Visual path way of central cortex ;

The visual pathway to the central cortex involves the transmission of visual information from the retina
through various structures until it reaches the primary visual cortex.

the-visual-pathway Vision is influenced by several factors related to light waves;

Wave Amplitude: Refers to the height of the wave and is associated with the brightness of the light.

Wavelength: The distance between two peaks of a wave, which determines the hue or color we perceive

.3. Purity: Indicates whether a light wave is composed of one color (pure) or multiple colors (impure),
affecting the saturation of the color we see .

Perception of Movement:
• The visual system deduces movement from the changing pattern of light on the retina.

• Certain cells in the brain are specialized to detect movement direction and speed.

• The perception of motion is a result of both the actual movement of objects and the relative
movement caused by the movement of our own eyes.

Structure of the eye ;

The structure of the eye is complex and can be divided into several layers and components, each with a
specific function:

1. Outer Layer: Sclera: The white part of the eye, a tough, protective outer layer that
maintains the shape of the eye.

• Cornea: A transparent, dome-like surface that covers the front of the eye and helps focus
incoming light.

1. Middle layer: This layer contains choroid, ciliary body, andris:

• Choroid: Contains blood vessels that supply nutrients to the eye.
• Ciliary Body: Produces the aqueous humor and contains the ciliary muscle, which changes
the shape of the lens for focusing.

• Iris: The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and the amount of light that
enters the eye.

1. The Retina: Macula: An area near the center of the retina that is responsible for
high-resolution central vision.

• Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
• Rods and Cones: Photoreceptor cells in the retina; rods detect light and dark, while
cones detect color.

• Fovea: A small pit in the macula that contains a high concentration of cones and is crucial for
sharp central vision.

These components work together to capture visual information and transmit it to the brain, where it is
processed and interpreted as the images we see.

Light and dark adaptation, along with sensory adaptation, are processes that allow
our sensory systems to adjust to changes in our environment:

1. Light Adaptation: This is the process by which our eyes adjust from a dark to a
brightly lit environment. When we move into bright light, the photoreceptors in our retina become less
sensitive, our pupils constrict to reduce the amount of light entering the eye, and the photopigments in
our cones regenerate quickly to adjust to the increased light levels.

2.Dark Adaptation: This refers to the adjustment of our eyes when we go from a bright to
a dark environment. In darkness, our pupils dilate to let in more light, and the photoreceptors in our
retina, especially rods, become more sensitive over time. The photopigments in rods, which are
bleached out in bright light, regenerate slowly, allowing us to see better in the dark. This process can
take up to 30 minutes or longer.

3. Sensory Adaptation:Sensory adaptation is a general process where sensitivity to a

constant stimulus decreases over time. This happens across all senses, including vision, hearing, touch,
smell, and taste. It allows us to ignore constant, unchanging stimuli and focus on changes in our
environment that may be more important.For example, when you enter a room with a strong smell, you
may initially notice it, but after a while, you no longer perceive the smell as your sensory receptors
become less responsive to the stimulus.

Theories of colour vision;

1. Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision:
• Proposed by Young and Helmholtz, this theory suggests that our color vision is based on three types of
cones in the retina that are sensitive to blue, green, and red light.

• Each type of cone responds to different wavelengths of light, and the combination of their activities
allows us to perceive a wide range of colors.

• This theory explains color blindness by suggesting that deficiencies in one or more types of cones can
lead to difficulty distinguishing certain colors.

2. Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision:

• Developed by Ewald Hering, this theory proposes that color perception is controlled by three opposing
systems: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white.

• It suggests that certain colors cannot be seen together because the visual system has mechanisms that
process colors in an antagonistic manner.

• For example, when one color of a pair is activated, the other is inhibited, which is why we do not see
"reddish-green" or "yellowish-blue."

Both theories are considered accurate and describe different aspects of the color perception process at
different levels of the visual system.

Hearing ;
Physical Characteristics of Sound:
.sound is a mechanical disturbance that propagates through an elastic material medium as a longitudinal
wave, consisting of alternating compressions and rarefactions .

• The amplitude of a sound wave affects its loudness, while the frequency affects the pitch .
• Wavelength, period, and velocity are also key physical characteristics of sound waves

Sturucture of the ear .

The structure of the ear is complex and can be divided into three main parts, each with its own
components and functions:

1. Outer Ear:

• Pinna (Auricle): The visible part of the ear that collects sound waves and directs them into the ear
canal .

• Auditory Canal (External Acoustic Meatus): A tube-like structure that leads to the eardrum,
transmitting sound from the pinna to the middle ear .

2. Middle Ear:

• Ear Drum (Tympanic Membrane): Vibrates in response to sound waves and transmits these vibrations
to the ossicles .

• Ossicles: A chain of three small bones (malleus, incus, stapes) that amplify the sound vibrations and
transmit them to the oval window .

• Oval Window: The membrane-covered opening that leads from the middle ear to the inner ear 1

• Eustachian Tube: Equalizes pressure between the middle ear and the throat, helping maintain balance
and hearing function .

3. Inner Ear:

• Cochlea: A spiral-shaped, fluid-filled tube that converts sound vibrations into electrical signals sent to
the brain .

Organ of Corti: Located within the cochlea, it contains hair cells that act as sensory receptors for sound .

• Semicircular Canals: Three fluid-filled loops that help maintain balance by sensing head rotation .

Each part of the ear plays a crucial role in the process of hearing and balance. The outer ear captures
sound, the middle ear amplifies it, and the inner ear converts it into signals that our brain can interpret.

Localization of sound
Sound localization is the process by which the brain determines the location of a sound source. It
involves several auditory cues, such as:
• Interaural Time Difference (ITD): The difference in the time it takes for a sound to reach each ear. This
is particularly useful for localizing sounds to the left or right .

• Interaural Level Difference (ILD): The difference in the sound pressure level reaching each ear,due to

the head's shadow effect, which helps in determining the direction of the sound .

Memory scaning mental processing revealet by reaction

time experiment ;
Memory Scanning, Mental Processing Revealed by Reaction Time Experiment

What is Memory

Memory is the process of taking in information from the world around us, processing it, storing
it, and later recalling that information, sometimes many years later.

It is the faculty by which the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information, serving as a
record of experience that guides future action.

Types of Memory

Memory is not just one entity; it includes different types such as:

Episodic Memory: This type of memory allows individuals to recall specific events such as
birthday parties and weddings.

Semantic Memory: It involves learning the meaning of single words, facts about the world, and
other general knowledge.

Procedural Memory: This type of memory involves skills like learning to ride a bicycle or how to
play a musical instrument.

Sensory Memory: This type of memory retains impressions of sensory information after the
original stimulus has ceased.

How Memory Works:

Memory operates according to a "dual-process," where more unconscious, routine thought

processes (known as "System 1") interact with more conscious, problem-based thought
processes (known as "System 2"). At each of these two levels, there are processes through
which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved or recalled.

[Computer Memory: There are two types of computer memory: primary and secondary.
Primary memory, also known as random access memory (RAM). On the other hand, secondary
memory refers to the location of data storage.]

Memory is the process of maintaining information over time, and it is essential for all aspects of
our lives, from learning and reasoning to recalling past experiences and guiding present and
future actions.

Memory Scanning in Cognitive Psychology:

In cognitive psychology, *memory scanning* refers to the mental process of comparing an

internal representation of a test stimulus to symbols in memory. This process is part of the
mechanism for recalling information from memory and is involved in tasks such as identifying a
specific item from a list of items held in memory.

For Example:

An example of memory scanning in cognitive psychology can be illustrated through the process
of recalling a specific item from a list held in memory. For instance, if a person is asked to recall
a specific word from a list of words they have just seen, they engage in a process of mentally
comparing the test stimulus (the word they are trying to recall) to the symbols stored in
memory (the list of words they saw). This mental comparison and search process is part of
memory scanning in cognitive psychology.

Mental Processing Revealed by Reaction Time Experiment*

Reaction time experiments are used to study the speed at which individuals process
information and respond to stimuli. This scientific study, known as mental chronometry, helps
researchers infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of mental operations.
Reaction time (RT) is measured by the elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and an
individual's response on relatively simple perceptual-motor tasks typically administered in a
laboratory setting.

Types of Reaction Time Experiments*

1. Simple Reaction Time: In this experiment, the subject is presented with one simple stimulus,
such as a light, and instructed to perform one simple response, such as pressing a button.

2. Choice Reaction Time*: The subject is presented with two or more different stimuli and
instructed to perform different responses depending on which stimulus is presented.
Memory Scanning, Mental Processing Revealed by Reaction Time Experiment:

Sternberg's Short-Term Memory Experiment:

Sternberg's study aimed at determining how we access the information in our short-term
memory. Participants were asked to remember a series of numbers presented one at a time,
and then determine whether a test number was one of the studied numbers. The reaction
times of responses to the test number were examined, revealing a linear relationship between
reaction times and the number of items studied.

This experiment sheds light on the process of accessing information in short-term memory and
the time it takes to "scan" each item in short-term memory.

Sternberg's Work on Memory Scanning:

Saul Sternberg's work on memory scanning has contributed significantly to our understanding
of short-term memory processes. His experiments and findings have helped demonstrate
several important concepts:

Linear Relationship between Reaction Times and Number of Items Studied:

Sternberg found a nearly perfect linear relationship between reaction times and the number of
items studied. The more items studied, the longer it took to respond to the test item. For every
additional item the participants studied, they took about 38 ms longer to respond to the test
number, suggesting that it takes about that long to "scan" one item in short-term memory.

Serial Scanning of Short-Term Memory:

Sternberg identified a linear relationship between study group size and reaction time, inferring
that scanning short-term memory for a target is serial, and that each item takes about 38 ms to
scan. Equivalent reaction times for studied test items and novel test items led him to infer that
scans of short-term memory are exhaustive.

Nature of Memory Search in Short-Term Recognition:

Sternberg's work has been instrumental in investigating the nature of memory search in short-
term recognition. His experiments and findings have contributed to the development of models
designed to account for detailed response time distribution data in the classic Sternberg
memory-scanning task.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, reaction time experiments provide valuable insights into the speed and processes
of mental operations. They are used in various fields, including human experimental, cognitive,
and differential psychology, as well as in psychophysiology, cognitive neuroscience, and
behavioral neuroscience to help elucidate the biological mechanisms underlying perception,
attention, and decision-making in humans and other species.

Perception
Perception is a complex process that involves the interpretation and organization of sensory information
to create a meaningful experience of the world. Here's a brief overview of the types of perception
you've mentioned:

1. Colour Perception:

This refers to the ability to perceive and distinguish between different wavelengths of light, which we
interpret as colors.It's mediated by the complex interaction between photoreceptors in the eyes and the
brain .

2. Depth Perception:

Depth perception allows us to perceive the world in three dimensions and to judge the distance of
objects. It relies on both binocular cues (like retinal disparity and convergence) and monocular cues (like
relative size and linear perspective) .

3. Movement Perception:• Movement perception is the ability to sense and interpret physical
movements in our environment. This can include the movement of objects or the movement of our own
bodies.It's crucial for tasks like driving, playing sports, and navigating through spacе .

4. Perception of Time:•

Time perception is the subjective experience of time, which varies from person to person. It involves the
sense of duration, the succession of events, and the intervals between them. Our perception of time can
be influenced by various factors, including attention, memory, and the nature of the time intervals being
judged .

Selective adoptation of lenguastic features detectors

Selective adaptation in linguistic feature detectors refers to the phenomenon where exposure to a
particular speech sound can temporarily alter the perception of subsequent sounds. This concept is
based on the idea that the auditory system contains feature detectors that are sensitive to specific
phonetic elements. When these detectors are repeatedly stimulated, their sensitivity decreases, leading
to a shift in the perceived boundary between different phonetic categories.For example, if a listener
hears many examples of a phoneme like /b/, they may become less likely to classify similar sounds as /b/
in a/ b/-to-/d/continuum. This suggests that the feature detectors for /b/ have been fatigued, and as a
result, the listener's perception is altered.This process is analogous to the way visual feature detectors
work, where repetitive stimulation can lead to a reduced response to a particular visual pattern or
shape. In the context of speech, selective adaptation helps us understand how our perception of
phonetic boundaries can be dynamic and influenced by recent auditory experiences .

Failure to detect changes to people during a real world

interaction dichotic listening task;
In the context of a dichotic listening task, which is used to study selective attention and the lateralization
of brain function within the auditory system, a similar effect can occur. Participants may fail to notice
changes in the auditory stimuli presented to them if they are focusing their attention on a different
aspect of the task 2 This reflects the limitations of our attentional processes and the selective nature of
perception, where we can miss significant changes if our attention is directed elsewhere.

Sensory memory
sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory that allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory
information after the original stimulus has ceased. It's an automatic process that occurs without
conscious control and is limited in duration and capacity. Here's a brief overview of its types:

• Iconic Memory: This is the visual sensory memory register that stores visual images. Information
stored in iconic memory generally disappears within half a second .

• Echoic Memory: Also known as auditory sensory memory, echoic memory involves a very brief
memory of sound. This type of sensory memory can last for up to three to four seconds.

storage in sensory memory

Sensory memory serves as the initial, momentary storage system for all sensory information. It retains
impressions of sensory input after the original stimulus has ceased. This type of memory is characterized
by its large capacity but brief duration of information retention

Mental imagery
Mental imagery refers to the mental recreation of sensory experiences without external stimuli. It
involves visualizing, hearing, or feeling something in the mind's eye or ear, even when the actual sensory
input is not present .
Visual imgery
Visual imagery is a form of mental imagery that pertains specifically to the visual domain. It's the process
of creating mental pictures or scenes in the absence of visual input and can be used for various cognitive
tasks, including memory and problem-solving.

Within visual imagery, there are two main coding systems:

1. Analogue Code: This suggests that mental images are stored in a format similar to the way pictures
are stored, preserving the spatial and visual properties of the perceived objects. The brain's visual
system is activated similarly when imagining an object as when actually seeing it

2. Propositional Code: This posits that mental representations are stored as descriptions, in a language-
like form, rather than as images. These descriptions are abstract and do not necessarily have direct
spatial correlations with the actual objects they represents .

Applications of Visual Imagery

Applications of mental imagery to other psychology areas interest many psychologists outside of
cognitive psychology. These applications include guided imagery methods to manage pain, boost
immune systems, and advance health.

Nerural Correlates of Visual Imagery

The occipital and temporal lobes do the majority of the processing during perception. Basic visual
elements are identified and integrated into coherent percepts in this portion of the brain, also known as
the visual cortex. The subjective overlap between perception and imagery is caused by the fact that they
lead to the experience of similar visual features: perceiving and imagining a cat both give rise to an
experience of pointy ears, whiskers, and almond-shaped eyes. Early neuroimaging studies supported this
assumption, revealing that imagery and perception are connected with comparable category-specific
responses in the high-level occipitotemporal cortex.

Dreams and Visual Imagery

Dreams are subjective experiences that occur during sleep and are frequently accompanied by vivid
visual material. According to several studies, specific visual experience during sleep is represented by
and can be decoded from visual cortex activity patterns similar to those used for stimulus
representation.