3Collection of Data

INTRODUCTION
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
METHODs OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
DRAFTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
PRE-TESTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE (OR PILOT SURVEY)
SPECIMEN QUESTIONNAIRES
SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA
EDITING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

PRECAUTIONS IN THE USE OF SECONDARY DATA

 40
STATISTICAL METHODS
INTRODUCTION
After the
preliminaries
COnsideration, the investigator the previous chapter are given due
discussedis infaced with one ofinformatiorn
the mostOdifficult
problems
Utmost
of
obtaining or
care must be gatn hile collecting
exercised while collecting data because data
constitute the TOundation on which the superstructure of statistical
analysis is built. The results obtained from the analysis are
properly
interpreted policy decisions are n
taken. Hence, if the data are
decisineand inadequate the whole analysis may be faulty and the
decisions taken misleading.
m a y be obtained either from the primary source or the secondary
Ce A primary source is one that tself collects the data; a secondary
CE 1s one «that nakes available data which were collectea Dy Some
ragency.
aftd For example. the data collected by the Ministry of Industries
nade available through variÑus publications constitute primary
rce. However, if the Ministry of Industries uses data collected by some
Oer organisation, say, National Sample Survey Organisation, this will
u t e secondary source for the Ministry. A primary source usually
O r e detaled informatiön particularly on the procedures followed in
n g and compiling the data. It may be noted that a given source
e party primary and partly secondary. The journal 'Agricultural
Situation in India' gives data compiled by. the Ministry of Agriculture
and
rTigationand may also contain related information collected by other
Ministrfes.
i s preferable to make use of the primary source wherever possible for
tHe following reasons:
A The secondary source may contain mistakes due to errors in
transcription made when the figures were copied from the.primary
source.
Aii The primary
units used.
source frequently includes definitions of terms and

iti) The primary source often includes a copy of the schedule and a
description of the procedure used in selecting the sample and in
collecting the data.
v) Primary source usually shows data in greater detail.
Depending on the
source, statistical data are classified under
two
categories: () Primary data, and (i) Secondary data.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

Primary data are obtained by a study specifically

dáta needs of the problem at hand. Such data are
designed to fulfil the
arfd are generated in large number of original in character
surveys conducted mostly by
Government and also by some individuals, institutions
hadiesFor example, data obtained in a population census and research
of the Registrar General and Census by the Office
Affairs, are primary data. Commissioner, Ministry of Home
Data which are not
niTblished or unpublishedoriginally collected but rather obtainedfrom
sources are known as secondary data. For
COLLECTION OF DATA

example, 1or the office of the

Registrar
General and Census
the census data are primary whereas for all
are seconda others, who use
otwhich statistucal a r y dáta
work is carried consttute the chief material on the basis
out in many investigations.
collecting primary data it is h the
one should go through
desirable that
existing literature and
learn what is
which the specific problem falls and already known of the generaatian
any and
that may give us leads and lessons, This can all surrounding intoria.
helo in getting an idea aDo
the possible pittalls, avoiding t
duplication of effort and waste of reso
should be noted that it is the process
of assembling data wi
is
called 'collection of statistics and is difercnt from the primary
process of comP
statistics |Le., secondary data) from various published sources.
Crui,faton and Tebbutt, "Collection mecans the assembling, Tor
purpose of particular
nvestigation of enturely new data. presumabyot
already available in publishedsources." Wehave used the term 'collection
in this book strictly in the narrow sense defined above.
The difference between primary and seeendaEy data is only of degree
data which are primary in the hands of one become secondary in_the
hands O another. Data are primary for the individual agency Or
institution collecung them whereas for the rest of the world they_ are
an
secondary. A few examples would clarify the distinction. Suppose.
investigator wants data about the spending habits of the students of Delhi
University. If he collects the data himself or through his agents adopting
any suitable method such as contacting and interviewing students Or
circulating a questionnaire, the data would constitute primary data tor
him. On the other hand. if the students union has already made a
similar survey and the investigator obtained data from union office,,Such
statistics
data would constitute secondary data for him. Similarly,
Labour
collected by various departments of the Government such as

Bureau and Central Statistical Organisation are primary for the respective
departments whereas for all others they constitute secondary data.
Secondary data offers the following advantages:
It is highly convenient to use information which s o m e o n e else has
compiled. There is no need for printing data collection forms, hiring
enumerators, editing and tabulating the results, etc. Researchers
alone or with some clerical assistance may obtain information froma
published records compiled by somebody else.
If secondary data are available they are much quicker to obtain
Ai)
than primary data.
subjectswhere it would
Secondary data may be available
on some
data. For example. census data
be impossible to collect primary
individual or research organisation, but
cannot be collected by an

be obtained from Government publications.

can only
are encountered in using secondary data:
However, two major problems
The first is the difficulty.of finding data which exactly fit the need of
the present project.

McGraw-Hill Book Comnani

Crum, Patton and Tebbutt: Economic Statistics,
New York.
42 STATISTICAL METHODS

T h e second problem is finding data which are sufflciently accurate.

Choice between Primary and Secondary Data

The investigator must decide at the outset
whether he will use primary
data or secondary data in an investigation. The choice between the two
depends mainly on the following considerations:
( Nature and scope of the enquiry.
(i) Availability of fînancial resources,
(ii Availability of time,
(iv) Degree of accuracy desired, and
() The collecting agency. ie., whether an individual, an institution or
a Goverrnment body.
It may be pointed out that most statistical
analysis rests upon
secondary data. Primary data are generally used in those cases where the
secondary data do not provide an adequate basis for analysis. In certain
cases. both primary as well as secondary data may. be employed. The
reason why secondary data are being increasingly used is that published
statistics are now available covering diverse fields so that an
investigator
finds required data readily available to hinm in many cases.

METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA

Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following methods:

Direct personal interviews,
Indirect oral interviews,
Information from correspondents,
Mailed questionnaire method, and
Schedules sent through enumerators.
Direct Personal Interviews

Under this method of collecting data, there is a face-to-face contact with

the persons from whom the information is to be obtained (known as
informants). The interviewer asks them questions pertaining to the survey
and collects the desired information. Thus, if a person wants to collect
data about the working conditions of the workers of the Birla Textile
Mill,
Delhi, he would go to the Mill, contact the workers and obtain the desired
information. The information thus obtained is first-hand or original in
character.

Merits The advantages of personal interview are:

() Response is more encouraging as most people are willing to supply

information when approached personally.
(ii) The information obtained by this method is likely to be more
accurate because the interviewer can clear up doubts of the
informants about certain questions and thus obtain correct
 COLLECTION OF DATA
43

information. In case the interviewer

apprehends
is not giving accurate information, he
that the informant
may cross-examine him and
thereby try to obtain the information.
(iit It is also possible through
personal interview to collect
supplementary information
about the informant's personal
characteristics and environment and such information often
very useful while interpreting results. proves
(iv) Questions about which the informant is likely to be sensitive can
be carefully sandwiched between other questions by the interviewer.
He cann twist the questions keeping in mind the informant's
reactions. He can change the subject, if necessary, or explain the
survey problem further if it appears that the informant is not
inclined to supply any information. In other words, a delicate
situation can usually be handled more effectively by a
personal
interview than by other survey techniques.
The language of communication can be adjusted to the status and
educational level of the person interviewed, thus avoiding
inconvenience and misinterpretation on the part of the informant.

Limitations Important limitations of Personal Interview Method are:

I t may be very costly where the number of persons to be interviewed

is large and they are spread over a wide area.
The charnces of personal prejudice and bias are greater under this
method as compared to other methods.
The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and supervised,
otherwise they may not be able to obtain the desired information.
Untrained or poorly trained people may spoil the entire work.
More time is required for collecting information by this method as
compared to others. This is because interviews can be held only at
the convenience of the informants. Thus, if information is required to
be obtained from the working members of households, interviews will
have to be held in the evening or on weekend. Since only an hour or
two can be used for interviews in the evening, the work may have to
be continued for a lorng time, or a large staff may have to be
employed involving huge expenditure.
Suitability This method is suitable for intensive rather than extensive
field surveys. Hence, it should be used only in those cases where
intensive study of a limited field is desired.
It may be noted that when personal interview method is adopted, the
investigator instead of going personally and conducting a face-to-face
interview may also obtain information on telephone. For example, the
television viewers may be asked to comment on certain programmes on
phone. The method is less expensive than the personal interviews.
However, this method suffers from some serious defects like: () not every
one owns a phone and hence only a very limited group can be
approached by this method, (i) very few questions can be asked on
phone, (ii) since telephone interview has to be conducted very quickly, the
 44
STATISTICAL METHODS

pOndents may give vague and reckless answers, and (iv) there may De
Serious errors of
communication on telephone.
DEcause of these reasons, telephone interviews are not very commoniy
used.

Indirect Oral Interviews

Onder this method of collecting data, the investigator contacts
rdes called witnesses capable of supplying the necessary intorinauor
h o d is generally adopted in those cases where the information to
w taned is of a complex nature and the informants are not inclined to
o n d if approached directly. For example. in an enquiry regarding
c t i o n to drugs. alcohol,. etc.. people may be reluctant to supply
rormation about their owm habits. it would be necessary in that case to
get the desired information from those dealing in drugs, liquor or other
people who may be knowing them, for example, their neighbours, friends,
etc. Similarly, if a fire has broken out at a certain place the cause of the
ire may be traced by contacting persons living in the neighbourhood of
that area. In a similar manner, clues about thefts or. murders are
obtained by the police by interrogating third parties who are supposed to
have knowledge about the case under investigation. Enquiry Committees
and Commissions appointed by the Government generally adopt this
method to get people's views and all possible details of facts relating to
the enquiry.
This method is very popular in practice. However, the correctness of
inforniation obtained depends upon a number of factors, such as:

The type of persons whose evidence is being recorded. If the people

do not know the full facts of the problem under investigation or if
they are prejudiced it will not be possible to arrive at correct
conclusions.
The ability of the interviewers to draw out the information from
witnesses by means of appropriate questiorns and cross-examination.
.The honesty of interviewers who are collecting the information. It
might happen that because of bribery, nepotism or certain other
reasons those who are collecting the information give it such a twist
that correct conclusions are not arrived at.
For the success of this method it is necessary that the evidence of one
person alone is not relied upon; the views of a number of persons should
be ascertained to find the real position. Utmost care must be exercised in
the selection of these persons because it is on their views that the final1
conclusions are reached.
Suitability. This method is suitable in such cases where indirect
sources of information are required to be.tapped either because direct
sources do not exist or cannot be relied upon or would be reluctant to
part with the information.

Information from Correspondents

Under this method, the investigator appoints local agents or
correspondents in different places to collect information. These
correspondents collect and transmit the information to the central office
COLLECTION OF DATA 45

where the data are processed. Newspaper agencies generally adopt this
method. Correspondents in different places supply information relating to
such events as accidents, riots, strikes, etc., to the head office. The
correspondents may be paid or honorary persons but generally they are
paid. This method is also adopted by varlous departments of government
in such cases where regular information is to be collected from a wide
area. For example, in the construction of wholesale price index numbers
regular information is obtained from correspondents appolinted in different
areas. This method is particularly suitable in case of crop estimates. The
special advantage of this method is that it is cheap and appropriate for
extensive investigation. However. it may not always ensure accurate
results because of the personal prejudice and bias of the correspondents.

Suitability As stated above, this method is generally adopted in those

cases where the information is to be obtained at regular intervals from a
wide area.

Mail guestionnaire Method

Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey (known as

questionnaire) is prepared and sent to the various informants by post.
The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for answers.
Request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the
questionnaire and send it back within a specified time.
The questionnaire studies can be classified on the basis of:
0 The degree to which the questionnaire is formalised/structured,
i) The disguise or lack of disguise of the questionnaire, and
ii) The communication method used.
When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers adapt their
questioning to each interview as it
progresses perhaps elicit responses
or
by indirect methods suchshowing pictures on which the respondent
as
comments. When a prescribed sequence of
referred to as structured
questions is followed, it is
study. On the other hand, when no prescribed
sequence of questions exists, the study is non-structured.
When questionnaires are constructed so
the respondents they are that the objective is clear to
non-disguised; on the other hand, when
the
objective is not clear the questionnaire is a disguised one.
two bases of classification, four Using these
types of studies can be distinguished:
Non-disguised structured,
Non-disguised non-structured,
Disguised structured, and
Disguised non-structured.
Merits The main advantages of this method are:

.This method of
of investigation collecting
data can be
is very vast and the easily adopted where the field
wide geographical area. intormantS are spread over
a
46
STATISTICAL METHODS

I t is also relatively cheap and expeditious provided the informants

respond in time.
n guestions of a personal nature or questions requiring reaction by
ne Tamily, this method is generally superior to either personal
interviews or telephone method.
Limitations There are some limitations associated with this method:

This method can be adopted only where the informants are literate
people so that they can understand written questions and send the
answers in writing.
l t involves some uncertainty about the response. Co-operation on the
part of informants may be difficult to presume.
The information supplied by the informants may not be correct and t
may be difficult to verify the accuracy.

The sucess of this method depends upon the skill with which the
guestionnaire is drafted and the extent to which willing co-operation of
the informants is secured. Since the advantages of the personal contact
are losst in the mailed
questionnaire, the form and tone of the
questionnaire must be designed to supply as far as' possible the missing
personal element. Where the information is required by a govermment
department, it is generally available on account of legal or administrative
sanctions. In other cases, it is necess: ry to take informants into
confidence so that they furnish correct information.
To make this method work effectively the following suggestions are
made
The questionnaire should be so framed that it does not become an
undue burden on the respondents, otherwise they may not return
them back.
Prepaid postage stamp should be affixed.
The sample should be large.
I t should be adopted in such
enquiries where expected it is that the
respondents would return the questionnaire because of their own
interest in the enquiry.
Its use should be
preferred in such enquiries where there could be a
legal compulsion to supply the information so that risk of
non-response is eliminated.

Suitability This method is appropriate in cases where

informants are
spread over a wide area, ie., in case of extensive
surveys.
Schedules* sent through Enumerators
Yet another method of collecting information is that
of sending schedules
through the enumerators or interviewers. The enumerators contact the
A distinction is often made between
refers to device for securing answers to
a
a
questionnaire and
schedule. Questionnaire
a

esnondent flls in himself. Schedule is the namequestions by using a form

which the
usually applied a set of questions
which are asked and illed in a lace-to-face situation with another
to
person.
COLLECTION OF DATA 47

in schedule and fill

ormants, get replies to the questions contained
a
form. The essential
hem in their own handwriting in the questionnaire and this method
aference between the mailed questionnaire method 1s
is sent to the informants by
hat whereas in the former the questionnaire schedule
post, in the latter the enumerators carry the personally to the
iniormants. The method is free from most of the limitations of the mailed
questionnaire method.
Merits The main advantages of the method are:

I t can be adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.

is very little non-response as the enumerators go personally to

There
obtain the information.
The information received is more reliable as the accuracy of statements
can be checked by supplementary questions wherever necesary.

Limitations Amongst the various methods of collecting primary data,

this method is quite costly as enumerators are generally paid persons.
The success of the method depends largely upon the training
imparted to the enumerators.
but there is a
Skilledinterviewing requires experience and training,
tendency for statisticians to neglect this extremely important part of
of thne
the data collecting process. Without good interviewing most
information collected is of doubtful value.
affect
T h e way in which the enumerators conduct the interview would
number of
the data collected. When questions are asked by a
different interviewers, it is possible that variations in the personalities
obtained. This
of the interviewers will cause variation in the a n s w e r s
variation will not be obvious. Hence every efort must be made to
remove as much of variation as possible due to different interviewers.

This method is quite popularly used in practice. The main

Suitability
reason for this is a very high rate of response because of the personal
contact of the enumerators.

DRAFTING THE gUESTIONNAIRE

Before framing the questionnaire it is essential to set out in detail the

data which we desire from the answers to questionnaire. It shall be wise
if we can construct the type of tables which we would like to obtain from
the enquiry. It may not always be possible to set out all the possible data
we would ike, in advance, since many things may be learnt in the course
of enquiry and one may find that what he believed to be ideal was not in
fact ideal. For this reason those who are likely to be concerned with
analysing the results should be called in at the very early stage. For
example, it may not be very appropriate for a government statistician to
collect some data on, say, unemployment, and then hand them over to an
economist to analyse. The wise thing would have been to consult the
economist first on what data were desirable.
 STATISTICAL METHODS
success of the questionnaire method of collecting informats
The
depends largely on the
proper drafting of the questionnaire. afting nation
and requires a great deal of
questionnaire is a highly specialised job
and experience. It is difficult to lay down any hard and fast rules toskill
followed in this connection. However, the following general principles m
be
be helpful in framing a questionnaire:

Covering letter The person conducting the survey must introduce

himself and state the objective of the survey. It is desirable that
(0 A short letter is enclosed. The letter should state in as few a Worde
as possible the purpose of the survey and how the informant would
tend to benefit from it.
( Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope or the respondent's
convenience in returning the questionnaire.
(i) Assure the respondent that his answers will be kept in strictest
confidence.
(iv) Promise the respondent that he will not be solicited after he fills
up the questionnaire.
(u) If possible, offer special inducements (free gifts, concession coupons,
etc.) to return the questionnaire.
(vi If the respondent is interested, promise a copy of the results of the
survey to him.

Number of Questions should be Small The number of questions should

be kept to the minimum. The precise number of questions to be included
would naturally depend on the object and scope of the investigation.
Fifteen to twenty-five may be regarded as a fair number. If a lengthy
questionnaire is unavoidable, it should preferably be divided into two or
more parts.
It should be noted that there is an inverse relationship between the
length of a questionnaire and rate of response to the survey. That is, the
longer the questionnaire, the lower will be the rate of response; the
shorter the questionnaire, the higher will be the rate of
response.
Therefore, each question mu_t be clearly presented in as few a words as
possible and each question should be deemed essential to the survey. In
addition, questions must be free from ambiguities.
guestions should be Arranged Logically The questions must be
arranged in a logical order so that a natural and spontaneous reply to
each is induced. They should not skip back and forth from one topic to
another. Thus, it is undesirable to ask a man how many children he has
before asking whether he is married or not. Similarly, it would be
to ask a man his income before asking him whether he is employed illogical
or
not. Thus the sequence of the questions should be considered carefully in
terms of the purpose of the study and the persons who will supply the
information. Questions applying identification and description of the
respondent should come first followed by major information questions. If
opinions are requested, such questions should usually be placed at the
end of the list. Two different questions worded differently be included on
the same subject to provide cross-check on
important points.
 COLLECTION OF DATA 49

Questions should be Short and Simple to Understand The questions

should be short and simple to understand. Unlcss the person being
interviewed is technically trained, technical terms should be avoided.
Words such as "capital" or "income" that have different meanings for
different persons should not be used unless a clariflcation is included in
the question.

Ambiguous Questions Ought to be Avoided Amblguous qucstions' means

different things to different pcople. It will not be possible to obtain
comparable replies from respondents who take a question to mean
different things. For example,
Consider the following question:

you smoke? Yes No

There are several ambiguities in this question. It is not clear whether
the desired response pertains to cigars, cigarettes, pipes or combinations
thereof. Also it is not clear whether occasional smoking or habitual
smoking was the primary concern of the question. If we are interestedd
only in current cigarette consumption, it would be better to ask:
How many cigarettes do you currently smoke each day?
L e s s than 5

5 to 9
1 0 to 14
1 5 to 19
2 0 and above.
Personal guestionssShould be Avoided As far as possible, questions of
a personal and pecuniary nature should not be asked. For example,
questions about income, sales-tax paid, etc., may not be willingly
answered in writing. Where such information is essential, it should be
obtained by personal interviews. Even then, such questions should be
asked only at the end of the interview, when the informants feel more at
ease with the intervieweer.

Instructions to the Informants The questionnaire should

provide
necessary instructions to the infornmants. For example, the questionnaire
should specify the time within which it should be sent back and the
address at which it should be sent. Instructions about unit of
measurement, etc., should also be given. For instance, if there is a
question on weight, it should be specified as to whether weight is to be
expressed in pounds or kilograms or some other unit.

guestions should be capable of Objective Answer Avoid questions of

pinion and keep to questions of fact. In factual studies, it is highly
desirable that questions are so designed that objective answer may be
forthcoming. For example, instead of asking the condition of a building
and allowing the informant or enumerator to state the condition in his
words, it is desirable to ask if a structure was in good condition. needed
minor repairs, needed structural repairs or was unfit for use. No doubt,
50 STATISTICAL METHODS

O such questions may not be completely objective but they can

De readily tabulated. Similarlv, while asking students how do ey
normally travel to college, frame a question of the type:
How do you
normally travel to college?
0 By bus scooter
(i By your own c a r ( i ) By your own

(iv) made
By taxi (v) On foot (vi Any other
to
The respondent will tick (V) mark the particular alternative applicable
him.
his type of question is known as multiple-choice question. It suggests
If a muliple
answers among which the respondent may choose.
Sveral and a 'donit
CIorce question is used, all alternatives should be stated
left in the questionnaire. Such questions not only
know' category be
respondent Il to
Tacilitate tabulation but will take very little time of the
excellent if most or
of question is
the questionnaire. However, this type in number. When
the
the possible answers are both known and few
possible answers are numerous, a limited list-even if accompanied Dy an
"other category-elicit a response different from that which otherwisee
result by the
Would be forthcoming. Multiple choice questions tend to bias
order in which alternative answers are given. When ideas are involved, the
The use or
first item in the list of alternatives has a favourable bias.
multiple-choice question is when the investigator is
indicated only
confident of the existence of a limited group of important alternatives and
it should be avoided when there are many possible responses of relatively

equal significance.
"Yes" or "No*" Question As far as possible the questions should be of
such a nature that they can be answered easily in Yes' or "No". Such
an excellent
questions pose a simple alternative to the respondent. This is
exists. The
technique if applied to situations where a clear-cut alternative in the
questions: "Do you own a car?", "Are you married?", "Did you vote
last election?" can easily be answered with a "yes" or "no", However,
when the alternative is not clear-cut, the "yes" or no" type question
should be avoided. A question such as "Do you favour the Government
policies?" usually cannot be answered with a simple reply. The
Government has so many policies and only the most radical or partisan
would favour or oppose them all. A typical citizen may endorse many,
have no optnion on some, and reject others. The yes" or "no" question in
this case compels him to compress a variety of opinions into a simple
alternative which may. in reality, not exist.
Sornetimes a respondent cannot give a simple "yes" or "no" answer
either because he has not yet made up his mind or because he lacks
information on the topic. For example, the answer to the question "Are
you in favour of public schools?" may not always be in yes' or no'
because the respondent has not thought over it. In such cases additional1
alternative such as 'do not know', 'undecided', 'no opinion', should be
included.

Specific Information Questions and Open-end guestions Specific

information questions call for a specific item of information. For example,
COLLECTION OF DATA 51

"What is your age?", "How many children do you have?". etc. These
questions are simple direct and are well adapted to securing
information of this type. Care should be taken to use this type of
questions only where the respondent can answer correctly. The open
question does not pose alternatives or request specific informatlon. t
leaves the respondent free to make whatever reply he chooses. For
example, the question, "What should be done to enhance the practical
utility of B.Com. course?" "Why do you use Colgate toothpaste or Lux
to
Soap are open-end questions. In many ways open question is superior
other types-there is no danger of being unduly restrictive suggesting
answers, posing false alternatives, and introducing some bias. It may also
serve to interest the respondent in the interview itself, especially if he is
asked his opinion at the outset. However, open questions are difficult to
tabulate. Since no restriction is placed upon the variety of answers, many
increases the labour involved but
will often be forthcoming. This not only Hence
frequently leads to improper tabulation. every effort must be made
to minimise open questions in the questionnaire.
guestionnaire should Look Attractive A questionnaire should be made
to look as attractive as possible. The. printing and the paper used, etC.,
should be A-l and plenty of space should be left for answers depending
upon the type of questions.
guestions Requiring Calculations should be Avoided Questions should
not require calculations to be made. For example; informants should not
be asked yearly income. for in most cases they are paid monthly.
Similarly, questions necessitating calculation of ratios and percentages
etc. should not be asked as it may take much time and the informant
may not send back the questionnaire.

Pre-testing the guestionnaire The questionnaire should be pre-tested

with a group before mailing it out. The advantage of pre-testing is that
the shortcomings of the questionnaire can be discovered and it can be
revised in the light of the tryout.

Cross-checks If possible, one or more cross-checks should be

incorporated into the questionnaire to determine whether the respondernt
is answering at least the important questions correctly.
Method of Tabulation The method to be used for tabulating the results
should be determined before the final draft of the questionnaire is made.
If the results of the questionnaire are to be computerised, it is desirable
to consult the computer experts before making a final draft.
PRE-TESTING THE gUESTIONNAIRE (0R PILOT SURVEY)
Before final form of the questionnaire is adopted it is desirable to carry out
a preliminary experiment on a sample basis. When questionnaires are to be
distributed on a large scale, it is absolutely essential to pre-test them. There
are many advantages of pre-testing the questionnaire, such asS
The investigator can find out what are the drawbacks of the
questionnaire, ie., which questions ought to be deleted and which
more ought to be added.
 STATISTICAL METHODS
52
to take.
IKely
the extent of non-response
d can he formed about be
secured.
Even persons
rsons
Greater co-operation of the informants can vailed
be preva
most allervi
allergic to with proper inducementjob
inducement,

to find out
writing can,
It is the surveyor's
answer the questionnaire.
h o these appeals are.
what
cover a
important always to
re-testing the questionnaire, it is When the
eventually to be surveyed.
o1 the population sub-samples by
samluOn into various
drawn, it should be broken down from the entire
1s hundredth case
for instance, every tenth or every
taking.
list. be done with utmost
of pre-testing the questionnaire must
ne work otherwise unnecessary and unwanted changes may
be
care and caution.
questionnaire would
introdueed. Proper testing. revising and re-testing
yield high dividends. be undertaken
second ptlot study should tinal document.
n e and budgetofpermit, a
to further improve the
O a iresh
sampling respondents

SPECIMEN gUESTIONNAIRES

The following two specimen questionnaires incorporate most ol the

of a good questionnaire. The flrst questionnaire relates to
qualities
Super Bazar. It is aimed at evolving better ways of providing shopping
lacilities to the consumers. The second questionnatre was designed to
take stock of the effectiveness of the management development
programmes currently being practised in some of the public sector
commercial enterprises.

9UESTIONNAIRE No. 1

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Birla nstilute of Technology and Secience, Plani (Rajasthan)

Dear/Sir/Madam,
We believe that you are the spokesman for thousands of persons who
visit the SUPER BAZAR in Delhi and since we are interested in knowing
their preference we ask for your help. We believe that this survey would
help in evolving better ways of providing shopping facilities to the
consumers. Would you please, therefore, answer the enclosed
questionnaire and return it by post? A self-addressed stamped envelope is
attached herewith for your convenience.
We assure you that we are in no way connected with the SUPER
BAZAR. The information supplied by you will be treated as strictly
confidential.

Thanking you. Yours truly.

COLLECTION OF DATA 53

SUPER BAZAR

QUESTIONNAIRE : cONSUMER PREFERENCES

NOTE Please tick mark () in the square where necessay.
A. General
Name
Address Age
Occupation
Service Sex Male Female
Business Married Unmarried
Other
Number of members in the Jamily Monthly income in nupees
1 to 3 Below Rs 1,000
3 to 6 1.000-1.500
Over 6 1.500-2.000
Above 2.000
B. How many times do you visit Super Bazer in a month?
1-5 5-10 Over 10
C. Do you prefer any particular day for shopping?
Yes O No O
If yes, specify the day you prefer
Sunday Monday D Tuesday O Wensday O
Thursday O Friday Saturday O
D. Do you buy most of your daily requirements from the Super Bazar?
Yes D No
E. Are you attracted to the Bazar because of
(0 reasonable price? Yes No
(t reliability of price? Yes No
(ii no bargaining? Yes No
. Do you feel the profit margin charged
by the Super Bazar is reasonable? Yes No
F. Do you prefer Super Bazar because of
(0 availability of your requirements
under one roof? Yes No
(i certainty of getting goods? Yes No
(ii0 wide selection and choice? Yes No
(w) availability of goods in short supply? Yes No
(v) availability of quality goods? Yes No
(v surety about quality? Yes No
(viw saving in shopping time? Yes No
G. Do you find the sales assistants in the Super Bazar
Please tick mark (N) only one of the alternatives.]
(0 Attentive Inattentive
(i0 Courteous Rude
(itw Co-operative Indifferent
(iv) Efficient Inefficient

f you are getting exactly Rs. 1000 put tick in second class. Le., Rs. 1000-1500
getting exactly 1500 put tick in third class. 1500-2000.
54 STATISTICAL METHODS

G. 1. Do you visit the cafe in the

Super
Bazar while shopping? Yes No
2. Do you find any
the desired
difficulty
products?
in locating
Yes No
3. Do you need
make your visit easy?
parking facilities to
Yes No
H. Do you visit the
Super Bazar because
i t is near your home?
Yes No
(i it is on your way to home?
Yes No
(ii) it is centrally located?
Yes No
I. Are you shareholder in the
1. Are you a attracted
Super Bazar? Yes No
by the shareholders'
discount?
Yes No
2. Do you prefer sales
girls to salesmen? Yes No
3. Are you satisfied with the
provided by the Super Bazar?
packing
Yes No
J. Please give your first, second and
third preference for
visiting the Super
Bazar out of the following
(Please write numbers in the squares.)
Availability of all goods under one roof
Quality Price
Service Location
Time-saving Shareholding interest

gUESTIONNAIRE NO. 2
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT STUDIEs
ExecutiveDevelopment Programme for Senior Government Officers
EVALUATION PROFORMA

Dear Participant,

Will you kindly

fill in the enclosed evaluation form?
We hope, your
response together with our own assessment will contribute
to the
improvement of our future programmes. I need not stress that frankness
will be of great value in this
regard. There is no need to disclose your
identity. If any points are not covered in this,
towards the end. kindly add the same

Thanking you Yours sincerely.

Course Director

EVALUATION PROFORMA
I. Objectiue
(a) The Programme Brochure listed the
following as Course Objectives:
(
(ii) (iu)
COLLECTION OF DATA 55

D what were your objectives/personal motives in attending this Programme?

(iv)
C How far do your objectives match with the above-mentioned Course
Objectives? (Tick appropriate box.)
Closely Somewhat Not
related
related related
(iy Give reasons if you have ticked the box 'Somewhat related' or "Not
related'.
(d) 0 How far have the course objectives been realised by this programme?
(Tick Column)

Objectives Totally Partially Not at all

Objective 0
Objective (
Objective (t
Objective (iv)

(i) Give reasons if you have ticked the Column Note at all.
(e) Is there a need to have any other objective(s)?

Yes No
If yes, mention the objectivels).
(0 How far have your own objectives been realised through participation in
the programme?
II. Programme Design
(a) How would you rate the overall design of the programme?

Excellent Very Fair Poor

Good

Areas and subject coverage

(il) Conceptual framework

(iit) Orientation to practical

problems
(iv) Distribution of time among|
various components of the|
course

v) Any other (Please mention)

(b) Indicate any suggestions for improving the programme design.

Please give your reasons and Positive Suggestions for the same to make
them more effective and meaningful.
 STATISTICAL METHODS

III. On the basis

of Inputs, please comment as under
(a) Any topics/sessions which you felt useful and your
reasons why you thought it so.
were particularly

S.No. Topics/Sessions Comments

1.

2
3.

4
etc.

(b) Any topics/sessions which you felt

otherwise have been improved.
were overemphasized or might

S.No. Topics/Sessions Comments

1.

2.

and so on

V. Methodology
(a) Which of the following pedagogtcal methods were effectively enmployed in
the programme:

Methods Very ELfective Not

Efective Elfective
1. | Talks by Faculty
2. Talks by Guest Speakers
3. Case Discussion
4. Exercises

5. Group Discussion
6. Business Games

7. Visual Aids

8. Project Work

(b) Have you any suggestions to make regarding the methodology employed in
the programme?

V. Reading Material
Useful Somewhat Useful Least Useful
(0 Useíulness
Adequate Somewhat adequate Inadequate
it Adequacy
COLLECTION OF DATA
57

VI. Strengths and Weaknesses

Kindly identify the strengths and
perceived them: weaknesses of the programme as you
Strengths: (Happy features of
Weaknesses: (Unhappy featurestheof programmne)
the programmej
VII. Please give your Suggestions which may increase the effectiveness o the
Programme with reference to:
(a) Selection of participants
(b) Volume of work
(c) Subject areas to be covered.
VIII. Briefy state the diferent ways in which the programne has been benefcial
to you

Kindly indicate your feelings about administrative arrangements

-Layout of Classrooms
-Distribution of Materials
-Lunch-Tea/Coffee
-Any other.

sOURCES OF SEcONDARY DATA

to collect
In most of the studies the investigator finds it impracticable
he makes use of
firsthand information on all related issues and as such
the data collected by others. There is a vast amount of published
statistical studies be made and fresh
information from which may
state of production. The sources of secondary
statistics are constantly in a
heads:
data can broadly be classified under two
Published sources,

.Unpublishedsources.
Published Sources
The various of published data are:
sources

publications of
1. Reports and official International
bodies such as the "World Bank',
International
(a) of the United Nations'.
'Statistical Office
Labour Organisation', Indian
Governments such as Abstract of the
(b) Central and State Ministry
of 2000-2001, Govt. of India,
Union, Economic Survey
of Finance. the
and Comnissions appointed by
Committees
(c)Reports of the Committee on Corporate
Government such Report of the
as
Securities &
Committee was appointed by
Governance (The the chairmanship
of India in Jan. 2000 under
Exchange Board RBI Advisory. Group
Birla, Report of the
of Kumar Mangalam and Financial Policies, Sept.
Transparency Monetary.
in
Fifth Pay Commission, etc.
on
Commission,
2000, Shah a s Municipal
various local bodies such
2. Semi-official publications of
District Boards.
Corporations and such a s
and private institutes:
3. Publications of autonomous
the Federation of
and Professional bodies, such as,
(a) Trade and Industry, the Institute of
Indian Chambers of Commerce Trade. The
Chartered Accountants,
the Institute of Foreign
 58 STATISTICAL METHODS

prestigious journals of these institutees are respectively

Economic Trends', The Chartered Accountant', 'Foreign Trade
Review'.
b Financial and economic journals such as 'Indian Economic
Review', 'Reserve Bank of Îndia Bulletin', 'Indian Finance.
Annual Reports of Joint Stock Companies and Corporations.
(d) Publications brought out by various autonomous Research
Institutes and Scholars such as Institute of Economic Growth,
Delhi; National Council of Applied Economic Research, New
Delhi; Institute of Politics and Economics, Pune.
It should be noted that the
publications above vary
mentioned
regard to the periodicity of publication. Some are published at regular
with
intervals (yearly, monthly, weekly, etc.) whereas others are ad-hoc
publications, i.e., with no regularity about periodicity of publication.

Unpublished Sources
Al statistical material is not always published. There are various sources
of unpublished data such as records maintained by various Government
and private offices, studies made by research institutions, scholars, etc.
Such sources can be used where necessary.

EDITING PRIMARY AND SEcONDARY DATA

Once data have been obtained either from primary or secondary source,
the next step in a statistical investigation is to edit the data, ie., to
scrutinize the same. The chief object of editing is to detect possible errors
and irregularities. The task of editing is a highly specialised one and
requires great care and attention. Negligence in this respect may render
useless the findings of an otherwise valuable study. However, it should be
noted that the work of editing data collected from internal records and
published sources is relatively simple-it is the data collected from a
survey that need extensive editing.
While editing primary data the following considerations need attention:
.The data should be complete,
T h e data should be consistent,
The data should be accurate, and
/The data should be homogeneous.
Editing for Completeness The editor should see that each schedule and
questionnaire is complete in all respects, ie., answer to each and everv

question has been furnished. If some questionS have not been answered
and those questions are of vital importance the informants should be
contacted again either
personally or through correspondence. It may
few questions remain unanswered.
happen that in spite of best efforts a
In such questions, the editor should mark "No answer" in the space

provided for answers and if the questionsS are of vital importance then the
schedule or questionnaire should be dropped.
COLLECTION OF DATA
9
Editing for Consisteney Whi
ld see
editor should that thel e editing the data for consistency, the
ature. If there are
answers to estions are not contradictory in
ques
abtain mutually contradictory
the correct answers answers, he should try to
either by
hy Contacting. wherever possible, the referring back the questionnaire
informant in person. For examPe
amongst others, two questions in questionnaire
(b) State the number of children you have. are: (a) Are you married?
and
question 1S no and to the latter 'three', then therethe
is reply to the ana 1t
contradiction former
should be clarified.

Editing for Accuracy

The reliability of conclusions depends basically on
the correctness of information. If the information
supplied
conclusions can never be valid. It is, therefore, necessary for theiseditor
wrongto
see that the intormation is accurate in all respects. However, this is one
of the most diicult tasks of the editor. If the is
corrected. But due
arithmetical errors, it can be easily detected and inaccuracy to
if the
cause of inaccuracy is faulty information supplied, it may be difificult to
verify it, e.g., information relating to income, age, etc.
Editing for homogeneity. By homogeneity we mean the condition in
which all the questions have been understood in the same sense. The
editor must check all the questions for uniform
interpretation. For
example, as to the question of income, if some informants have given
monthly income, others annual income and still others weekly income or
even daily income, no
comparison can be made. Similarly, if some persons
have given the basic income whereas others the total income, no
comparison is possible. The editor should check up that the information
supplied by the various people is homogeneous and uniform.

PRECAUTIONS IN THE USE OF SECONDARY DATA

Since secondary data have already been obtained it is highly desirable

that a proper scrutiny of such data is made before they are used by the
investigator. In fact, the user has to be extra-cautious while using
secondary data. In this context, Prof. Bowley rightly points out that
"secondarydata should not be accepted at their face valu." The reason is
that such data may be erroneous in many respects due to bias,
inadequate size of the sample, substitution, errors of definition,
arithmetical errors, etc. Even if there is no error such data may not be
suitable and adequate for the purpose of the enquiry. Hence before using
such data, the investigator should consider the following aspects:

Whether the data are suitable for the Purpose of Investigation in Vlew
Before using secondary data the investigator must ensure that the data
are suitable for the purpose of the equiry. The suitability of data can be
judged in the light of the nature and scope of investigation. For example,
I the object of enquiry is to study the wage levels including allowances of
workers and the data relate to basic wages alone. such data would not be
suitable for the immediate purpose. It may be difficult to find data which
exactly fit the needs of the present project.
Quite often secondary data do not satisfy immediate needs because they
have been compiled for other purpose. Even when directly pertinent to the
 STATISTICAL METHODS
60

subject under study, secondary data may be just enough off the pont
make them of little or no use. The value of secondary data 1s ITequey
impaired by:
(Variation in the units of measurement: consumer income for
household,
example. may be measured by individual, family
spending units or tax return.
or
(i Definition of classes may be different: for example. definitiorn
lhterate, educated, poor may vary from researcher to researCer
(ti) Variation in the date/period to which the data related: the data available
may relate to a different time period and not serve the purpose or
researcher. Data published to promote the interests of a particular group
whether it ispolitical, social or commercial are suspect.
Whether the Data are Adequate for the Investigation If it is found
that the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation, they should be
tested for adequacy. Adequacy of the data is to be judged in the light of
the requirements of the survey and the geographical area covered by the
available data. For example, in the illustration given above. if our object is
to study the wage rates of the workers in sugar industry in India and if
the available data cover only the State of U.P.. it would not serve the
purpose. The question of adequacy may also be considered in the light of
the time period for which the data are available. For
example for
studying trend of prices we may use data for the last 8-10 years but from
the source known to us data may be available for the last 2-3 years only
which would not serve the purpose.

Whether the Data are Reliable It is very difficult to find out whether
the secondary data are reliable or not. The
following tests, if applied, may
be helpful to determine how far the given data are reliable:

(i) Which specific method of data collection was used? If a source fails
to give a detailed description of its method of data
collection,
researchers should be hesitant about using the information
provided. When the methodology is described, researchers should
subject it to a painstaking examination.
Data
published to promote the interests of a particular group
whether it is political, commercial or social are
suspect.
ti) Was the collecting agency unbiased or did it "have an axe to grind"?
(iit) If the enumeration was based on a sample, was the
representative?
sample
(vi) Were the enumerators capable and properly trained? Incompetent or
poorly trained
enumerators cannot
be depended
upon to
useful result. produce
(u) Was there a proper check on the accuracy of field work?
(vi) Was the editing. tabulating and analysis carefully and
done? Carelessness in either one or more of these conscientiously
functions can
render of little value the findings of an otherwise valuable
study.
(vi What degree of accuracy was desired by the compiler? How far was
it achieved?
COLLECTION OF DATA
61

GLOSSARY

ollection of statistics: Collection means the assembling for the purpost of

Col avallaDic
investigation of entirely new data. presumably not already
particular
in published sources.
collects the
Investigator: Investigator (or enumerator) is a person who
information.
It is one that itself collects the data.
Primary Source: o
A list of questions properly selected and arranged pertaining
Questionnaire:
the investigation.
or supplies the required
A person who fills the questionnaire
Respondent:
information.
other
Source: It is one that makes available data
collected by some
Secondary
agency related to the survey but
are
the third parties not directly
are
Witnesses: They
information.
capable of supplying the necessary