sample’.
(b) Measure 50 ml sample and pour into the ‘sample’ flask and 50 ml distilled wa-
ter into ‘blank’ flask.
(c) Add 25 ml 0.0417 M potassium dichromate (K 2Cr2O7) solution into both reflux-
ing flasks.
(d) Add several anti bumping granules into both refluxing flasks.
(e) Carefully, add 75 ml sulphuric acid reagent (comtaining Ag2SO4).
(f) Attach flask to the condenser and turn on cooling water. Swirl the mixture.
(g) Turn power on and reflux mixture for 2 hours.
(h) After 2 hours, switch off the power and cool the refluxing flasks to room tem-
perature. Wash down the condenser with distilled water.
(i) Disconnect the refluxing flasks, pour the mixture into 500 ml conical flask and
add distilled water until 350 ml. Allow to cool.

Note: Make sure all the mixture is poured into the conical flask by washing the
refluxing flask twice until the volume of mixture is 350ml.

(j) Titrate the excess K2Cr2O7 with ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS) using 2 to
3 drops of ferroin indicator. Take as the end point of titration, the first sharp
color change from blue green to reddish brown. Note that after a few minutes,
the blue-green colour may reappear.

(k) Determine the normality of Fe (NH4) 2 (SO4) 2, FAS as below:

(i) Measure 10 ml 0.0417 M K2Cr2O7 standard solution and pour it into a

250 ml conical flask.
(ii) Add distill water until 100 ml.
(iii) Add 30 ml concentrated sulphuric acid and let the mixture cool.
(iv) Titrate K2Cr2O7 solution with FAS using 2 to 3 drops ferroin indicator.
The end point of the titration is the first sharp colour change from blue
green to reddish brown.

ml 0.0417 M K2Cr2O7 solution titrated × 0.25

Normality of FAS =
ml FAS used in titration

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(l) Calculate COD of the sample as:

a = ml FAS used for blank

b = ml FAS used for sample
c = Normality of FAS

3.1 Procedures for COD Vial

(a) Clean and dry the vials according to the number of samples including 1 for
blank.
(b) Pipette 2.5 mL of sample into the vials and distilled water for the blank.
(c) Add 1.5 mL potassium dichromate-mercuric sulfate digestion solution to each
vials.
(d) Add 3.5 mL silver sulfate solution to each vials.
CAUTION: Wear protective clothing since sulfuric acid and potassium
dichromate solution are hazardous at high temperature.
(e) Capped the vials tightly and shake vigorously.
(f) Heat the vials in the COD digestion at 1500C for 2 hr.
(g) Cool the vials to room temperature.
(h) Read the COD values using the spectrophotometer program no 955 [User
Program] using the blank vial as zero.

3.2 Calibrating the spectrophotometer for COD Vial [User Program: 955]

(a) Dilute the potassium acid phthalate standard solution II to prepare numbers of
smaller concentration of standard solution (at least 5 solutions).
Example:
10 mL solution II and add up to 100 with distilled water = 100 mL COD
solution.
20 mL solution II and add up to 100 with distilled water = 200 mL COD
solution.
30 mL solution II and add up to 100 with distilled water = 300 mL COD
solution.
40 mL solution II and add up to 100 with distilled water = 400 mL COD
solution.
50 mL solution II and add up to 100 with distilled water = 500 mL COD
solution.
(b) Prepare the standard solutions and a blank for spectrophotometer reading
(see procedure for COD vial).
(c) Switch on the spectrophotometer.
(d) Click on Shift > Setup. Use the Up or Down key to select Lamp > Enter. Use
the Up or Down key to select Constant On > Enter. Click on Exit and wait for
5 minute for the spectrophotometer to warm up.
(e) Click Shift > User Program. Select Edit Program and key in 955 > Enter. Se-
lect Graph > Erase > Enter. Wait for a few seconds for the erasing process.
(f) Click Enter. Put in the blank and click Zero.
(g) Replace blank with standard solution 1. Key in the COD value of the standard
1 and click Read. Wait for it to read the adsorption and click Enter.
(h) Repeat (5) for all the other standard solutions and click Exit.

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(i) Select Store Program > Enter. Wait a few minutes for the storing of calibra-
tion.
(j) Click Exit and the program is ready for use.

4.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

(a) What is the purpose of using HgSO4 and Ag2SO4 in the COD test?
(b) What are the applications for COD analysis?
(c) Why are COD results generally higher than the BOD results?
(d) What advantages and disadvantages of the COD test compared to the BOD
test?

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EE 03
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)-VIAL METHOD

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The COD test is used to determine the organic strength of wastewaters. The basis of
the test is that all organic compounds, with some exceptions, can be oxidized by
strong oxidizing agents under highly acidic conditions. The COD test can be
completed much quicker than the BOD test (about 3 h compared to 5 days for BOD
determination). However, it does not differentiate between biodegradable and non-
biodegradable organic matter in the samples.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

This test method is appropriate for the determination of Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) in all types of water and wastewater.

3.0 PRINCIPLES

The mg/L COD results are defined as the mg of O 2 consumed per liter of sample under
conditions of this procedure. In this procedure, the sample is heated for two hours with a
strong oxidizing agent, potassium dichromate. Oxidizable organic compounds react,
reducing the dichromate ion (Cr2O72–) to green chromic ion (Cr3+). When the 0.7–40.0 or the
3–150 mg/L colorimetric method is used, the amount of Cr6+ remaining is determined. When
the 20–1500 mg/L or 200–15,000 mg/L colorimetric method is used, the amount of Cr 3+
produced is determined. The COD reagent also contains silver and mercury ions. Silver is a
catalyst, and mercury is used to complex chloride interferences. Test results for the 0.7 to
40.0 mg/L range are measured at 350 nm. Test results for the 3 to 150 mg/L range are
measured at 420 nm. Test results for the 20 to 1500 and the 2000 to 15,000 mg/L COD
range are measured at 620 nm.

4.0 PROCEDURES

4.1 Digestion procedure

4.1.1 Homogenize 100 mL of sample for 30 seconds in a blender. For sam-
ples containing large amounts of solids, increase the homogenization
time. If the sample does not contain suspended solids, omit steps
3.1.2 and 3.1.3.
4.1.2 For the 200–15,000 mg/L range or to improve accuracy and repro-
ducibility of the other ranges, pour the homogenized sample into a
250-mL beaker and gently stir with a magnetic stir plate.
4.1.3 Turn on the COD Reactor. Preheat to 150 °C. See the COD Reactor
for selecting pre-programmed temperature applications.

4.2 Prepared Sample

4.2.1 Hold one vial at a 45-degree angle. Use a clean volumetric pipet to
add 2.00 mL of sample to the vial. Use a micro Pipette to add 0.20
mL for the 200–15,000 mg/L range.

4.3 Blank Preparation

4.3.1 Hold a second vial at a 45-degree angle. Use a clean volumetric
pipet to add 2.00 mL of deionized water to the vial. Use a Micro Pipet
to add 0.20 mL for the 200–15,000 mg/L range.
4.3.2 Cap the vials tightly. Rinse them with water and wipe with a clean pa-

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per towel. Hold the vials by the cap over a sink. Invert gently several
times to mix. Insert the vials in the preheated COD Reactor. The
sample vials will become very hot during mixing. Heat the vials for
two hours.
4.3.3 Invert each vial several times while still warm. Place the vials into a
rack and cool to room temperature. Proceed to Colorimetric Determi-
nation Method 8000.

4.4 Calorimetric Determination Method

4.4.1 Select the ultra-low range, low range, or high range test based on the
sample.
4.4.2 Clean the outside of the vials with a damp towel followed by a dry
one.
4.4.3 Insert the blank into the 16-mm cell holder. Press ZERO. The display
will show: 0.0 mg/L COD.
4.4.4 Insert the sample vial into the 16-mm cell holder. Results are in mg/L
COD. If using High Range Plus COD Digestion Reagent Vials, multi-
ply the result by 10.

5.0 CALCULATION

Recovery of standard, P1

Mean value, 
 = P1
20

Standard Deviation, SP

Sp =  (P1 - )2
n–1

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Schewart Control Chart for Percent Recovery

Control Limit (105%)

Percent
Recovery, % Mean Recovery (100%)

Control Limit (95%)

Sample Number

Duplicate analysis

i. Perform sample analysis in duplicate

ii. The % RPD shall fall within ± 5%

Where, X1 = Test 1
X2 = Test 2

6.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

(e) What is the purpose of using HgSO4 and Ag2SO4 in the COD test?
(f) What are the applications for COD analysis?
(g) Why are COD results generally higher than the BOD results?
(h) What advantages and disadvantages of the COD test compared to the BOD
test?

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EE04
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water which will not
pass through a filter. Suspended solids are present in sanitary wastewater and many
types of industrial wastewater. There are also non-point sources of suspended solids,
such as soil erosion from agricultural and construction sites.

As levels of TSS increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to support a diversity
of aquatic life. Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water
temperature and subsequently decreases level of Dissolved Oxygen (DO). Photosyn-
thesis also decreases, since less light penetrates the water. As less oxygen is pro-
duced by plants and algae, there is a further drop in DO levels.

To measure TSS, the water sample is filtered through a standard GF/F glass fibre
filter. The residue retained on the filter is dried in an oven at 103 0C to 1050C until the
weight of the filter no changes. The increase in weight of the filter represents the total
suspended solids.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the concentration of Total Suspended Solids in a water sample.

3.0 APPARATUS

1. Glass microfibre filter disc, 5.5m, Whatman type GF/C ( 0.7m)

2. Disposable aluminium dishes
3. Suction flask, 1000 mL
4. 47mm glass microanalysis filter holder (funnel, clamp and base )
5. Drying oven for operation at 1030C to 1050C
6. Desiccator
7. Analytical balance, capable of weighing to 0.1mg
8. Distilled water

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4.0 PROCEDURE

1. Preparation of the glass fibre filter disc : Insert the filter disc onto the base and
clamp on funnel. While vacuum is applied, wash the disc with three (3) success-
ive 20 mL distilled water. Remove all traces of water by continuing to apply va-
cuum after water has passed through. Remove funnel from base and place filter
in the aluminium dish and dry in an oven at 103 0C to 1050C for one (1) hour.
When needed, remove dish from the oven, desiccate and weigh.
2. Select a sample volume (max. of 200 mL) that will yield not more than 200 mg of
total suspended solids.
3. Place the filter on the base and clamp on funnel and apply vacuum. Wet the filter
with a small volume of distilled water to seal the filter against the base.
4. Shake the sample vigorously and quantitatively transfer 100 mL of sample to the
filter using a large orifice, volumetric pipette. Remove all traces of water by con-
tinuing to apply vacuum after sample has passed through.
5. Rinse the pipette and funnel onto the filter with small volume of distilled water.
Remove all traces of water by continuing to apply vacuum after water has passed
through.
6. Carefully remove the disc filter from the base. Dry for at least one (1) hour at
1030C to 1050C. Cool in a desiccator and weigh.

5.0 CALCULATION

Calculate Total Suspended Solids as follows :

Total Suspended Solids, mg/L =

Where :
A = weight of filter and dish + residue in mg
B = weight of filter and dish in mg
C = volume of sample filtered in mL

6.0 RESULT

Total Suspended Solid (TSS)

Sample 1 Sample 2

Weight of filter and dish, mg (B)

Weight of filter and dish + residue, mg (A)

Volume of sample filtered, mL (C)

Total Suspended Solids, mg/L

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7.0 DISCUSSION

State and discuss two (2) related problems that may occur if the TSS concentration is
high.

8.0 CONCLUSION

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EE05
JAR TEST

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The required chemical dosage for a particular raw water is virtually impossible to de-
termine analytically because of the complex interrelationships that exist between
these chemicals and the constituents of the water being treated, as well as such
factors as pH, temperature, and the intensity and duration of mixing. Consequently, a
laboratory procedure known as the jar test is used to determine the most effective
and economical dosage of coagulant for a particular mixing intensity and duration.

Laboratory stirring equipment is used in jar testing to provide uniform mixing for a
number of samples simultaneously and can be adjusted to match plant scale velocity
gradients for rapid mixing and flocculation (See Figure E4-1). The multiple stirrer is
powered by a variable speed electric motor. Metal rods with stirring paddles are
attached to pulleys suspended directly over the beakers, which rotate at the same
rate due to the common drive.

ix) 2.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the optimum dose of coagulant for a specific water.

x) 3.0 APPARATUS

Figure E4-1 : Jar Test Apparatus

1. Jar test apparatus (Figure E4-1 )

2. 6 beakers (600 mL)
3. 6 pipettes
4. Turbidimeter
5. pH meter

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4.0 PROCEDURE

1. Place the beaker under each stirring paddle.

2. Place into each beaker exactly 500 mL of a fresh sample of the raw water.
3. Using a measuring pipette, add the coagulant in increasing amount of 10 mL,
20 mL, 30 mL, etc. to each successive beaker, simultaneously, except one as
a reference.
4. Start stirring rapidly (60 to 80 rpm) for one minute.
5. Reduce the speed (10 to 30 rpm) for about 15 minutes.
6. After the stirring period is over, stop the stirrer and allow the flocs to settle for
about 10 minutes.
7. Pipet 10 mL of cleared sample from each beaker and measure its turbudity
using turbidity meter ( refer E5 : Determination of Turbidity ).
8. Plot a graph of turbidity versus coagulant dose. Determine the most effective
dose of coagulant that gives the least turbid results.

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EE06
TURBIDITY

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Clarity of water is important in industries producing products destined for human

consumption or for large number of manufacturing uses. Beverage producers, food
processors, and treatment plants drawing on a surface water supply commonly rely
on coagulation, settling, and filtration to ensure an acceptable product.

Turbidity in water is caused by the presence of suspended matter, such as clay, silt,
finely divided organic and inorganic matter, plankton, and other microscopic organ-
isms. Turbidity is an expression of the optical property that causes light to be
scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines thorough the sample.
Attempts to correlate turbidity with the weight concentration of suspended matter are
impractical because the size, shape, and refractive index of the particulate materials
are important optically but bear little direct relationship to the concentration and spe-
cific gravity of the suspended matter.

The principle in determining turbidity in this experiment is based on a comparison of

the intensity of light scattered by the sample under defined conditions with the intens-
ity of light scattered by a standard reference suspension under the same conditions.
The higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity. A turbidimeter con-
sists of a nephelometer with a light source for illuminating the sample and one or
more photoelectric detectors with a readout device to indicate the intensity of light
scattered at 90 degrees to the path of the incident light. The turbidimeter should be
so designed that little stray light reaches the detector in the absence of turbidity and it
should be free from significant drift after a short warm-up period.

Turbidity can be determined for any water sample that is free of debris and rapidly
settling coarse sediments. Dirty glassware, the presence of air bubbles and the ef-
fects of vibrations that disturb the surface visibility of the sample will lead to false res-
ults.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine the turbidity of water using Nephelometric Method.

3.0 APPARATUS

1. Turbidimeter
2. Sample tube
3. Standard turbidity suspensions

4.0 PROCEDURE

1. Allow a short warm-up period of about 5 minutes for the turbidimeter.

2. Calibrate the turbidimeter using the standard turbidity suspensions.
3. Pour the sample into the sample tube. Be careful not to introduce air bubbles
into the sample tube.
4. Wipe the sample tube thoroughly, using clean cloth or tissue paper.
5. Read the turbidity.

5.0 RESULT

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JAR TEST AND TURBIDITY

Determination of Optimum Dose:

Jar No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Coagulant Volume (mL)
Coagulant Dose (mg/L)
Turbidity

Plot a graph of turbidity versus coagulant dose and determine the optimum dose.

Optimum dose = ________

Turbidity = ________

6.0 DISCUSSION

Give the importance of jar test

7.0 CONCLUSION

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