Introduction to Minerals

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n Almost every manufactured product contains minerals. They are essential
for the development of a modern society.

n All geological processes on earth such as volcanic eruption, earthquake,

landslide, and erosion involve earth materials (and minerals are the building
blocks of earth materials). Basic knowledge of earth materials is essential to
the understanding of all geological phenomena.

n Geological definition of mineral:

-Any naturally occurring inorganic solid that possess an orderly
crystalline structure and definite chemical composition.

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 Characteristics of a Mineral
¨ Naturally ocurring – formed by natural geologic processes. Exclude
all synthetic materials produced in the lab.
¨ Solid –within the temperature ranges normally experienced at
Earth’s surface. Ice is a mineral but water is not.
¨ Orderly crystalline structure –atoms are arranged in an orderly,
repetitive manner. Forming regularly shaped objects : crystals.
Volcanic glass is not considered as mineral.
¨ Definite chemical composition. Most minerals are chemical
compounds made up of 2 or more elements. Quartz = SiO2; Calcite =
CaCO3; Gold = Au; Sulphur = S
¨ Generally inorganic. Organic compounds such as those in shells
and coral reefs are generally considered minerals. Sugar=crystalline
inorganic compound is not a mineral
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Sodium and chloride ions are arranged in an orderly and repetitive
manner into a building block having a cubic shape.

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n Definition: any solid mass of mineral, or mineral-like matter that occur
naturally as part of the Earth.
n Most rocks occur as aggregate of several types of minerals
(eg. granite  quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, etc.)
n Some rocks are composed of only 1 mineral (eg. limestone  calcite)
n Few rocks are composed of non-mineral matter
(eg. pumice  volcanic glass; coal  organic matter)

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n Each mineral has a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure,
which give it a unique set of physical properties.
n These properties are used in the identification of the minerals.
n Primary properties:
¨ Crystal form
¨ Lustre
¨ Colour
¨ Streak
¨ Hardness
¨ Cleavage
¨ Fracture
¨ Specific gravity
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1. Crystal form
n The internal orderly arrangement of the atoms of a mineral is reflected in its
crystal form
n When a mineral forms without space restriction it will develop individual
crystals with well-formed crystal faces
n Crystal growth is often severly constrained, stunted due to competition for
space, forming small intergrowth of crystals or aggregates of crystals

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Lustre: The appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a
mineral
n Metallic appearance of metals – metallic lustre, opaque
n Submetallic lustre – imperfect metallic lustre
n Adamantine lustre – diamond
n Vitreous lustre – appearance of a broken glass (most common in minerals)
n Resinous lustre – resin-like
n Greasy lustre – perfectly smooth appearance
n Pearly lustre – pearl-like due to reflection of light
n Silky lustre – due to reflection off small parallel fibers
n Earthy lustre – dull, lack of lustre

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n Colour – Not a reliable diagnostic property

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Streak – colour of a mineral in its powdered form. It is much more reliable
indication of colour.
n It is obtained by rubbing the mineral across a piece of hard, unglazed
porceline called a streak plate
n Even if a mineral occurs in more than one colour, its streak usually shows
the same colour
n Minerals with metallic lustre have a dense dark streak

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Hardness: a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching.
n One of the most useful diagnostic properties. Determined by rubbing the
mineral to be identified against another mineral of know hardness.

n Standard hardness scale: Mohs scale (10:hardest – 1:softest)

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Cleavage - is breakage along planar surfaces, which are parallel to possible external
faces on the crystal. This is because bonds between layers of atoms aligned in certain
directions are weaker than bonds between different layers.

In some minerals, a single direction of weakness exists, but in others, two, three, four, or
as many as six may be present. Where more than one direction of cleavage is present,
it is important to determine the angular relation between the resulting cleavage
surfaces: are they perpendicular to each other (right angle), or do they meet at an
acute or obtuse angle?
Mica is a good example – breaking along very closely spaced flat planes that yield thin
"sheets."

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Fracture: When a mineral without cleavage breaks, the fracture surfaces can be used
for their identification

n Conchoidal fracture is smooth curved surface like broken glass.

n Subconchoidal fracture is similar to conchoidal, just not as curved, but still smooth

n Splintery fracture is a fracture type that occurs in fibrous or finely acicular minerals

n Earthy fracture is a fracture that produces a texture similar to broken clay

n Jagged or hackly fracture has sharp points or edges that catch on a finger that's
rubbed across the surface.

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Specific gravity (SG) is defined as the ratio between the weight of a substance and the
weight of an equal volume of water at 4° C. Thus a mineral with a specific gravity of 2
weighs twice as much as the same volume of water. Since it is a ratio, specific gravity has
no units.
n The specific gravity of a mineral depends on the atomic weights of all its constituent
elements and the manner the atoms are arranged.

n Most minerals, including all the common rock-forming minerals, have a specific gravity of 2.5
- 3.5. Metallic minerals have higher specific gravity.

n Other properties: fluorescence (response to ultraviolet light), magnetism, radioactivity,

tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and
reactivity to dilute acids.

Mineral G
Quartz (SiO2) 2.65
Calcite (CaCO3) 2.7
Pyrite (FeS2) 5
Copper (Cu) 8.9
Gold (Au) 19.3
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n There about 4,000 minerals described.
n <100 are abundant, and they make up most of the rocks in the Earth’s crust. They are
classified as rock-forming minerals.
n The bulk of these minerals are made up of 8 elements.
n The most common rock-forming minerals are silicates (90%): formed by the
combination of oxygen, silicon and one or more metals.
n Other minerals are grouped under nonsiliates. Many are important economically.

Elemental Composition of the Earth’s crust Abundance of minerals on Earth’s

Element Wt % Vol % surface
Mineral Area %
Oxygen, O 46.6 93.77
Silicon, Si 27.7 0.86 Feldspars 30
Aluminium, Al 8.13 0.47
Quartz 28
Iron, Fe 5.00 0.43
Clay minerals & mica 18
Magnesium, Mg 2.09 0.29
Calcium, Ca 3.63 1.03 Calcite 9
Sodium, Na 2.83 1.32 Iron oxides 4
Potassium, K 2.59 1.82
Others 11
Others (trace) 1.43 0.01
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Mineral Group Anion or Anionic Complex Representative Minerals

native elements - sulfur, gold, silver, copper,

diamond, graphite
sulfides S-2 pyrite, galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite
oxides O-2 hematite, magnetite,
chromite
halides Cl -1, F-1 halite, flourite

sulfates (SO4)-2 anhydrite, gypsum, barite

carbonates (CO3)-2 calcite, dolomite

phosphates (PO4)-3 apatite

silicates (SiO4)-2 quartz, feldspar

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 Silicate Minerals
n Silicate minerals are the most common rock-forming minerals.
n Their atomic structure is based on silica tetrahedron (SiO4-2), in which four oxygen
atoms are bond to each silicon (Si) atom.
n The mineral structures are constructed by sharing of oxygen between Si atoms
producing linkages of tetrahedra. This sharing of oxygen between Si tetrahedra
produces chains and other 3D Si tetrahedra structures, which are themselves linked
together through bonds between O and other atoms (e.g., Al, Mg and Fe).

n Chemically, silicate minerals can be separated into two major types:

¨ ferromagnesian (iron/magnesian) - olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles,
biotite
¨ felsic (silica/aluminum) - quartz, plagioclase, potassium feldspars

n Silicate minerals, however, are typically classified on the basis of their silica
tetrahedra polymerization. The simplest silicate mineral structures have isolated Si
tetrahedra linked together through bonds between oxygen and cations other than
silicon. More complicated structures involve tetrahedra linked together to form rings
(beryl), single chains (pyroxenes), double chains (amphiboles), sheets (micas and
clay minerals), and 3D frameworks or networks (quartz and feldspars).
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Rock Cycle & Magmatism

• Rock is defined as any solid mass of

mineral, or mineral-like matter that occur
naturally as part of the Earth.
• Rocks can be divided into 3 broad
groups:
-Igneous: crystalline- forms as
liquid cools
-Metamorphic: crystalline-forms as
rocks are heated and
squeezed
-Sedimentary:non-crystalline- smaller
pieces or chemicals from
other rocks

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• Rock cycle helps us to understand the interrelationships among different
parts of the Earth system
• It help us to understand the origin of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks

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 Rock Cycle
n Magma is a molten material that forms inside the Earth.
n Eventually magma cools and solidifies : crystallisation
that forms igneous rock
n Can occur at the surface (volcanism) or below the
surface (plutonism)
n Igneous rocks exposed at the surface will undergo
weathering (disintegration & decomposition)
n Materials formed often move downslope and transported
n Most sediment ultimately deposited in the ocean, others
along floodplains, swamps, etc.

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 Rock Cycle
n Sediments undergo lithification (compaction &
cementation) to form sedimentary rock
n If a sedimentary rock is buried deep enough or intruded
by magma, it will be subjected to high pressure &
temperature (metamorphism).
n It will turn into a metamorphic rock.
n If temperature is high enough, melting will occur, creating
magma.
n The magma will crystallise into igneous rocks and the
cycle continues.
n Other paths of the rock cycle (see rock cycle diagram).

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 Igneous Rocks: Magma
n Igneous rocks were the first rocks to form as Earth cooled from a molten
mass to the crystalline rocks of the early crust.
n Igneous rocks formed when molten material (magma) cools and
crystallizes.
n Magma is often known as a slushy mix of molten rock, dissolved gases,
and mineral crystals.
n The common elements present in magma are the same major elements
that are in Earth’s crust, such as oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al),
iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), and sodium
(Na).

n Magma crystallise to form mainly silicate minerals.

n Of all the compounds present in magma, silica is the most abundant and
has the greatest effect on magma characteristics.
n Based on the te percentage of the silica present in the magma, magma
is classified as basaltic (42-52% SiO 2 ), andesitic (52-66% SiO 2 ), or
rhyolitic (>66% SiO2).
n Silica content affects melting temperature and impacts how quickly
magma flows (viscosity).
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 Igneous Rocks: Magma
n The type of igneous rock that forms depends on the composition
of the magma and the minerals formed.
n For example, rocks such as basalt, which are formed of olivine,
calcium feldspar, and pyroxene, melt at higher temperatures
compared to rocks such as granite, which contain quartz and
potassium feldspar

n Different minerals have different melting points.

n Granite has lower melting point than basalt’s melting point
because granite contains more water and minerals that melt at
lower temperatures.
n In general, rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium melt at
higher temperatures than rocks that contain higher levels of
silicon.

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 Igneous Rocks: Magma
n Source of magma: partial melting of rocks, mainly in
the mantle, minor in lower crust
n Rocks do not entirely melt at one temperature &
pressure because each mineral in the rock has a
particular melting point.
n Some minerals remains solid, while the melted portion
may flow away as magma.
n As each group of minerals melts, different elements are
added to the magma mixture thereby changing its
composition.
n If temperatures are not high enough to melt the entire
rock, the resulting magma will have a different
composition than that of the original rock.
n This is one way in which different types of igneous
rocks form.
n Main factors controlling the creation of magma: heat,
pressure, water & composition of the source rock.
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n Temperatures in the Earth increases with Temperature
depth (geothermal gradient)

n Average geothermal gradient is 30°C per km

(eg. At the depth of 10 km, the temperature
Lithosphere
is ~300°C hotter than the Earth’s surface)

Mel
Increasing Depth
Asthenosphere

ting
Zon
n With increasing depth, the pressure also

e (~
increases, and the melting point of rocks

50 –
generally increases with increasing pressure.

250
km
This is because pressure squeezes atoms

)
n
and ions closer together, therefore requires
higher temperature to break their bonds.
Geothermal
Gradient
n A rock that melts at 1100°C at Earth’s
surface will melt at 1400°C at a depth of 100
km.
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 Creation of Magma
n If pressure of a hot rock is removed or reduced, the rock may reach a
condition where melting occurs : decompression melting.
n Decompression melting occurs at divergent plate boundaries, where
partial melting of asthenosphere occurs below a thinning lithosphere at
oceanic or continental rift zones.
n Water, even a small amount lowers the melting point of rocks, especially
at high pressures.
n Water enhances melting because it dissolves more easily in magmas
than in minerals.
n The partial melting aided by dehydration of subducted oceanic plate is
important mechanism of magmatism at subduction zones.

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 Motion of Magma
 Once partial melting produces magma, the magma rises towards the Earth
surface due to its bouyancy (less dense than the surrounding rocks).
 A magma’s ability to rise is large controlled by its fluidity (viscosity), which is
governed by its temperature and composition.
 Increasing temperature decreases viscosity of any material: hot magmas
flows more easily than relatively cool magmas.
 Viscosity generally increases with
silica content: silica-rich magma
such as felsic magma is more
viscous and tends to relatively
cool (it crystallise at lower
temperature) compared to low-
silica magma such as basaltic
magma.

 Silica-rich magma is less likely to

reach the surface compared to
low silica magm a. S i l i c a- r i c h
magma is more likely to crystallise
within the Earth crust. 10
 Motion of Magma
n When magma reaches the surface, it is called lava.
n Volcanic eruption can be violent or quiet.
n Crystallisation of lavas forms volcanic or extrusive rocks.
n Violent volcanic eruption ejects materials high into the
atmosphere, and subsequently these pyroclastic materials fall
on the Earth surface to form pyroclastic rocks.
n Most magma loses its mobility before reaching the surface. It
crystallise at depth to form plutonic or intrusive rocks.
n Intrusive rocks will only be exposed at the surface after being
uplifted and overlying rocks eroded away.

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Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii

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Mt Pinatubo, Philippines Mt St Helen, USA

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 Bowen’s Reaction Series
n In the early 1900s, Canadian geologist N. L. Bowen demonstrated
that as magma cools and crystallizes, minerals form in predictable
patterns in a process now known as the Bowen’s reaction series.
n Bowen discovered two main patterns, or branches, of crystallization.
n The right-hand branch is characterized by a continuous, gradual
change of mineral compositions in the feldspar group.
n An abrupt change
of mineral type in
the iron- magnesium
groups characterizes
the left-hand branch.
 Bowen’s Reaction Series
n Mafic minerals undergo abrupt changes
as magma cools and crystallizes.
n For example, olivine is the first mineral
to crystallize when magma that is rich
in iron and magnesium begins to cool.
n When the temperature decreases
enough for a completely new mineral,
pyroxene, to form, the olivine that
previously formed reacts with the magma
and is converted to pyroxene.
n As the temperature decreases further, similar reactions produce the
minerals amphibole and biotite mica.
n Feldspars (plagioclase) undergo a continuous change of
composition.
n As magma cools, the first feldspars to form are rich in calcium.
n As cooling continues, these feldspars react with magma, and their
calcium-rich compositions change to sodium-rich compositions.
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Fractional Crystallization
n When magma cools, it crystallizes in the reverse order of partial
melting – the first minerals that crystallize from magma are the last
minerals that melted during partial melting.
n This process, called fractional crystallization, is similar to partial
melting in that the composition of magma can change.
n In this case, however, early formed crystals are removed from the
magma and cannot react with it.
n As minerals form and their elements are removed from the
remaining magma, it becomes concentrated in silica, aluminum, and
potassium.

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 Classification of Igneous Rocks
n Classification of igneous rocks is
based on mineral composition, grain
size, and texture.
n Igneous rocks are broadly classified
as intrusive (plutonic) or extrusive
(volcanic).
n When magma cools and crystallizes
below Earth’s surface, intrusive rocks
form.
n Crystals of intrusive rocks are
generally large enough to see without
magnification (coarse grained).
n Magma that cools and crystallizes on
Earth’s surface forms extrusive rocks.
n The crystals that form in these rocks
are small and difficult to see without
magnification (fine grained).

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 Classification of Igneous Rocks
n Igneous rocks are classified according to their mineral compositions.
n Basaltic (basic/mafic) rocks, such as gabbro, are dark-colored, have
lower silica contents, and contain mostly plagioclase and pyroxene.

n Granitic (acidic/felsic) rocks, such as granite, are light-colored, have high

silica contents, and contain mostly quartz, potassium feldspar, and
plagioclase feldspar.

n Rocks that have a composition of minerals that is somewhere in between

basaltic and granitic are called intermediate rocks.

n They consist mostly of plagioclase feldspar and hornblende.

n A fourth category, called ultrabasic/ultramafic, contains the rock peridotite.

These rocks contain only iron-rich minerals such as olivine and pyroxene
and are always dark.
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 Tuff
Extrusive

Scoria Pumice
Extrusive Extrusive 10
 Texture of Igneous Rocks
n Texture: overall appearance based on size, shape and arrangement of the
crystals
n Melt of the magma does not crystallise all at the same time.
n As it crystallise, small crystals will be formed.
n The crystals grow until they meet other crystals. Crystals stop growing due
to lack of space
n Eventually all the melt is transformed to solid mass of interlocking crystals
n The rate of cooling strongly influences the crystal size
n Slow cooling results in the formation of large crystals and vice versa.
n If the melt is quenched almost instantly, no time for the formation of crystals,
so the glass will form.
n Crystallisation also influenced by composition and fluid contents.
n Due to physical and chemical variations, the physical appearance and
mineral composition of igneous rocks vary widely.

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 Texture of Igneous Rocks
n Igneous rocks formed at the surface and as small rock mass near the surface have a
fine grained texture.

n Large masses of magma that solidify at depth form coarse grained texture.

n If rock has large crystals embedded in fine grained matrix, the texture is porphyritic.

n Porphyritic textures indicate a complex cooling history during which a slowly cooling
magma suddenly began cooling rapidly

n Glassy texture indicate quenching at the surface.

n Vesicular texture – contains voids left by gas bubbles.

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Sedimentary Rocks – weathering & transportation
n Sedimentary rocks begin with the process of weathering.
n Wheathering, which is a set of physical, chemical and biological processes
that breaks rock into smaller particles while some dissolved into solution.
n Gravity and erosion agents remove the products of weathering and carry
them into a new location where they are deposited.
n These small pieces of rock that are moved and deposited by water, wind,
and gravity are known as sediments.
n During transportion, the particles are further broken down, abraded and
sorted in terms of size and density.
n Most sediments are deposited
by water in the sea, river, swamp
or lake.
n After deposited, the sediments
may transform into sedimentary
through compaction and/or
cementation (lithification).

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n Sediments are deposited when transport stops, eg. when river
enters a quiet lake or sea, or when the stream velocity decreases.
n Fast moving water can transport larger particles better than slow
moving water.
n As water slows down, the largest particles settle out first, then the
next largest, and so on, so that different-sized particles are sorted
into layers.
n Such deposits are characteristic of sediment transported by water
and wind.
n Wind, however, can move only small grains.
n Glaciers move all materials with equal ease. Large boulders, sand,
and mud are all carried along by the ice and dumped in an unsorted
pile as the glacier melts.
n Landslides create similar deposits when sediment moves downhill in
a jumbled mass.
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n The weathering of bedrock and the transport and
deposition of sediments are continuous.
n As piles of sediment accumulate, the materials near the
bottom are compacted by the weight of the overlying
layers.
n Water flowing through spaces between sediment grains
may carry dissolved mineral matter, and over time or
changes in physico-chemical conditions, the sediments
can be cemented by precipitation of minerals.
n About 75% of the land surface is covered by sedimentary
rocks, however it make up only about 15% of the volume
of the upper crust.
n A large part of the Earth’s history has been reconstructed
based on information obtained from sedimentary rocks.
n Sedimentary rocks are also important economically (coal,
hydrocarbon, Fe, Al, Mn, etc).

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 Features of Sedimentary Rocks
n Sedimentary rocks are formed at Earth’s surface, accumulate layer upon
layer, each records the nature of the environment at that time.
n These layers are called strata or beds, are the most characteristic
feature of sedimentary rocks.
n The beds are separated by bedding planes, each bedding plane marks
the end of one episode of deposition and the beginning of another.
n The thickness of the beds varies from microscopic to tens of meter.
n Bedding in which the particle sizes become progressively coarser toward
the bottom layers is called graded bedding.
n When inclined layers of sediment are deposited across a horizontal
surface, crossed beddings are formed.
n Other important features found in sedimentary rocks include fossils and
sedimentary structures such as ripple marks, mud cracks etc.

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n Sedimentary rocks are classified by their mode of formation.
n There are 2 main categories of sedimentary rocks:
¨ Detrital sedimentary rocks: deposition of solid particles
¨ Chemical sedimentary rocks: precipitation of dissolved substance
n Detrital sedimentary rocks are distinguished based on particle size.

Particle Size Sediment Name Rock Name

Coarse (> 2 mm) Gravel Conglomerate /
Breccia
Medium (1/16 – 2 mm) Sand Sandstone
Fine (1/256 – 1/16 mm) Mud/Silt Siltstone
Very Fine < 1/256 mm Mud/Clay Shale / Mudstone
n Although a wide variety of minerals and rock fragments may occur in
the sedimentary rocks, clay minerals and quartz dominates.
n From particle size and other features in the rock, we can interprete the
environment of deposition.

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 Conglomerate
 Conglomerates have rounded, gravel-
sized particles.
 Because of its relatively large mass,
gravel is transported by high-energy
flows of water, such as those generated
by mountain streams, flooding rivers,
strong ocean waves, and glacial
meltwater.
 During transport, gravel becomes
abraded and rounded as the particles
scrape against one another.

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 Breccia
 Breccias are composed of angular, gravel-sized
particles.

 The angularity indicates that the sediments from which

they formed did not have time to become rounded.

 This suggests that the particles were transported only

a short distance and deposited close to their source.

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 Sandstone
 Stream and river channels, beaches and
deserts often contain abundant sand-sized
sediments that lithified to form sandstone.

 Sandstone can have a porosity of up to

30%, which makes them valuable as
underground reservoirs of oil, natural gas,
and groundwater.

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 Shale / Mudstone
 These rocks represent environments
which have still or slow-moving waters
(lakes, lagoons, deep ocean basins), are
the most abundant sedimentary rocks.

 In the absence of strong currents and

wave action, these fine grained sediments
settle to the bottom where they
accumulate in thin horizontal layers.

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 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
n During weathering, dissolved materials are carried into lakes and oceans.
n Some organisms that live in the ocean use the calcium carbonate or silica
that is dissolved in seawater to make their shells.
n When these organisms die, their shells settle to the bottom of the ocean
and can form thick layers of biogenic chemical sediment.
n Chemical sedimentary rocks are distinguished based on composition.
Composition Texture Rock Name
Calcite (CaCO3) Fine to coarse Limestone
crystalline
Quartz (SiO2) Very fine crystalline Chert (light coloured)
Flint (dark coloured)
Gypsum (CaSO42H2O) Fine to coarse Rock Gypsum
crystalline
Halite (NaCl) Fine to coarse Rock Salt
crystalline

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Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Limestone
n Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock
n Limestone commonly forms in shallow water environments where
coral reefs thrive, contain evidence of their biological origin in the
form of abundant fossils.
n Not all limestone contains fossils. Some limestone has a
crystalline texture, some consists of tiny spheres of carbonate
sand, and some is composed of fine-grained carbonate mud.
n Dissolved silica precipitates to form various types of
microcrystalline to amorphous rocks (chert, opal, etc). Could also
formed by biochemical accumulations of siliceous shells
fragments.
n Limestone & chert requires precipitation of a relatively insoluble
substance from aqeous solution or from biogenic accumulations.

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 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Evaporites
n Evaporite minerals such as gypsum and halite precipitated from a
saline solution that has been concentrated by evaporation.
n Evaporites do no precipitate until evaporation has removed most of
the water.
n Evaporites are forming today in desert basins and locally on shallow
sea margins in hot climates (sabkha).
n If a column of sea water 1000 m thick is evaporated to dryness, the
precipitated salt deposit would be about 15 m thick. Of this, 0.5 m
would be gypsum, 11.8 m would be halite, and the rest, 2.7 m, would
be mainly salts of potassium and magnesium.
n The evaporites are important economically.

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n Coal is an unique chemical sedimentary rock. It is not precipitated
from dissolved substances.
n It is formed by direct accumulation of organic matter, mainly plant
material.
n Plant structures such as leaves, bark and wood may still be
identified in coal.
n Coal is produced by the burial of large amounts of plant material
over extended periods.
n Special conditions are required for the accumulation of large
quantities of plant material because plant debris normally
decompose when exposed to the atmosphere.

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 Metamorphic Rocks
n Metamorphic rocks are produced from pre-existing rocks
(sedimentary, igneous or even metamorphic), when they are
exposed to increases in temperature and pressure and to
hydrothermal solutions.
n Every metamorphic rock has a parent rock, the rock from which it
was formed.
n Metamorphism: a process that leads to changes in the mineralogy,
texture and often the chemical composition of rocks.
n Pre-existing rocks were subjected to a physical or chemical
environment that is significantly different from that in which they
were initially formed.
n The high temperatures required for metamorphism are ultimately
derived from Earth’s internal heat, either through deep burial or from
nearby igneous intrusions.
n The high pressures come from deep burial or from compression
during mountain building.
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 Metamorphic Rock
n In high grade metamorphic rocks, original features of the rock (fossil,
bedding, sedimentary structure) are often completely destroyed
n Metamorphic rocks also experienced deformation (intensity
increases with metamorphic grade)
n Deformation produce a variety of metamorphic textures (eg.
foliation) and also large scale structures (eg. folding)
n In extreme metamorphic environment, temperature may approach
the melting temperature
n However, during metamorphism, the rock must remains essentially
solid

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 Metamorphic Grade
n Metamorphism often progresses incrementally, with gradual
increase in temperature and pressure.
n Low grade metamorphism: rock experienced slight changes only –
low temperature and pressure (eg. Shale  slate)
n High grade metamorphism: rock experienced substantial changes –
high temperature and pressure (eg. Shale  gneiss)

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n Different combinations of temperature and pressure result in different
grades of metamorphism.
n Low-grade metamorphism is associated with low temperatures and
pressures and a particular suite of minerals and textures.
n High-grade metamorphism is associated with high temperatures and
pressures and a different suite of minerals and textures.
n Intermediate-grade metamorphism is in between low- and high-grade
metamorphism.
n Generally there is a change in mineral composition as conditions
change from low-grade to high-grade metamorphism.

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 Types of Metamorphism
n Metamorphism occurs in one of two settings
¨ Contact or thermal metamorphism
¨ Regional metamorphism
n Contact metamorphism take place in the host rock around the intrusion of a
magma body driven by the rise in temperature.
n During mountain building, great quantities of rock are subjected to high
pressures and temperatures associated with large scale deformation,
causing regional metamorphism

Co
nt a
ct
Me
tam
or p
hi s
m Regional Metamorphism
6
 Agent of Metamorphism
n Agents of metamorphism are:
¨ Heat
¨ Pressure
¨ Chemically active fluids
n Heat is the most important metamorphic agent. It provides the energy to
drive chemical reactions that results in the recrystallisation of pre-existing
minerals and formation of new minerals.
n Heat comes from 2 sources: intrusion of magma & depth of burial/
geothermal gradient.
n Pressure also increases with depth (confining pressure).
n Pressure can also be generated from differential stress during episodes of
mountain building or regional deformation.
n Pressure can cause a mineral to recrystallised and the rocks to deform.
n Metamorphic fluids composed mainly of water and other volatiles.
n Fluids act as a catalyst to promote recrystallisation by enhancing ion
migration (eg dissolving material from mineral surfaces).

7
 Metamorphic Textures
n The degree of metamorphism is reflected in the rock’s texture and
mineralogy.
n Differential stress causes the elongated minerals in the rock to align. New
elongated minerals and recrystallised minerals will also be aligned with long
axis perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress.
n The parallel alignment of minerals gives the rock a banded appearance and
this banded structure is known as foliation
n Recrystallisation and new minerals formed are usually coarser than the
initial material.
n Thus, generally increasing metamorphic grade is accompanied by increase
in grain size and more distinct foliation, and transformation of low
temperature minerals to high temperature mineral.
n However, not all metamorphic rock develop foliation.

8
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
n Based on texture, grain size, composition and parent rock

9
10
11
12
13
Geologic Time Scale
n Most of the original geologic time scale was based on studies of
strata in Europe in mid 1900s
n Major units are generally named after a geographic area where they
are well exposed
n The rock units are separated by major changes in rock types,
unconformities or fossil groups
n Rocks in other parts of the world that contain the same fossil groups
are considered as having the same age.
n Absolute age for the standard geologic column is added in the 20th
century with data from radiometric dating.

1
Geologic Time Scale
n The largest defined unit of time is the Eon. Eons are divided into Eras, which are in
turn divided into Periods, Epochs and Stages.
n There are 4* Eons:
¨ Hadean (3800 – 4500 Ma) "unseen" or "Hell" referring to the conditions on Earth at the time.
No fossils, and the oldest rocks on earth
¨ Archean (2500-3800 Ma) first known fossils
¨ Proterozoic (540-2500 Ma) "beginning life" only the smallest one-celled life forms exist,
transition to an oxygenated atmosphere
¨ Phanerozoic (0-540 Ma) “visible life” is the current eon in the geologic timescale, and the
one during which abundant animal life has existed
n The Hadean, Archean & Proterosoic eons are known as
Precambrian. The Precambrian makes up the bulk
of geologic time (88%) on earth but not well sub-divided.

2
Geologic Time Scale
n Phanerozoic Eon is divided into: Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras

n Paleozoic era: "old life"

¨ Cambrian period: first abundant visible shelled ocean life. A mass extinction
marks the end of the Cambrian
¨ Ordovician period: first vertebrates mostly primitive ocean invertebrates. The
second biggest mass extinction marks the end of the Ordovician.
¨ Silurian period: first land plants, scorpions on land.
¨ Devonian period: age of fresh and salt water fishes; first vertebrates walk on land.
A major marine mass extinction marks the end of the Devonian.
¨ Carboniferous period (recognized in England) is the coal age. Massive swamps
covered much of the world. First "reptiles"
n Mississippian period (recognized in North America): Characterized by the limestone
deposits around the upper Mississippi River.
n Pennsylvanian period (recognized in North America): Characterized by the coal
deposits of Pennsylvania.
¨ Permian period: first mammals, development of dinosaur ancestors. The end of
the Permian marks the greatest mass extinction affecting mostly marine life.

3
Geologic Time Scale
n Mesozoic era: "middle life"--the age of dinosaurs
¨ Triassic period: Earliest dinosaurs. A major mass extinction marks the end of the
Triassic
¨ Jurassic period: Stegosaurus, Allosaurus, Apatosaurus, development of birds.
¨ Cretaceous period: Tyrannosaurus, "duck-billed" dinosaurs, Triceratops, etc. The
end of the Cretaceous was marked by the most famous of the mass extinctions -
the extinction of the dinosaurs
n Cenozoic era: "new life" the age of mammals
¨ 1. Tertiary period
n 1. Paleocene epoch: Mammals begin to rapidly evolve
n 2. Eocene epoch: ancestral horse the size of a dog. Large Uintatheres
n 3. Oligocene epoch: Titanotheres in the black hills region
n 4. Miocene epoch: Large herds of Camels in the Western plains.
n 5. Pliocene epoch: Rhinoceros in Kansas and Nebraska
¨ 2. Quaternary period
n 1. Pleistocene epoch: "the" (not the only) ice age, Lake Bonneville. Mammoths and
mastodons, modern type horses, Neanderthals and modern type humans. A mass
extinction marks the end of the Pleistocene.
n 2. Recent epoch: that would be "now"--the period of modern human development.

4
 The Standard Geologic Column/Geologic Time Scale

The chronologic sequence of rocks determined using the principles of superposition and 5
faunal succession, supplemented by radiometric dating
EARTH SYSTEM: HISTORY AND NATURAL VARIABILITY – Vol. II - History of the Earth - J. Dostal, J. B. Murphy, R. D.
Nance

HISTORY OF THE EARTH

J. Dostal
Department of Geology, Saint Mary’s University, Canada

J. B. Murphy
Department of Earth Sciences, St. Francis Xavier University, Canada

R. D. Nance
Department of Geological Sciences, Ohio University, USA

Keywords: Solar System, Solar Nebula, Solar Radiation, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere,

Precambrian, Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Quaternary, Plate

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Tectonics, Pangea, Gondwana, Origin of Life, Oxygen, Photosynthesis, Mass
Extinction, Ice Age, Fossils, Hominid

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Contents

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H O
1. Introduction
2. Hadean and Archean Eons (4.57 to 2.5 billion years ago)
C E
2.1 Formation of the Sun
2.2 Formation of the Solar System
E O–

2.3 Formation of the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Solid Earth

2.4 Origin and Early History of Life
3. Proterozoic Eon (2.5 to 0.545 billion years ago)
4. Phanerozoic Eon (545 million years ago to present)
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4.1 Paleozoic Era (545 to 245 million years ago)

4.1.1 Late Permian Mass Extinction
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4.2 Mesozoic Era (245 to 65 million years ago)

4.2.1 Late Cretaceous Mass Extinction
4.3 Cenozoic Era (65 million years ago to present)
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4.3.1 The Ice Age

5. Fate of the Earth
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5.1 Internal Sources of Energy

5.2 External Sources of Energy
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches

Summary

The Earth has evolved from its tumultuous beginnings during the formation of the Solar
System to a relatively benign, life-sustaining planet. As the inner portion of the Solar
System cooled, small objects called planetesimals formed. These objects collided with
one another, and grew into protoplanets. One of these protoplanets evolved to become
the Earth. Calculations indicate that the Earth’s principal layers, the core, mantle and
crust, formed within 20 million years of the planet’s formation. The earliest atmosphere,
consisting of hydrogen and helium, was lost and was replaced by an atmosphere

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generated by volcanoes that was dominated by water vapour, with subordinate amounts
of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur, chlorine, nitrogen, argon,
hydrogen and no oxygen. Water vapour accumulated in the atmosphere and turned to
rain as temperatures cooled. This stripped water vapour and soluble gases, such as
carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere. The solid Earth evolved from the primitive crust
of the Hadean and early Archean Eons to one that had many of the attributes of modern
crust by the end of the Archean. The contrast in densities between continental and
oceanic crust allowed water to accumulate in regions we now call ocean basins. The
oldest marine sedimentary records indicate that oceans (and therefore the hydrologic
cycle) had originated by about 4 billion years ago.

The origin of life is controversial and hypotheses include the effects of lightning storms
in the atmosphere, the utilization of energy adjacent to deep-sea vents, the seeding from

TE SS
extra-terrestrial impacts, and the formation of organisms in inter-tidal pools. Life
originated early in the Archean in the form of organisms known as prokaryotes.

S
Prokaryotes were single-celled organisms that lived in anaerobic (oxygen-poor)

R
environments and were only capable of asexual reproduction. As a result, evolution was

AP L
slow. The oldest, widely accepted examples of these organisms occur in rocks that are
H O
3.5 billion years old. As life began to proliferate, oxygen produced by photosynthesis
was initially consumed by iron-rich ocean waters, which absorbed the oxygen to
C E
produce iron-rich minerals, preserved in the record as banded iron formations.
E O–

Late Archean crust consisted of granite-gneiss complexes and greenstone belts. During
the Proterozoic, continents and continental shelves grew from smaller, Archean nuclei
to the large-scale continents of the modern era. Much of the geologic history of the Late
Proterozoic and Phanerozoic is influenced by the formation and dispersal of super-
PL C

continents. This includes the formation and destruction of oceans, and the distribution of
mountain belts, earthquakes and volcanoes.
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By about 2 billion years ago, the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis exceeded
the ability of ocean waters to absorb it, and free oxygen entered the atmosphere. The
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presence of free oxygen in the atmosphere is supported by the sudden abundance of red,
continental, sedimentary deposits. The resulting environmental crisis initiated a mass
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extinction. By 1.8 billion years ago, eukaryotes had evolved that could exist in aerobic
(oxygen-rich) environments.

The geologic record suggests that a super-continent called Rodinia formed about 1.0
billion years ago. Between 850 and 750 million years ago, Rodinia fragmented and the
Pacific Ocean formed when Australia, Antarctica, and India separated from ancestral
North America, which is known as Laurentia.

Towards the end of the Proterozoic Eon, the oxygen content in the atmosphere reached
2%, and an ozone layer formed, providing organisms with some protection from
ultraviolet radiation. As ecological niches expanded, organisms became more numerous
and diverse. A controversial hypothesis, called the Snowball Earth hypothesis, proposes
that at various times between 750 and 580 million years ago, there were rapid
oscillations in climate with average surface temperatures varying from –50oC to +50oC.

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By the end of the Proterozoic Eon, life was relatively prolific in marine environments,
and at the dawn of the Paleozoic Era, the first shelly fossils appeared. The fossil record
of subsequent eras is far superior to that of the Proterozoic Eon. The Paleozoic Era
spans the fragmentation of a Late Proterozoic super-continent, and ends 245 million
years ago with the amalgamation of Pangea.

In the Ordovician, marine life included corals, bryozoans, and jawless fishes called
ostracoderms. The increased protection afforded by the ozone layer allowed the
colonization of land by plants and animals, such as amphibians. Reptiles evolved from,
and then out-competed the amphibians. By the end of the Paleozoic Era, the
decomposition of prolific plant life in oxygen-deficient environments led to the
formation of widespread coal deposits. The end of the Paleozoic Era was accompanied
by a mass extinction event that is most commonly attributed to the loss of habitat as

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Pangea amalgamated. Marine life was more profoundly affected, with 90% of all marine
species becoming extinct.

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At the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, Pangea began to break up and the resulting

AP L
generation of continental shelves allowed surviving species to occupy the new
H O
ecological niches. Reptiles, including dinosaurs, ruled the land and sky, and flourished
in the relatively warm climates. As land plants progressively diversified, herbivores and
C E
carnivores became more established. The mass extinction at the end of the Mesozoic
Era is most popularly attributed to the fall-out of an extra-terrestrial impact. Mammals
E O–

were the chief beneficiaries of the demise of the dinosaurs, and one family of mammals,
the hominids, ultimately evolved to produce Homo sapiens, modern humans. The long-
term fate of planet Earth depends on its ability to sustain plate tectonics, and the energy
supply from the Sun. Plate tectonics depend on mantle convection, which is driven by
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radioactive decay. The heat production provided by radioactive decay should be

sufficient to sustain plate tectonics for another five billion years. The Sun has a five
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billion year supply of nuclear fuel. When this supply is exhausted, the Sun will expand
and engulf the Earth.
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1. Introduction
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According to the solar nebula theory, the Earth and other planets in the Solar System
formed about 4.57 billion years ago by condensation of interplanetary dust. The Sun is a
star that formed at the centre of our Solar System about 4.6 billion years ago. Compared
to other stars in the heavens, the Sun is a rather mediocre star, and is referred to as a
"Yellow Dwarf."

The primordial Earth was a hostile environment with its thin primitive crust, abundant
volcanic activity, and extra-terrestrial impacts. Since that time, however, the planet has
evolved from its tumultuous origins to a relatively benign, modern world capable of
supporting diverse ecosystems. The evolutionary process has been dominated by slow,
progressive change involving ongoing interaction between solid earth, air, water, and
life. However, there is increasing evidence of rapid global change in narrow time
intervals, and the punctuation of progressive evolution by catastrophic events that are
best represented in the geologic record as mass extinctions. This section describes the
fundamental processes responsible for the Earth’s evolution through geologic time, and

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on that basis makes some predictions for the future.

The Earth formed at about the same time as the other terrestrial planets in the inner part
of the Solar System as it cooled. The first 4 billion years of Earth’s history, from its
formation to the first appearance of shelly fossils 545 million years ago, is known as the
Precambrian (see Figure 1). During that time, simple, marine-dwelling, soft-bodied
organisms dominated life. The Precambrian is divided into three eons: the Hadean (4.57
to 4.0 billion years ago), for which there is no rock record; the Archean (meaning
"ancient"), which extends from 4.0 to 2.5 billion years ago, and the Proterozoic
(meaning "earlier life"), which stretches from 2.5 billion to 545 million years ago. The
last 545 million years is known as the Phanerozoic Eon (meaning "visible life"). As a
result of the presence of shelly fossils, the fossil record of the Phanerozoic is far
superior to older eons, allowing it to be subdivided into eras: the Paleozoic Era or

TE SS
"ancient life", the Mesozoic Era or "middle life", and the Cenozoic Era or "recent life",
and each era is further subdivided into periods.

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R
AP L
H O
C E
E O–
PL C
M ES
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Nance

Figure 1. The geologic time scale subdivided into eons, eras, periods and epochs.
Geologic dates are in millions of years (Ma) and indicate the beginning of each time
division. The table is not drawn to scale. Relatively little is known about the events that
occurred during the early part of the Earth’s history and thus the first four billion years
are given less space on this chart.

Changes in oceanic and atmospheric composition ultimately allowed life to spread onto
land some 460 million years ago. By 300 million years ago, plant life was luxuriant and
animal life prospered. However, mass extinction events passed on the evolutionary torch
to opportunistic species, so that the dinosaurs came to dominate the lands during the
Mesozoic Era, which is also known as the "age of the dinosaurs." There is strong
evidence that the extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species at the end of the
Mesozoic Era was related to an extra-terrestrial impact event. In the absence of the

TE SS
dinosaurs, mammals began to flourish, and the Cenozoic Era is often called "the age of
the mammals." Only over the last 6 million years did hominids (the primate family to

S
which Homo sapiens belongs) evolve; Homo sapiens themselves originated a mere 100

R
000 to 200 000 years ago.

AP L
H O
2. Hadean and Archean Eons (4.57 to 2.5 billion years ago)
C E
2.1 Formation of the Sun
E O–

Building on the ideas of Descartes, the eighteenth-century German philosopher

Immanuel Kant and French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace proposed the nebular
hypothesis for the origin of the Solar System. Although this hypothesis was
subsequently modified into the solar nebula hypothesis, its essential elements remain
PL C

unchanged. A nebula is a cloudy mixture of solid and gaseous particles. Nebulae are
observed today between stars, and may represent the early stages of star formation.
M ES

According to the solar nebula hypothesis, a swirling cloud of dust and gas flattened into
a disk as it contracted under the influence of gravity. 90% of the solar nebula condensed
SA N

to form the Sun, and produced high enough temperatures to ignite and become a
thermonuclear furnace. When the Sun formed near the centre of the cloud, it began to
U

rotate. What caused the initial contraction is uncertain, but a hypothesis suggests that a
shock wave associated with a nearby supernova may have initiated the collapse.
Irrespective of the origin, once the collapse began, it initiated a chain of events that
induced further, irreversible collapse. As the cloud contracted, its particles came closer
together and the gravitational attraction between the particles increased, causing still
further contraction.

The Sun’s core temperature was on the order of 15 000 000o C, causing thermonuclear
reactions primarily involving high-speed collisions between hydrogen ions (at about
1000 km s-1). A succession of these collisions had sufficient energy to fuse four
hydrogen ions together to become a helium atom. However, the helium atom produced
is 0.7 % lighter than the mass of the four hydrogen ions. The loss of mass is converted
into energy according to Einstein’s famous equation:

E=mc2

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Nance

where E is the energy, m is the mass, and c is the speed of light (300 000 km s-1). Since
c is a very large number, the production of helium in the Sun releases vast amounts of
energy that permeate the Solar System. It is the portion of this energy that reaches the
Earth that has played a prime role in the Earth’s evolution. According to the
evolutionary models of stars, their brightness, or luminosity, increases from their
youthful to their mature stage. Therefore, the amount of radiation output from the Sun to
the Earth has increased by 25 to 30% over geologic time (see History of The Sun).

2.2 Formation of the Solar System

Although there is no direct evidence preserved on the Earth, important constraints are
derived from theoretical studies and models for the early evolution of the Solar System,

TE SS
during which time the Earth, the other planets, and their satellites formed. Experimental
evidence indicates that, as the nebula cools, an orderly sequence of compounds

S
condense to become solid particles. Compounds that become solid at the highest

R
temperatures form first and consist of silicates, oxides, and metals. These compounds

AP L
were concentrated in the inner part of the Solar System and began to stick together, or
H O
accrete, to form small bodies known as planetesimals. In addition to silicon and oxygen,
the composition of these planetesimals was rich in elements such as iron, nickel, and
C E
sulfur. The planetesimals ranged from a few cm to tens of km across and were
incorporated into the swirling cloud of gas and dust orbiting the Sun.
E O–

Due to turbulence in the swirling cloud, however, collisions between planetesimals

occurred, forming protoplanets, objects destined to become the terrestrial planets. Since
this material was rotating in the same direction, their relative velocities were low, and
PL C

collisions between planetesimals were probably quite gentle. Extra-terrestrial objects,

such as some meteorites, are considered to be the leftover raw materials of the primitive
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Solar System that did not accrete to form planets (see Early Earth).

Because the oldest rocks on Earth are close to 4 billion years old, there is no direct
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evidence of the age of the Solar System preserved on Earth. Radioactive dating of
meteorites that subsequently collided with the Earth reveals an age of 4.57 billion years,
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which is generally interpreted to be the age of formation of the planets. This age of the
Solar System is supported by samples from the lunar highlands, which yield ages of up
to 4.5 billion years. Because the Moon is widely believed to have been ejected from the
Earth following a collision with a Mars-sized protoplanet, the 4.5 billion age obtained
from lunar rocks is thought to provide a minimum age for the formation of the Earth.

2.3 Formation of the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Solid Earth

Several sources of heat combined to produce large-scale melting of the primordial

Earth. The formation of the Earth by gravitational collapse (contraction of the Solar
nebula) converted potential energy into kinetic energy, releasing enormous quantities of
heat. This release of heat was sufficient to cause large-scale melting within the Earth
which, in turn, allowed the heavy elements, such as iron and nickel, to sink to the core
and lighter elements to rise towards the surface to form the Earth’s crust and
atmosphere. Theoretical models and calculations suggest this event happened within the

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first 20 million years of the Earth’s formation. The density segregation of heavy
elements into the core, an event known as the iron catastrophe, generated yet another
source of heat.

Heat production from radioactive decay, a third important heat source, occurs when
unstable radioactive elements spontaneously convert to more stable elements. The decay
releases the excess energy stored within the elements. Modeling of the evolution of stars
shows that naturally occurring chemical elements are synthesized in thermonuclear
reactions during the life cycle of stars. When large stars die in cataclysmic events,
known as supernova explosions, the elements are dispersed throughout the Universe and
form the raw materials for other stars and planets. Some of the elements formed are
unstable and are, therefore, radioactive. Rapidly decaying isotopes, such as aluminium-
26, were abundant in the primordial Earth and their decay to more stable products

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provided significant quantities of heat in the primitive Earth.

S
Numerous meteorite impacts on the Earth’s surface would also have released vast

R
amounts of heat. Since the Earth’s surface is dynamic, direct evidence of these ancient

AP L
impacts is missing. However, there is abundant evidence of meteorite impacts on bodies
H O
such as the Moon and Mercury, which preserve their primitive surfaces, indicating that
all bodies in the Solar System were affected.
C E
Heat from these sources triggered large-scale melting in the Earth’s interior, leading to
E O–

the formation of a delicate, thin, primitive crust and atmosphere on the surface. The
buoyant crust probably floated on a pliable upper mantle. Since hydrogen and helium
are the most abundant elements in the Universe, our primary atmosphere was probably
dominated by these elements. However, the Earth has insufficient gravity to retain
PL C

hydrogen and helium and a secondary atmosphere developed that was dominated by
gases released by igneous activity (mainly volcanic out-gassing). As ancient and
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modern volcanoes are both predominantly formed by melting of the mantle, it is

assumed that gases emitted from the primitive volcanoes are similar to modern ones (see
Figure 2). These gases contained water vapour and subordinate amounts of carbon
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dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur, chlorine, nitrogen, argon and
hydrogen.
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Figure 2. Release of gases from an erupting volcano.
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Water and carbon dioxide are accumulated in the hydrosphere; nitrogen concentrates in
the atmosphere, while hydrogen escapes into space.
E O–

It is unclear how fast this secondary atmosphere grew, and at present there are two rival
hypotheses. One theory proposes a steady state model in which the atmosphere grows
with time due to de-gassing of the Earth, most dramatically represented by volcanic
PL C

activity. Another theory, known as the big burp model, proposes that this secondary
atmosphere was in place very early in the Earth’s history and that subsequent growth
M ES

was minor. If the big burp hypothesis is correct, the gases released from modern
volcanoes approximately balance the gases extracted from the atmosphere by other
processes such as the hydrologic cycle.
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The formation of the hydrosphere also occurred early in the Earth’s history. There are
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probably several sources of water, including volcanic out-gassing and the burning of icy
comets as they enter the atmosphere. Irrespective of its origin, water vapour formed a
shroud of thick clouds, and as temperatures cooled it began to rain, which then drained
to lower elevations. The formation of the hydrosphere stripped the atmosphere of water
vapour and soluble gases, such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Since nitrogen was
not extracted, its abundance steadily grew so that over time, nitrogen became the
dominant atmospheric gas.

In the modern world, rainwater drains into ocean basins. For ocean basins to form in the
primitive world, it was necessary for the crust to have variable compositions so that the
more buoyant crust stood at a higher elevation than the relatively dense crust.
Continental crust is rich in lightweight elements, such as silicon and aluminium, making
it buoyant and elevated, whereas oceanic crust is rich in dense (heavier) elements, such
as iron and magnesium, and so is dense and depressed. Thus, when continental and
oceanic crust first formed, water drained from elevated continents toward the lower-

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lying ocean basins, and a hydrologic cycle similar to the modern world commenced.

The oldest dated continental rocks occur in the Northwest Territories of Canada and in
western Australia and are approximately 4.0 billion years old. The oldest dated crystals
are 4.4 billion years old and occur in a sedimentary sequence in Western Australia.
Since the sedimentary rocks were presumably derived from the erosion of a continent,
this indicates that continental crust had formed by that time and that the hydrologic
cycle also existed.

2.4 Origin and Early History of Life

In the nineteenth century, the prevailing view was that life on Earth started at the
beginning of the Cambrian Period, and that no life existed throughout the Precambrian.

TE SS
Charles Darwin was particularly perplexed by this problem. Upon his return to England
following the voyages of the HMS Beagle, his ideas on evolution began to develop.

S
Darwin acknowledged that the apparent sudden explosion of life at the start of the

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Cambrian Period was a weak point in his theories on evolution. He wrote: "As to the

AP L
question why we do not find rich fossiliferous deposits belonging to these assumed
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earliest periods prior to the Cambrian system, I can give no satisfactory answer."
Darwin would be relieved to know that life is now known to have originated relatively
C E
early in the Earth’s history, and while the start of the Cambrian does represent an
important step in the evolution of life, it is not the dramatic beginning as envisaged by
E O–

the paleontologists of his time.

Life probably began some time during the Archean. The oldest, widely accepted
example of life is found in northwestern Australia in sediments that contain primitive,
PL C

single-celled organisms known as prokaryotes. These organisms lack complex internal

structures, such as a cell nucleus. The age of these sediments is derived from isotopic
M ES

dating of the basalts with which they are interbedded; dating of the basalts gave an age
of 3450 million years. However, there is controversial evidence for the existence of life
preserved in metamorphosed sedimentary rocks in southwestern Greenland that are 3.86
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billion years old. Although the strata are too altered to preserve the morphological
structures of organisms, the isotopic analysis of the heavy to light carbon (carbon-13 to
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carbon-12) ratio is consistent with an organic origin.

Although the formation of primitive continents and oceans provided the physical
environment in which life could form, the origin of life remains controversial. In 1953,
Stanley Miller, then a graduate student at the University of Chicago, subjected a gas
mixture of hydrogen, water vapour, methane and ammonia (thought to represent the
early atmosphere) to an electrical discharge (which was used to simulate lightning).
These experiments produced amino acids, which if bound together into long chains, are
one of the basic constituents of life. However, most researchers now believe the
primitive atmosphere also contained important amounts of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
When an electrical discharge strikes this mixture, amino acids are not produced, and
other hypotheses are being actively evaluated (see, Origin and Establishment of Life on
Earth).

In the primitive atmosphere, oxygen was essentially absent. As a result, there was no

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ozone layer providing protection from ultraviolet radiation. Since amino acids are
broken down by ultraviolet radiation, the environment where life began must have
provided protection from radiation poisoning. One hypothesis associates the origin of
life on Earth with submarine volcanic activity, which is thought to have been abundant
in the Archean. The deep ocean water would have provided protection from radiation
poisoning. The process, known as chemosynthesis, involves superheated fluids that
provide the energy for bacteria to convert inorganic molecules to organic compounds. In
similar modern environments, seawater seeps down into ocean crust and becomes
heated by the underlying magma. The hot water rises and produces jets of superheated
water called black smokers. With temperatures as high as 350oC, these black smokers
are erupted through fractures in the oceanic crust on the sea floor. This water is rich in
hydrogen sulfide, chlorine and a variety of metals. Bacteria use the energy released
when hydrogen sulfide reacts with oxygen in the seawater to synthesize organic

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compounds from inorganic carbon dioxide in seawater.

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Another hypothesis involves an extra-terrestrial origin, claiming that life was seeded by

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impacts from meteorites or comets. These bodies contain carbon and hydrocarbons, and

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their burning in the atmosphere may have generated amino acids in a manner similar to
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those described in Miller’s experiments. One particular class of meteorites found in the
Antarctic contains trapped gases that are identical in composition to the Martian
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atmosphere. This suggests that these meteorites were blasted off the Martian surface,
perhaps by impact events, and were subsequently captured by the Earth’s gravity. Some
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of these meteorites contain tiny rods that resemble fossilized bacteria. Although highly
controversial, if this interpretation is correct, it would provide evidence that life on
Earth may have been seeded by life on Mars.
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An additional hypothesis proposes that life originated in pools of water in inter-tidal

environments. The geologic record provides evidence that supports this origin. It is
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thought that clay minerals, abundant in primitive oceans, may have provided the
template upon which life developed. Clay minerals have thin, sheet-like, crystal
structures, like a wafer, where layers separate into individual sheets when they interact
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with water. Since they bond easily with amino acids, the clay minerals may have
afforded the amino acids protection from ultraviolet radiation.
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Figure 3. Origin of Precambrian banded iron formations. Marine photosynthetic
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organisms (blue–green algae) produce oxygen, which oxidizes iron in ocean water from
Fe2+ (ferrous) to Fe3+ (ferric). Unlike soluble ferrous iron, Fe3+ is insoluble and forms
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compounds that precipitate (iron hydroxide minerals) and sink to the ocean floor,
generating a banded iron formation.
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The earliest examples of life, prokaryotes, which are found in 3.5 billion year old
sedimentary rocks in Australia, were deposited in a shallow marine inter-tidal
environment. These organisms were bound with clay minerals by cyan bacteria (blue-
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green algae), which are gelatinous and sticky, to form stromatolites; representatives of
stromatolites still exist today. Prokaryotes were asexual and, therefore, their pace of
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evolution was slow. In asexual reproduction, an organism that possesses a favourable

mutation reproduces countless replicas of itself. This form of reproduction is suggested
by the geologic record, which shows limited evolution of life until about 2.0 billion
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years ago. Prokaryotes were also capable of photosynthesis. The oxygen produced by
prokaryotes, which would have been toxic to these simple oxygen-intolerant organisms,
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was absorbed by iron in the primitive ocean water to form insoluble iron hydroxide
minerals that sank to the bottom of the water. Evidence of this process is preserved in
the geologic record by rock layers known as banded iron formations (see Figure 3).
Banded iron formations are thinly bedded, sedimentary rocks whose layers can be
correlated for hundreds of kilometers. These layers consist of alternating bands of pale
quartz and dark, iron-rich minerals, such as hematite and magnetite. As a result of the
absorption of oxygen by iron, the atmosphere and oceans were essentially devoid of free
oxygen, and prokaryotes lived in an anaerobic (oxygen-poor) environment.

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Figure 4. Formation of cratons. A) Geologic sketch of the Superior craton of the

Precambrian Canadian Shield. The craton is composed of several granite–gneiss
complexes (yellow,) and greenstone belts (brown). B) Diagrammatic (north–south)
cross-sections illustrating a model for the origin of the Superior craton through the
collision of smaller microplates. 1. Several volcanic arcs (green) are composed of
greenstone belts and granite-gneiss complexes 2. The volcanic arcs eventually collided
as a result of the subduction of the oceanic crust, leaving belts of deformed sedimentary
rocks (dark brown) at the sites of the former subduction zones

Up until three billion years ago, the rock record is poorly represented. However, the
abundance of igneous and metamorphic rocks between 3.0 and 2.5 billion years old
suggests the rapid development of the continental crust during that period. This crust

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Nance

has two components: granite-gneiss complexes, which represent a mixture of typical

continental plutonic and metamorphic rocks, and greenstone belts, which predominantly
consist of volcanic rocks and interbedded marine sedimentary rocks. The origin of
greenstone belts is controversial and hypotheses range from large-scale melting of the
Earth’s mantle causing rifting of continental crust, to volcanism associated with the
opening of a small ocean basin as a result of a style of subduction similar to that found
in the modern Sea of Japan. By 2.5 billion years ago, these granite-gneiss complexes
and greenstone belts welded together to produce small continental blocks, or cratons,
that have remained stable since that time, and form the core of modern, continental
landmasses (See Figure 4).

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Bibliography
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Cooper J. D., Miller R. H., and Patterson J. (1986.) A Trip Through Time: Principles of Historical
Geology, 469 pp. London: Merrill Publishing Company. [Standard textbook of historical geology].
Kummel B. (1970.) History of the Earth. Pp. 1–700. San Francisco: Freeman & Co. [Detailed descriptive
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monograph on the Earth’ s rocks.]

The other most important monographs are listed under individual articles of the History of the Earth,
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chapter.

Biographical Sketches
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Jaroslav Dostal received his initial education in geology at Charles University in Prague,
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Czechoslovakia. He was a lecturer at that university before immigrating to Canada where he received his
doctoral degree from McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1974. After a year of postdoctoral
studies at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Saint Mary’s University at Halifax, where he is
now a professor of geology, hired him. Dr. Dostal has also worked as a researcher at the Universite de
Montpellier, and the Universite d’Aix-Marseille, France, and the Universita di Modena, Italy. He has
authored or co-authored over 150 papers in academic journals as well as more than 200 conference
abstracts and other publications.

Brendan Murphy is an Irish citizen who completed high school and his B.Sc. degree in Ireland, before
immigrating to Canada in 1975. He acquired an M.Sc. from Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia,
in 1977 and a doctorate degree from McGill University (Montreal, Quebec) in 1982. In 1982, he joined
St. Francis Xavier University, where he is now a professor of geology. He has published over 100
scientific articles in academic journals, book chapters, monographs, or geological field guidebooks, and
has authored or co-authored more than 120 conference abstracts.

Damian Nance is a citizen of both the United Kingdom and the United States. He completed his
education in England with a B.Sc. from the University of Leicester in 1972 and a Ph.D. from Cambridge
University, before emmigrating to Canada in 1976 to teach at St. Francis Xavier University in Nova

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Scotia. In 1980, he joined Ohio University where he is now a professor of geology. He has published over
150 scientific articles in academic journals, books and government documents, and has authored or co-
authored more than 180 conference abstracts.

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