Department of Civil Engineering Structural Design

Chapter 2: Lateral load resisting system in buildings

2.1.Introduction
Any structure is made up of structural elements (load-carrying such as beams and columns) and
non-structural elements (such as partitions, false ceilings, doors, finishing etc.). The structural
elements put together constitute the structural system. Its function is to resist effectively the
action of gravitational and environmental loads (such as wind pressure and earth quake action)
and to transmit the resulting forces to the supporting ground without significantly disturbing the
geometry, integrity and serviceability of the structure. Thus the structural system (load resisting
system) is the skeleton of a building that resists all the applied loads on the building including
the load due to non-structural parts of a building.

The first step in design is the planning carried out by the architect to determine the arrangement
and layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements. After doing this, the structural
engineer then determines the best structural system or form for the given condition to bring the
architect’s concept into being real. Close cooperation with the architect in the early stages of a
project is essential in developing a structure that not only meets functional and aesthetic
requirements but exploits to the fullest the special advantages of the structure such as cost and
durability.

Let us look at structural system and its load transmission mechanism in some detail. As the
height of the building increases, lateral loads (due to wind and earthquake) make their presence
felt increasingly; in fact, in very tall buildings, the choice of a structural system is dictated
primarily by its relative economy in effectively resisting lateral loads rather than gravity loads.
Traditionally, much attention has been absorbed in the design for strength which is however the
least important part of the structural design of a tall building. For convenience, we may separate
the structural system into two loads transmission mechanisms.

i. Gravity or vertical load resisting and

ii. Lateral load resisting

These two systems are complementary and interactive. As an integrated system, the structure
must resist and transmit all the effects of gravity loads and lateral loads acting on it to the
foundation and the ground below.

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All loads (vertical loads, lateral loads, impact loads, etc.) on a building or structure must be
provided with a continuous path to the foundation. Not only must the individual structural
elements and/or structural systems resist and transfer the applied loads to the foundation, the
connections (i.e. joints between them) must also be designed to resist and transfer the applied
loads to the foundation. If all of the connections, structural elements and/or structural systems
are not adequately designed, the load path will not be continuous.

2.2.Lateral load resisting systems

Lateral loads may be includes load generated due to wind pressure and seismic excitation. Other
lateral loads are load generated due to horizontal component of gravity loads in inclined systems
and in un-symmetrical structures, lateral soil pressure on the soil retaining structures and
hydrostatic pressure liquid retaining structures.

These forces that act laterally/horizontally require lateral load resisting systems to be built into
structures in order to sustain the applied loads without failure. As lateral loads are applied to a
structure, horizontal diaphragms (floors and roofs) transfer the load to the lateral load resisting
systems and lateral load resisting systems is transfer these lateral loads applied at any location in
the structure down to the foundation level.

2.2.1. Methods of lateral load resisting systems

To resist the internal effects due to lateral loads on the building, different economical methods of
lateral force resisting systems are available. These methods are broadly categorized into two.

i. Single system includes:

 Moment Resisting Frames  Braced Frames
 Shear walls  Tubular systems
ii. Dual system includes:
 Frames + Shear walls  Trussed tube
 Framed tube  Bundled tube

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a) Moment Resisting Frames

Structural wall-Frame systems

When lateral displacement is large in a building with moment frames only, structural walls, often
commonly called shear walls, can be introduced to help reduce overall displacement of
buildings, because these vertical plate-like structural elements have large in-plane stiffness and
strength.

Structural walls resist lateral forces through combined axial-flexure-shear action. Also,
structural walls help reduce shear and moment demands on beams and columns in the moment
frames of the building, when provided along with moment frames as lateral load resisting
system. Structural walls should be provided throughout the height of buildings for best
earthquake performance.

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b) Shear wall Frames

Braced Frame systems

The structural system consists of moment frames with specific bays provided with braces
throughout the height of the building. Braces are provided in both plan directions such that no
twisting is induced in the building owing to unsymmetrical stiffness in plan. Braces help in
reducing overall lateral displacement of buildings, and in reducing bending moment and shear
force demands on beams and columns in buildings. The earthquake force is transferred as axial
tensile and compressive force in the brace members.

Various types of bracings can be used including global bracing along the building height. It may
be 𝑋 −, Chevron and 𝐾 −bracing systems. 𝑋 − and Chevron braces effectively reduce bending
moment, shear force and axial force demands on the beams and columns of the original frame
and are commonly used. But, 𝐾 −braces increases shear demand on columns and can cause
brittle shear failure. Thus, some design codes prohibit use of 𝐾 −braces in earthquake resistant
design.

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c) Braced Frames

d) Trussed system

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Tube system

For tall buildings, use of braced frames and structural walls alone (even though of reasonably
sized members) may be insufficient to control their overall lateral displacement as well as the
force demands on various structural members. In such cases, more rigid structural systems are
required like Tube, Tube-in-Tube and Bundled Tube systems depending on the size and loads
on the building.

Closely-spaced heavy columns forming a closed loop inter-connected with beams, together
called the tube, forms the first part of the lateral load resisting system. Heavy reinforced concrete
structural walls together creating a closed shaft, called as the core, form the other part. The Tube

System consists of one perimeter tube with a central core (Figure 3.53). The inter-connection is
important between the perimeter tube and the central core. A system of grid beams is used for
this purpose.

f) Framed tube system

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The trussed tube can also be applied to reinforced concrete construction by arranging diagonals
in the facades of the building.

e) Trussed tube system

Tube-in-Tube and Bundled Tube systems

When the plan size of the building increases, additional columns may be required to support the
gravity loads between the outer tube and inner core, and prevent the slab from bending too much.
These columns are not part of the main lateral load resisting system, and therefore are not
intended to carry any lateral loads; they are called gravity columns. When the building plan is
large, sometimes, many columns may be required to support the gravity loads. Then, it may be
beneficial to create a second tube of columns interconnected with beams inside the perimeter
tube of columns interconnected with beams. This system is called the Tube-in-Tube system. In
the Tube-in-Tube system, the tubes should be tied together with a stiff and strong grid of beams.

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In large plan area buildings, when even the Tube-in-Tube system fails to control the lateral
deformation of the building, an even stiffer lateral force resisting system is required. One system
that can offer this is the Bundled-Tubes system; as the name goes, here a set of Tube systems are
stacked together to form the overall lateral load resisting system. The closely-spaced columns of
the different tubes are placed in line to form an overall tube system. The RC cores of the tubes
are connected to each other with beams that span directly between these stiff vertical elements;
these beams are called primary beams. As in Tube and Tube-in-Tube Systems, additional gravity
columns, secondary beams and tertiary beams may be employed when the span between the
tubes and the cores are large, to improve the distribution of gravity loads to the tubes.

In the Bundled-Tube system, two major actions improve the lateral stiffness of the building and
even reduces the demand on the closely spaced columns. These actions are:

(1) Multiple tubes with many planes of large depths (in plan) of the closely spaced columns
(almost making them act like walls of the full length); and

(2) RC cores connected with stiff horizontal sub-systems at distinct levels along the height of the
building.

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Figure 2.1: Lateral load resisting systems

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Figure 2.2: Maximum number of storeys of concrete structures for different lateral force resisting
systems

Figure 2.3: Maximum number of storeys of steel structures for different lateral force resisting
systems
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In this chapter, we will see more details about the moment resisting frames and combination of
shear wall and moment resisting frames lateral force resisting systems.

2.2.1.1.Moment Resisting Frames

In this system, lateral loads are resisted primarily by the rigid frame action that is by the
development of shear forces and bending moments in the frame members and joints. Moment
frames consist of a grid of vertical (i.e. columns) and horizontal (i.e. beams) members. They
resist lateral loads through axial forces, bending moment and shear force generated in both
beams and columns. Their ability to resist lateral loads is entirely due to the rigidities of the
beam-column connections and the moment-resisting capacities of the individual members.

A frame is considered rigid when its beam-to-column connections have sufficient rigidity to hold
virtually unchanged the original angles between intersecting members. The load is transferred by
shear in columns that produces moment in columns and in beams. In this system, the beam-
column connection is crucial for the system to work. The moments and shear force produced by
the lateral loads must be added to those from gravity loads.

Figure 2.4: Beam-column rigidity under lateral forces

Because of the rigid beam-to-column connections, a moment resisting frame cannot displace
laterally without bending the beams and columns. The primary source of lateral stiffness of the
entire frame is therefore dependent on the bending rigidity of the frame members.

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To understand its lateral deflection characteristics of a moment resisting frame, it is convenient

to consider the deflections of a rigid frame as composed of two components similar to the
deflection components of a structural element such as a vertical cantilever column. The primary
deflection of the cantilever column subjected to lateral force is due to bending and the secondary
component is due to shear. Unless the column is relatively short, the shear component may be
ignored in deflection computations. However, in a moment resisting frame, both of these
components are equally important.

The bending and the shear deflection components of a rigid frame are usually referred to as the
cantilever bending and frame racking.

Cantilever bending component

In resisting overturning moments, a moment resisting frame responds as a vertical cantilever

resulting in axial deformation of the columns. The columns on the windward face lengthen while
those on the leeward face shorten. This change in column lengths causes the building to rotate
about a horizontal axis.

Figure 2.5: Lateral deflection characteristics of moment resisting frames bending component

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Shear racking component

This response in a rigid frame is similar to the shear deflection component of the cantilever
column. As the frame displaces laterally by virtue of the rigid beam-to-column connections,
bending moments and shears are developed in the beams and columns. The horizontal shear
above a given level due to lateral loads is resisted by shear in each of the columns of that story.
This shear in turn causes the story-height columns to bend in double curvature with points of
contra flexure at approximately mid-story levels.

To satisfy equilibrium, the sum of column moments above and below a joint must equal the sum
of beam moments on either side of the column. In resisting the bending, the beams also bend in a
double curvature with points of contra flexure at approximately mid-span. The cumulative
bending of the columns and beams results in the overall shear racking of the frame.

Figure 2.6: Lateral deflection characteristics of moment resisting frames shear racking
component

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The shear mode of deformation accounts for about 70% of the total sway of a moment frame
with the beam flexure contributing about 10 𝑡𝑜 15% and the column bending furnishing the
remainder. This is because in a rigid frame typically the column stiffness as measured by the
𝐼𝑐 𝐼
⁄𝐿 ratio is substantially greater than the beam stiffness ratio 𝑏⁄𝑏 .
𝑐

Therefore, in general to reduce lateral deflection, the place to start adding stiffness is in the
beams. Because of the cumulative effect of building rotation up the height, the story drift
increases with height while that due to shear racking tends to stay the same up the height. The
contribution to story drift due to cantilever bending in the uppermost stories exceeds that from
shear racking. The depths of frame members are often controlled by stiffness rather than strength
to limit story drift under lateral loads.

Second-order effects (𝑃 − ∆ effects) need not be taken into account if the following condition
is fulfilled in all storeys:

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 ∗ 𝑑𝑟
𝜃= ≤ 0.10
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 ∗ ℎ

Where 𝜃 is the inter-storey drift sensitivity coefficient;

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 is the total gravity load at and above the storey considered in the seismic design situation;

𝑑𝑟 is the design inter-storey drift evaluated as the difference of the average lateral displacements
𝑑𝑠 at the top and bottom of the storey under consideration and calculated in accordance with ES
EN 1998:2015 section 4.3.4;

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 is the total seismic storey shear; and

ℎ is the inter-storey height.

If 0.1 < 𝜃 ≤ 0.2, the second-order effects 𝑃 − ∆ may approximately be taken into account by
multiplying the relevant seismic action effects by a factor equal to 1/(1 – 𝜃). The value of the
coefficient 𝜃 shall not exceed 0.3.

If linear analysis is performed, the displacements induced by the design seismic action 𝑑𝑠 shall
be calculated on the basis of the elastic deformations of the structural system by means of the
following simplified expression:

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𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞𝑑 𝑑𝑒

where

𝑑𝑠 is the displacement of a point of the structural system induced by the design seismic action;

𝑞𝑑 is the displacement behaviour factor assumed equal to 𝑞 unless otherwise specified;

𝑑𝑒 is the displacement of the same point of the structural system, as determined by a linear
analysis based on the design response spectrum in accordance with ES EN 1998:2015 section
3.2.2.5.

Limitation of inter-storey drift 𝒅𝒓 (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 4.4.3.2)

a) For buildings having non-structural elements of brittle materials attached to the structure:

𝑑𝑟 𝑣 ≤ 0.005ℎ

b) For buildings having ductile non-structural elements:

𝑑𝑟 𝑣 ≤ 0.0075ℎ

c) For buildings having non-structural elements fixed in a way so as not to interfere with
structural deformations or without non-structural elements:

𝑑𝑟 𝑣 ≤ 0.010ℎ

Where 𝑣 is the reduction factor which takes into account the lower return period of the seismic
action associated with the damage limitation requirement.

The value of the reduction factor 𝜈 may also depend on the importance class of the building. The
values to be ascribed to 𝜈 for use is found in the National Annex. Different values of 𝜈 may be
defined for the various seismic zones, depending on the seismic hazard conditions and on the
protection of property objective. The recommended values of 𝜈 are 𝜈 = 0.4 for importance
classes III and IV and 𝜈 = 0.5 for importance classes I and II.

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Ultimate limit state design of frames (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 4.4.2)

The no-collapse requirement (ultimate limit state) under the seismic design situation is
considered to have been met if the following conditions regarding resistance, ductility,
equilibrium, foundation stability and seismic joints are met.

i. Resistance condition (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 4.4.2.2)

The following relation shall be satisfied for all structural elements including connections and the
relevant non-structural elements:

𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑅𝑑

𝐸𝑑 is the design value of the action due to the seismic design situation (see ES EN
1990:2015n6.4.3.4) including if necessary second order effects.

𝑅𝑑 is the corresponding design resistance of the element calculated in accordance with the rules
specific to the material used (in terms of the characteristic values of material properties 𝑓𝑘 and
partial factor 𝛾𝑀 ) and in accordance with the mechanical models which relate to the specific type
of structural system (see ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5 to 9).

ii. Global and local ductility condition (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 4.4.2.3)

It shall be verified that both the structural elements and the structure as a whole possess adequate
ductility, taking into account the expected exploitation of ductility, which depends on the
selected system and the behaviour factor. In frame buildings including frame-equivalent with
two or more storeys, the following condition should be satisfied at all joints of primary or
secondary seismic beams with primary seismic columns (strong column weak beam concept):

∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑐 ≥ 1.3 ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏

Where ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑐 is the sum of the design values of the moments of resistance of the columns
framing the joint. The minimum value of column moments of resistance within the range of
column axial forces produced by the seismic design situation should be used.

∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏 is the sum of the design values of the moments of resistance of the beams framing the
joint.

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It should be satisfied for both directions (positive and negative) of action of the beam moments
around the joint, with the column moments always opposing the beam moments.

iii. Equilibrium condition (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 4.4.2.4)

The building structure shall be stable – including overturning or sliding – in the seismic design
situation specified in ES EN 1992:2015 section 6.4.3.4. In special cases, the equilibrium may be
verified by means of energy balance methods or by geometrically non-linear methods with the
seismic action defined as described in ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 3.2.3.1.

iv. Resistance of foundations (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 4.4.2.6)

The action effects for the foundation elements shall be derived on the basis of capacity design
considerations accounting for the development of possible over strength but they need not
exceed the action effects corresponding to the response of the structure under the seismic design
situation inherent to the assumption of an elastic behaviour (𝑞 = 1.0).

For foundations of individual vertical elements (walls or columns), the design values of the
action effects 𝐸𝐹𝑑 on the foundations are derived as follows:

𝐸𝐹𝑑 = 𝐸𝐹,𝐺 + 𝛾𝑅𝑑 Ω𝐸𝐹,𝐸

Where 𝛾𝑅𝑑 is the over strength factor taken as being equal to 1.0 for 𝑞 ≤ 3 or as being equal to
1.2 otherwise;

𝐸𝐹,𝐺 is the action effect due to the non-seismic actions included in the combination of actions for
the seismic design situation (see ES EN 1990:2015, 6.4.3.4);

𝐸𝐹,𝐸 is the action effect from the analysis of the design seismic action and

Ω is the value of (𝑅𝑑𝑖 ⁄𝐸𝑑𝑖 ) ≤ 𝑞 of the dissipative zone or element i of the structure which has
the highest influence on the effect EF under consideration; where

𝑅𝑑𝑖 is the design resistance of the zone or element 𝑖 and

𝐸𝑑𝑖 is the design value of the action effect on the zone or element 𝑖 in the seismic design
situation.

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For foundations of structural walls or of columns of moment-resisting frames, Ω is the minimum

value of the ratio 𝑀𝑅𝑑 ⁄𝑀𝐸𝑑 in the two orthogonal principal directions at the lowest cross-section
where a plastic hinge can form in the vertical element in the seismic design situation.

v. Seismic joint condition (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 4.4.2.7)

Buildings shall be protected from earthquake-induced pounding from adjacent structures or

between structurally independent units of the same building. For buildings or structurally
independent units that do not belong to the same property, if the distance from the property line
to the potential points of impact is not less than the maximum horizontal displacement 𝑑𝑠 of the
building at the corresponding level. For buildings or structurally independent units belonging to
the same property, if the distance between them is not less than the square root of the sum of the
squares (SRSS) of the maximum horizontal displacements 𝑑𝑠 of the two buildings or units at the
corresponding level. If the floor elevations of the building or independent unit under design are
the same as those of the adjacent building or unit, the above referred minimum distance may be
reduced by a factor of 0.7.

Figure 2.7: Pounding can occur between adjoining buildings due to horizontal vibrations of the
two buildings

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When two buildings are too close to each other, they may pound on each other during strong
shaking. With increase in building height, this collision can be a greater problem. When building
heights do not match, the roof of the shorter building may pound at the mid-height of the column
of the taller one; this can be very dangerous.

(a) two buildings with same overall

(b) two buildings with same overall
height and different floor heights
height and same floor heights

(d) two buildings with different overall (c) two buildings with different overall
height and same floor heights height and different floor
Figure 2.8: Pounding adjacency of buildings

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Ultimate limit state (ULS) verifications and detailing of frames under seismic actions (ES EN
1998-1:2015 section 5.4.3)

Beams resistance in bending and shear

Beam is a horizontal structural element subjected mainly to transverse loads and to a normalized
𝑁𝐸𝑑
design axial force 𝑣𝑑 = ⁄𝐴 𝑓 ≤ 0.1 (compression positive).
𝑐 𝑐𝑑

The eccentricity of the beam axis shall be limited relative to that of the column into which it
frames to enable efficient transfer of cyclic moments from a primary seismic beam to a column
to be achieved. To meet this requirement, the distance between the centroidal axes of the two
members should be limited to less than 𝑏𝑐 ⁄4 where 𝑏𝑐 is the largest cross-sectional dimension of
the column normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam. To take advantage of the favorable effect
of column compression on the bond of horizontal bars passing through the joint, the width 𝑏𝑤 of
a primary seismic beam shall satisfy the following expression (see ES EN 1998-1:2015 section
5.4.1.2.1):

𝑏𝑐 + ℎ𝑤
𝑏𝑤 ≤ { Where ℎ𝑤 is the depth of the beam
2𝑏𝑐

The width of primary seismic beams 𝑏𝑤 shall be not less than 200𝑚𝑚 (see ES EN 1998-1:2015
section 5.5.1.2.1) to decrease the sensitivity to geometric errors.

In primary seismic beams the design shear forces shall be determined in accordance with the
capacity design rule on the basis of the equilibrium of the beam under the transverse load acting
on it in the seismic design situation and end moments 𝑀𝑖,𝑑 (with 𝑖 = 1, 2 denoting the end
sections of the beam) corresponding to plastic hinge formation for positive and negative
directions of seismic loading. The plastic hinges should be taken to form at the ends of the beams
or (if they form there first) in the vertical elements connected to the joints into which the beam
ends frame (see Figure 2.9).

At end section 𝑖, two values of the acting shear force should be calculated i.e. the maximum
𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑖 and the minimum 𝑉𝐸𝑑,𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑖 corresponding to the maximum positive and the maximum
negative end moments 𝑀𝑖,𝑑 that can develop at ends 1 and 2 of the beam.

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∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑐
𝑀𝑖,𝑑 = 𝛾𝑅𝑑 ∗ 𝑀𝑅𝑏,𝑖 ∗ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (1, )
∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏

Where

𝛾𝑅𝑑 is the factor accounting for possible over strength due to steel strain hardening, which in the
case of DCM beams may be taken as being equal to 1.0;

𝑀𝑅𝑏,𝑖 is the design value of the beam moment of resistance at end 𝑖 in the sense of the seismic
bending moment under the considered sense of the seismic action;

∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑐 and ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏 are the sum of the design values of the moments of resistance of the columns
and the sum of the design values of the moments of resistance of the beams framing into the joint
respectively.

Slab reinforcement parallel to the beam and within the effective flange width should be assumed
to contribute to the beam flexural capacities taken into account for the calculation of ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏 if it
is anchored beyond the beam section at the face of the joint.

Figure 2.9: Capacity design values of shear forces on beams

The top-reinforcement of the end cross-sections of primary seismic beams with a T- or L-shaped
section should be placed mainly within the width of the web and a substantial percentage of the
top reinforcement of beams at their end cross-sections shall continue along the entire length of
the beam to account for the uncertainty in the location of the inflection point. Only part of this

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reinforcement maybe placed outside the width of the web but within the effective flange
width 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 . The effective flange width 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 may be assumed to be as follows:

a) For primary seismic beams framing into exterior columns, the effective flange width beff
is taken, in the absence of a transverse beam, as being equal to the width 𝑏𝑐 of the column
(Figure 2.10b) or, if there is a transverse beam of similar depth equal to this width
increased by 2ℎ𝑓 on each side of the beam (Figure 2.10a);
b) For primary seismic beams framing into interior columns the above widths may be
increased by 2ℎ𝑓 on each side of the beam (Figure 2.10c and d).

Figure 2.10: Effective flange width 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 for beams framing into columns (Source: Adopted from
ES EN 1998-1:2015)

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Detailing for local ductility of beams (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.4.3.1.2)

The regions of a primary seismic beam up to a distance 𝑙𝑐𝑟 = ℎ𝑤 (where ℎ𝑤 denotes the depth of
the beam) from an end cross-section where the beam frames into a beam-column joint, as well as
from both sides of any other cross-section liable to yield in the seismic design situation shall be
considered as being critical regions. In primary seismic beams supporting discontinued (cut-off)
vertical elements, the regions up to a distance of 2ℎ𝑤 on each side of the supported vertical
element should be considered as being critical regions.

To satisfy the local ductility requirement in the critical regions of primary seismic beams, the
value of the curvature ductility factor 𝜇𝜑 (defined as the ratio of the post-ultimate strength
curvature at 85% of the moment of resistance, to the curvature at yield, provided that the
limiting strains of concrete and steel 𝜀𝑐𝑢 and 𝜀𝑠𝑢,𝑘 are not exceeded) is at least equal to the
following values (see ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.2.3.4):

𝜇𝜑 = 2𝑞0 − 1 if 𝑇1 ≥ 𝑇𝐶

𝑇
𝜇𝜑 = 1 + 2(𝑞0 − 1) 𝑇𝐶 if 𝑇1 < 𝑇𝐶
1

Where 𝑞0 is the corresponding basic value of the behaviour factor from Table 5.1 and 𝑇1 is the
fundamental period of the building both taken within the vertical plane in which bending takes
place and 𝑇𝐶 is the period at the upper limit of the constant acceleration region of the spectrum,
according to ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 3.2.2.2.

Based on the relationship between µφ and the displacement ductility factor 𝜇𝛿 : 𝜇𝜑 = 2𝜇𝛿 − 1,

𝜇𝛿 = 𝑞 if 𝑇1 ≥ 𝑇𝐶

𝑇𝐶
𝜇𝛿 = 1 + (𝑞 − 1) if 𝑇1 < 𝑇𝐶
𝑇1

Ductility requirement in the critical regions of primary seismic beams to be satisfied, if the
following conditions are met at both flanges of the beam.

a) At the compression zone reinforcement of not less than half of the reinforcement
provided at the tension zone is placed, in addition to any compression reinforcement
needed for the ULS verification of the beam in the seismic design situation.

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b) The reinforcement ratio of the tension zone ρ does not exceed a value 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 equal to:
0.0018 𝑓𝑐𝑑
𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌′ + ∗
𝜇𝜑 ∗ 𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑑 𝑓𝑦𝑑

With the reinforcement ratios of the tension zone and compression zone 𝜌 and 𝜌′ both
normalized to 𝑏𝑑 where 𝑏 is the width of the compression flange of the beam. If the tension zone
includes a slab, the amount of slab reinforcement parallel to the beam within the effective flange
width is included in 𝜌.

Along the entire length of a primary seismic beam, the reinforcement ratio of the tension zone 𝜌
shall be not less than the following minimum value 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 to avoid brittle failure upon cracking.

𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.5 ( )
𝑓𝑦𝑘

Within the critical regions of primary seismic beams, hoops (web reinforcements) satisfying the
following conditions shall be provided:

a) The diameter 𝑑𝑏𝑤 of the hoops (in millimeters) shall be not less than 6.
b) The spacing 𝑠 of hoops (in millimeters) shall not exceed:
ℎ𝑤⁄
4
𝑠≤ 24𝑑𝑏𝑤
8𝑑𝑏𝐿
{225𝑚𝑚

Where 𝑑𝑏𝐿 the minimum is longitudinal bar diameter (in millimeters) and ℎ𝑤 is the beam depth
(in millimeters).

c) The first hoop shall be placed not more than 50𝑚𝑚 from the beam end section (see
Figure 2.11).

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Figure 2.11: Transverse reinforcement in critical regions of beams

Columns resistances (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.4.3.2)

Column is a vertical structural element supporting gravity loads by axial compression or

𝑁𝐸𝑑
subjected to a normalized design axial force 𝑣𝑑 = ⁄𝐴 𝑓 > 0.1 but shall not exceed 0.65.
𝑐 𝑐𝑑

In multi-storey buildings formation of a soft storey plastic mechanism shall be prevented as such
a mechanism might entail excessive local ductility demands in the columns of the soft storey.
The primary seismic columns of frame or frame-equivalent concrete structures should satisfy the
capacity design requirements of ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑐 ≥ 1.3 ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏 with the following exceptions.

a) In plane frames with at least four columns of about the same cross-sectional size, it is not
necessary to satisfy expression ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑐 ≥ 1.3 ∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏 in all columns but just in three out of
every four columns.
b) At the bottom storey of two-storey buildings if the value of the normalized axial load 𝑣𝑑
does not exceed 0.3 in any column.

Unless 𝜃 ≤ 0.1 (see ES EN 1988-1:2015 section 4.4.2.2), the cross-sectional dimensions of

primary seismic columns should not be smaller than one tenth of the larger distance between the
point of contra flexure and the ends of the column, for bending within a plane parallel to the
column dimension considered. To decrease the sensitivity to geometric errors, the minimum
cross-sectional dimension of primary seismic columns shall be not less than 250𝑚𝑚.

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In primary seismic columns the design values of shear forces shall be determined in accordance
with the capacity design rule, on the basis of the equilibrium of the column under end moments
𝑀𝑖,𝑑 (with 𝑖 = 1, 2 denoting the end sections of the column) corresponding to plastic hinge
formation for positive and negative directions of seismic loading. The plastic hinges should be
taken to form at the ends of the beams connected to the joints into which the column end frames
or (if they form there first) in the columns (see Figure 2.12).

∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑐
𝑀𝑖,𝑑 = 𝛾𝑅𝑑 ∗ 𝑀𝑅𝑐,𝑖 ∗ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (1, )
∑ 𝑀𝑅𝑏

Where

𝛾𝑅𝑑 is the factor accounting for possible over strength due to steel strain hardening and
confinement of the concrete of the compression zone of the section taken as being equal to 1.1;

𝑀𝑅𝑐,𝑖 is the design value of the column moment of resistance at end 𝑖 in the sense of the seismic
bending moment under the considered sense of the seismic action;

Figure 2.12: Capacity design shear force in columns

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Detailing of primary seismic columns for local ductility (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.4.3.2.2)

The total longitudinal reinforcement ratio 𝜌𝑙 shall be not less than 0.01 and not more than 0.04.
In symmetrical cross-sections symmetrical reinforcement should be provided (𝜌 = 𝜌′). At least
one intermediate bar shall be provided between corner bars along each column side to ensure the
integrity of the beam-column joints.

The regions up to a distance 𝑙𝑐𝑟 from both end sections of a primary seismic column shall be
considered as being critical regions. In the absence of more precise information, the length of the
critical region 𝑙𝑐𝑟 (in meters) may be computed from the following expression:

ℎ𝑐
𝑙𝑐𝑟 𝑙
= 𝑀𝑎𝑥 { 𝑐𝑙⁄
6
0.45𝑚

Where ℎ𝑐 is the largest cross-sectional dimension of the column (in metres); and

𝑙𝑐𝑙 is the clear length of the column (in meters).

𝑙𝑐𝑙
If ⁄ℎ < 3, the entire height of the primary seismic column shall be considered as being a
𝑐

critical region and shall be reinforced accordingly. In the critical region at the base of primary
seismic columns a value of the curvature ductility factor 𝜇𝜑 should be provided (see ES EN
1998-1:2015 section 5.2.3.4). If for the specified value of 𝜇𝜑 a concrete strain larger than 𝜀𝑐𝑢2 =
0.0035 is needed anywhere in the cross-section, compensation for the loss of resistance due to
spalling of the concrete shall be achieved by means of adequate confinement of the concrete
core, on the basis of the properties of confined concrete in ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 3.1.9.
This requirements are deemed to be satisfied if:

𝑏
𝛼𝜔𝑤𝑑 ≥ 30𝜇𝜑 𝑣𝑑 ∗ 𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑑 ∗ 𝑏𝑐 − 0.035
0

Where: 𝜔𝑤𝑑 is the mechanical volumetric ratio of confining hoops within the critical regions

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑦𝑑

[𝜔𝑤𝑑 = ∗ ]
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑

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A minimum value of 𝜔𝑤𝑑 equal to 0.08 should be provided within the critical region at the base
of the primary seismic columns. The hoop pattern shall be such that the cross-section benefits
from the tri-axial stress conditions produced by the hoops.

𝜇𝜑 is the required value of the curvature ductility factor;

𝑁𝐸𝑑
𝑣𝑑 is the normalized design axial force (𝑣𝑑 = ⁄𝐴 𝑓 )
𝑐 𝑐𝑑

𝜀𝑠𝑦,𝑑 is the design value of tension steel strain at yield;

ℎ𝑐 is the gross cross-sectional depth (parallel to the horizontal direction in which the value of 𝜇𝜑
used);

𝑏𝑐 is the gross cross-sectional width;

ℎ0 is the depth of confined core (to the centerline of the hoops);

𝑏0 is the width of confined core (to the centerline of the hoops);

𝛼 is the confinement effectiveness factor equal to 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑛 ∗ 𝛼𝑠 with:

a) For rectangular column cross-sections:

𝑏2
𝛼𝑛 = 1 − ∑ 𝑖 ⁄6𝑏 ℎ
0 0
𝑛

𝛼𝑠 = (1 − 𝑠⁄2𝑏 ) (1 − 𝑠⁄2ℎ )
0 0

Where 𝑛 is the total number of longitudinal bars laterally engaged by hoops or cross ties and

𝑏𝑖 is the distance between consecutive engaged bars (see Figure 2.13).

b) For circular column cross-sections with hoops and diameter of confined core 𝐷0 (to the
centerline of hoops):

2
𝛼𝑛 = 1 and 𝛼𝑠 = (1 − 𝑠⁄2𝐷 )
0

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c) For circular column cross-sections with spiral reinforcement:

𝛼𝑛 = 1 and 𝛼𝑠 = (1 − 𝑠⁄2𝐷 )
0

Figure 2.13: Confinement of concrete core

The spacing 𝑠 of the hoops (in millimeters) does not exceed:

𝑏0⁄
2
𝑠 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛 { 8𝑑
𝑏𝐿
175𝑚𝑚

Where

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𝑏0 (in millimeters) is the minimum dimension of the concrete core (to the centerline of the
hoops) and

𝑑𝑏𝐿 is the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars (in millimeters).

The distance between consecutive longitudinal bars engaged by hoops or cross-ties does not
exceed 200𝑚𝑚 taking into account ES EN 1992-1-1:2015, 9.5.3(6). The transverse
reinforcement within the critical region at the base of the primary seismic columns may be
determined as specified in ES EN 1992-1-1:2015, provided that the value of the normalized axial
load in the seismic design situation is less than 0.2 and the value of the behavior factor 𝑞 used in
the design does not exceed 2.0.

Beam-column joints

The horizontal confinement reinforcement in joints of primary seismic beams with columns
should be not less than that specified in ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.4.3.2.2 for the critical
regions of columns with the following exception:

 If beams frame into all four sides of the joint and their width is at least three-quarters of
the parallel cross-sectional dimension of the column, the spacing of the horizontal
confinement reinforcement in the joint may be increased to twice, but may not
exceed 150𝑚𝑚.
 At least one intermediate (between column corner bars) vertical bar shall be provided at
each side of a joint of primary seismic beams and columns.

Distribution of the lateral loads to frames

First calculate lateral load at different floors for the entire building. Then distribute to different
frames/walls as per floor diaphragm behavior. Diaphragms should have sufficient in-plane
stiffness for the distribution of horizontal inertia forces to the vertical structural systems in
accordance with the assumptions of the analysis.

If all the frames are identical, the load can be equally distributed and only one frame need to be
analyzed. If on the other hand, some frames are stiffer than the other; some method of load
distribution between various frames according to relative stiffness by means of shear distribution
coefficients known as D-value method can be used and computed as follows:

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a) For uniform story height

 The D-value of a column is obtained from:

𝐷 = 𝛼𝑘𝑐

Where 𝛼 = constant determined based on ℎ and 𝐸

𝑘𝑐 = Stiffness ratio of the column

𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑏2

∑𝑘
𝑘̅ = 2𝑘 𝑏
Case 1: General 𝑐

̅
𝑘
𝑘𝑐 𝛼 = 2+𝑘̅

𝑘𝑐 for rectangular column

𝐼𝑦 𝑏3ℎ
𝑘𝑐𝑥 = = ;
𝑘𝑏3 𝑘𝑏4 𝐿𝑐 12𝐿𝑐
𝐼𝑥 𝑏ℎ3
𝑘𝑐𝑦 = =
𝐿𝑐 12𝐿𝑐

𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑏2

∑𝑘
𝑘̅ = 2𝑘 𝑏
𝑐

0.5+𝑘̅
𝛼= ̅
2+𝑘
Case 2: One end fixed
𝑘𝑐

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𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑏2

∑𝑘
𝑘̅ = 2𝑘 𝑏
𝑐

𝑘𝑐 ̅
0.5𝑘
Case 3: One end pin ended 𝛼 = 1+2𝑘̅

b) Different story height

𝒉′ 𝐷′ = 𝛼 ′ ∗ 𝑘𝑐′
Case 1: When height of one column 𝒉
ℎ 2
𝒉; different from standard value 𝑫′, 𝒌′𝒄 𝛼′ = 𝛼 ( )
ℎ′
𝑫, 𝒌𝒄  The value of α is obtained by
the previous indicated formula.

𝑫𝟐 𝒉𝟐

1
𝐷′ = 1 ℎ1 2 1 ℎ2 2
Case 2: Beam mid up column ( ) + ( )
𝐷1 ℎ 𝐷2 ℎ

𝑫′

𝑫 𝒉 𝑫𝟏 𝒉𝟏

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Center of mass and Center of rigidity

Center of mass

Center of mass in 𝑥 −direction, 𝑥𝑚

∑ 𝑊𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑚 =
∑ 𝑊𝑖

Center of mass in 𝑦 −direction, 𝑦𝑚

∑ 𝑊𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑦𝑚 =
∑ 𝑊𝑖

Center of rigidity/ Center of stiffness

Location of center of rigidity is the point on the horizontal plane through which the lateral force
pass.

Location of center of stiffness:

Center of stiffness in 𝑥 −direction, 𝑥𝑠

∑ 𝐷𝑦𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑠 =
∑ 𝐷𝑦𝑖

Center of stiffness in 𝑦 −direction, 𝑦𝑠

∑ 𝐷𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑦𝑠 =
∑ 𝐷𝑥𝑖

Where 𝑫𝒙𝒊 , 𝑫𝒚𝒊 are lateral stiffness of a particular frame element with respect to 𝑥 − and
𝑦 −axis respectively.

𝑫𝒙𝒊 = 𝜶 ∗ 𝒌𝒊𝒙𝒄 and 𝑫𝒚𝒊 = 𝜶 ∗ 𝒌𝒊𝒚𝒄

𝒙𝒊 and 𝒚𝒊 distance of frame element from point considered.

To account for potential amplification in seismic response due to torsion, eccentricities of

seismic forces are usually prescribed by building codes using static eccentricity. Based on this,
ES EN 1998:2015 section 4.3.2 specified that in addition to the actual eccentricity, in order to

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cover uncertainties in the location of masses and in the spatial variation of the seismic motion,
the calculated center of mass at each floor 𝑖 shall be considered displaced from its nominal
location in each direction by an additional accidental eccentricity:

𝒆𝒂𝒊 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑳𝒊

Where

𝒆𝒂𝒊 Accidental eccentricity of story mass i from its nominal location, applied in the same
direction at all floors and

𝑳𝒊 Floor dimension perpendicular to the direction of the seismic action.

The shear force for each in frames can be obtained from

𝐷𝑖
𝑄𝑛 = 𝑄
∑ 𝐷𝑖

Where 𝑄 = corrected shear given by 𝑄 = 𝛼𝑖 ∗ 𝑄𝑖

𝛼 = Shear correction factor for torsion

The shear correction factor for torsion is determined from

∑ 𝑫𝒙 𝒆𝒅𝒚 ∑ 𝑫𝒚 𝒆𝒅𝒙
𝜶𝒙 = 𝟏 + 𝒚𝒔 and 𝜶𝒚 = 𝟏 + 𝒙𝒔
𝑱𝒙 +𝑱𝒚 𝑱𝒙 +𝑱𝒚

Moment of inertia of the centroid of rigidity 𝑱𝒙 and 𝑱𝒚 is calculated from

𝑱𝒙 = ∑(𝑫𝒙 𝒚̅𝒊 𝟐 ); 𝑱𝒚 = ∑(𝑫𝒚 𝒙̅𝒊 𝟐 )

𝑥̅𝑖 = 𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑦̅𝑖 = 𝑦𝑠 − 𝑦𝑖

𝑥𝑖 and 𝑦𝑖 are the distance from the reference axis

∑ 𝑫𝒙 = Summation of 𝑫𝒙 value along 𝑥 −direction

∑ 𝑫𝒚 = Summation of 𝑫𝒚 value along 𝑦 −direction

𝒆𝒅𝒙 = Design eccentricity in the 𝑥 −direction

𝒆𝒅𝒚 = Design eccentricity in the 𝑦 −direction

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𝑒𝑑𝑥 = [𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 − 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠] ± 0.05𝐿𝑦

𝑒𝑑𝑦 = [𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 − 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠] ± 0.05𝐿𝑥

2.2.1.2.Shear walls

Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally partitions and
structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. Specially designed reinforced concrete walls
parallel to the directions of load are used to resist a large part of the lateral loads caused by wind
or earthquakes by acting as deep cantilever system fixed at foundation. Because of it has very
high in plane stiffness and strength make them ideally suited for bracing tall building. The term
fixed is to indicate that shear walls can resist flexural, shear and axial actions at the point of
attached.

Frequently buildings have interior concrete core walls around the elevator, stair and service
wells. Such walls may be considered as shear walls. Shear walls are also frequently placed along
the transverse direction of a building, either as exterior (facade) walls or as interior walls.

Figure 2.14: Locations of shear walls

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Shape and geometry of shear walls can be vary according to the interest of architectural
Engineer. For a better resistance of shear walls in a given building the configuration of they on
the plan is determinant factor. Based on the discussion of structural engineer with architectural
engineer it can be changed for better lateral force resisting of the system. In a given perimeter or
length of shear wall, their arrangement, shape, size and geometry dramatically changes
performance of building lateral force resisting in the system. The following figures show how
response a given building have the same geometrical and material data but with different
configuration of shear walls.

Torsionaly unstable
Better configuration of shear walls

Figure 2.15: Effects configuration of shear walls on the building lateral force resistance

Many recent researches and codes provide different configuration of shear walls for different
shapes of buildings. Some of considerations taken into account for the arrangements of shear
walls in plan are as follows:-

i) Stability: - in order to have a stability shear wall arrangement the following should be
fulfilled:
 There must be a minimum of three shear walls
 The line of forces in the wall should not intersect at a point
 All 3 walls should not be parallel. At most two of three walls parallel

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 Avoid high torsion by holding the eccentricity between story shear and center of mass as
low as possible

ii) Shear walls in building must be symmetrically located in plan to reduce the effect of twist
in building.

Eccentric arrangement of wall is the most frequent cause of collapse during earthquake.

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Different plan configuration of the shear walls and their effects

Core resists bending in both planes.

Poor torsional behavior due to
eccentricity

Core resists bending in both planes.

Good torsional stiffness

Walls resists bending in one plane.

Frame action in another plane. Good
torsional stiffness

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Walls resists bending in both planes.

Good torsional stiffness

For ductile walls, the thickness of the web 𝑏𝑤0 (in metres) should satisfy the following
expression (ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.4.1.2.3):

0.15𝑚
𝑏𝑤0 ≥ { ℎ𝑠 Where ℎ𝑠 is the clear storey height in metres.
⁄20

2.2.1.2.1. Classification of shear walls

a) Based on construction materials:

 Reinforced concrete shear wall  Plywood shear wall

 Steel plate shear wall  Masonry wall

b) Based on their height to width ratio:

ℎ𝑤
 Short shear walls ( ⁄𝑙 ≤ 1.0)
𝑤

ℎ𝑤
 Squat shear walls ( ⁄𝑙 ≤ 2.0) (see ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.5.2.4.2)
𝑤

ℎ𝑤
 Cantilever shear walls ( ⁄𝑙 > 2.0) (see ES EN 1998-1:2015 section 5.4.2.4)
𝑤

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2.2.1.2.2. Distribution of story shear among the walls

Statically determinate wall system: - the story shear and the forces in the walls are statically
equivalent.
→ + ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → 100 − 𝑉2𝑥 = 0

𝑽𝟐𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝑵

↑ + ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 → 𝑉1𝑦 + 𝑉3𝑦 = 0

Torsion exerted by the storey shear 𝑉𝑥

↺ + ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 → 𝑉2𝑥 ∗ 5 + 𝑉3𝑦 ∗ 8 − 𝑉1𝑦 ∗ 10 = 0

8𝑉3𝑦 − 10𝑉1𝑦 = −5𝑉2𝑥 = −500𝑘𝑁

𝑉3𝑦 = −500⁄18 = −𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟖𝒌𝑵

𝑉1𝑦 = 500⁄18 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟖𝒌𝑵

To reduce the magnitudes of the forces;

 Reduce the magnitude of the torsional moment by reducing the distance b/n the story
shear and the center of stiffness
 Increasing the lever arm between walls 1 and 3, placing them as far apart from each other
as possible ,i.e., at the periphery

Statically indeterminate wall system:- more than three walls. Additional compatibility
conditions are to be considered to determine all shear wall forces.

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Determination of the center of stiffness

𝐼𝑥𝑖 , 𝐼𝑦𝑖 are moment of inertia of wall 𝒊 with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦 −axis respectively

𝑥𝑖 and 𝑦𝑖 are distance of shear center of wall 𝒊 from origin of chosen coordinate system E (0,0)

𝑥̅𝑖 and 𝑦̅𝑖 are distance of shear center of wall 𝒊 from the center of stiffness CS (𝑥𝑠 , 𝑦𝑠 )

Determine the center of stiffness and distribute the horizontal force passing through center of
mass CM (𝑥𝑚 , 𝑦𝑚 ).

For symmetrical shear wall assembly

𝑿 −Direction

A shear force 𝑉𝑥 through the center of stiffness CS (𝑥𝑠 , 𝑦𝑠 ) results only in translation in the
𝑥 −direction and no rotation. This means symmetrical shear wall assembly, the same amount of
deflection for all walls connected with each other by means of the diaphragm.

𝑉𝑥 is distributed to each wall 𝒊 according to their stiffness (rigidity). This means according to the
moment of inertias with respect to the 𝑦 −axis.

𝑉𝑥 𝐼𝑖𝑦
𝑉𝑖𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑦

𝑉𝑥 𝐼1𝑦 𝑉𝑥 𝐼2𝑦 𝑉𝑥 𝐼3𝑦

𝑉1𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑦
; 𝑉2𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑦
; 𝑉3𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑦
; etc.

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Note that the resultant of the distributed forces is equal to 𝑉𝑥 and passes through CS. CS can be
determined by determining 𝑉𝑥 . Line of action of 𝑉𝑥 is 𝑦𝑠 away from origin of chosen coordinate
system E (0,0) and given by:

(𝒙𝒔 , 𝒚𝒔 )

↺ + ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 → 𝑉𝑥 ∗ 𝑦𝑠 = 𝑉1𝑥 ∗ 𝑦1 + 𝑉2𝑥 ∗ 𝑦2 + 𝑉3𝑥 ∗ 𝑦3 + ⋯

𝑉1𝑥 ∗ 𝑦1 + 𝑉2𝑥 ∗ 𝑦2 + 𝑉3𝑥 ∗ 𝑦3 + ⋯ ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥 ∗ 𝑦𝑖 ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥 ∗ 𝑦𝑖

𝑦𝑠 = = =
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥

But 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉1𝑥 + 𝑉2𝑥 + 𝑉3𝑥 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥

∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑦𝑖
𝑦𝑠 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥

𝑉𝑥
Substitution for 𝑉𝑖𝑥 in terms of 𝑉𝑥 from above and factoring the constants ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥
and simplifying

yields:

𝑉𝑥 𝐼𝑖𝑦
∑ ∗𝑦𝑖
∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑦 𝑉 𝐼𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦𝑖
𝑦𝑠 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑥
= ∑ 𝑉𝑥 ∗ ∑
𝑖𝑥 𝐼𝑖𝑦

𝐼𝑖𝑦 ∗ 𝑦𝑖
∴ 𝑦𝑠 = ∑
𝐼𝑖𝑦

𝒀 −Direction

Similarly from consideration of story shear 𝑉𝑦 in the 𝑦 −direction. A shear force 𝑉𝑦 through the
center of stiffness CS(𝑥𝑠 , 𝑦𝑠 ) results only in translation in the 𝑦 −direction and no rotation. This

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means symmetrical shear wall assembly, the same amount of deflection for all walls connected
with each other by means of the diaphragm.

𝑉𝑦 is distributed to each wall 𝒊 according to their stiffness (rigidity). This means according to the
moment of inertias with respect to the 𝑥 −axis.

𝑉𝑦 𝐼𝑖𝑥
𝑉𝑖𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑥

𝑉𝑦 𝐼1𝑥 𝑉𝑦 𝐼2𝑥 𝑉𝑦 𝐼3𝑥

𝑉1𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑥
; 𝑉2𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑥
; 𝑉3𝑦 = ∑𝑥
; etc.

Note that the resultant of the distributed forces is equal to 𝑉𝑦 and passes through CS. CS can be
determined by determining 𝑉𝑦 . Line of action of 𝑉𝑦 is 𝑥𝑠 away from origin of chosen coordinate
system E (0,0) and given by:

↺ + ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0 → 𝑉𝑦 ∗ 𝑥𝑠 = 𝑉1𝑦 ∗ 𝑥1 + 𝑉2𝑦 ∗ 𝑥2 + 𝑉3𝑦 ∗ 𝑥3 + ⋯

𝑉1𝑦 ∗ 𝑥1 + 𝑉2𝑦 ∗ 𝑥2 + 𝑉3𝑦 ∗ 𝑥3 + ⋯ ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦 ∗ 𝑥𝑖 ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦 ∗ 𝑥𝑖

𝑥𝑠 = = =
𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑦 ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦

But 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑉1𝑦 + 𝑉2𝑦 + 𝑉3𝑦 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦

∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑠 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦

𝑉𝑦
Substitution for 𝑉𝑖𝑦 in terms of 𝑉𝑦 from above and factoring the constants ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦
and simplifying

yields:

𝑉𝑦 𝐼𝑖𝑥
∑ ∗𝑥𝑖 𝑉𝑦
∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑥 𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑠 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑦
= ∑𝑉 ∗ ∑
𝑖𝑦 𝐼𝑖𝑥

𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗ 𝑥𝑖
∴ 𝑥𝑠 = ∑
𝐼𝑖𝑥

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For non-symmetrical shear wall assembly

𝑿 −Direction

A shear force 𝑉𝑥 through the center of stiffness CS (𝑥𝑠 , 𝑦𝑠 ) results in translation in the
𝑥 −direction and rotation about the center of stiffness in the vertical axis. This means non-
symmetrical shear wall assembly, the different amount of deflection for all walls connected with
each other by means of the diaphragm.

The torsional moment 𝑇𝑠 results in rotation of the slabs about the center of stiffness. It will be
absorbed by all the walls. Observe the role of the diaphragms in distribution the loads to the
walls. Without the slabs this is not possible. The magnitude of this torque is:

𝑇𝑠 = 𝑉𝑥 𝑒𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑉𝑦 𝑒𝑥

Distribution of torsional moment 𝑻𝒔 to walls

As discussed before, the story shear is distributed according of their moments of inertias.
Torsional moment 𝑇𝑠 resisted by wall 𝑖 is given by:

𝑇𝑠 = (𝑉′1𝑥 ∗ 𝑦̅1 + 𝑉 ′ 2𝑥 ∗ 𝑦̅2 + 𝑉 ′ 3𝑥 ∗ 𝑦̅3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑉′1𝑦 ∗ 𝑥̅1 + 𝑉 ′ 2𝑦 ∗ 𝑥̅2 + 𝑉 ′ 3𝑦 ∗ 𝑥̅3 + ⋯ )

Some of these terms are negligible because of negligible bending stiffness and 𝑉′1𝑥 , 𝑉 ′ 2𝑥 , 𝑉 ′ 3𝑥 ,
… and 𝑉′1𝑦 , 𝑉 ′ 2𝑦 , 𝑉 ′ 3𝑦 , … are the shear force a result of torsion 𝑇𝑠 . 𝑦̅1 , 𝑦̅2 , 𝑦̅3 , … and 𝑥̅1 , 𝑥̅2 ,
𝑥̅3 , … are distance of shear center of wall 𝒊 from the center of stiffness CS (𝑥𝑠 , 𝑦𝑠 ) in the 𝑥 − and
𝑦 −direction respectively and proportional to the deflection components of the walls.

Thus, the shear forces 𝑉′1𝑥 , 𝑉 ′ 2𝑥 , 𝑉 ′ 3𝑥 , … and 𝑉′1𝑦 , 𝑉 ′ 2𝑦 , 𝑉 ′ 3𝑦 , … in the walls as a result of
torsional moment 𝑇𝑠 are the products of proportional to the moment of inertia and the lever arm.

𝑉′1𝑥 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼1𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅1 ; 𝑉 ′ 2𝑥 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼2𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅2 ; 𝑉 ′ 3𝑥 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼3𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅3 , ; …

𝑉′1𝑦 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼1𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅1 ; 𝑉 ′ 2𝑦 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼2𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅2 ; 𝑉 ′ 3𝑦 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼3𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅3 ; …

Where 𝑘 = the proportionality constant of the moment of inertia that has to be determined. So
that, we can determine the wall forces resulting from torsion.

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Invoking statically equivalency between story torsion 𝑇𝑠 and the sum of the torsional moments
exerted by the wall forces w.r.t. the center of stiffness CS:

𝑇𝑠 = (𝑘 ∗ 𝐼1𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅1 2 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼2𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅2 2 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼3𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅3 2 + ⋯ ) + (𝑘 ∗ 𝐼1𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅1 2 + 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼2𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅2 2 + 𝑘 ∗
𝐼3𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅3 2 + ⋯ )

𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑘 ∗ ∑(𝐼𝑖𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅𝑖 2 + 𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅𝑖 2 ) → 𝑘 = ∑(𝐼 2
̅𝑖
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 2 )

Substituting the value of 𝑘 in wall force equations as a result of torsion above:

𝑇𝑠 ∗𝐼1𝑦 ∗𝑦̅1 𝑇𝑠 ∗𝐼2𝑦 ∗𝑦̅2 𝑇𝑠 ∗𝐼3𝑦 ∗𝑦̅3

𝑉′1𝑥 = ∑(𝐼 2 2) ; 𝑉′2𝑥 = ∑(𝐼 2 2) ; 𝑉′3𝑥 = ∑(𝐼 2 ;…
̅𝑖
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 ̅𝑖
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 ̅𝑖
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 2 )

𝑇𝑠 ∗𝐼1𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 1 𝑇𝑠 ∗𝐼2𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 2 𝑇𝑠 ∗𝐼3𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 3

𝑉′1𝑦 = ∑(𝐼 2 2) ; 𝑉′2𝑦 = ∑(𝐼 2 2) ; 𝑉′3𝑦 = ∑(𝐼 2 ;…
̅𝑖
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 ̅𝑖
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 ̅𝑖
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 2 )

Note that 𝑉1𝑦 = 𝑉4𝑦 = 𝑉5𝑦 ≈ 0 for wall 1, wall 4 and wall 5 respectively.

Thus, the total force in wall 𝑖 resulting from shear force 𝑉𝑥 and torsional moment 𝑇𝑠 will be:

𝑉𝑥 𝐼1𝑦 𝐼1𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅1

𝑉1𝑥 = + 𝑇𝑠 ∗ ;…
∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑦 ∑(𝐼𝑖𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅𝑖 2 + 𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅𝑖 2 )

𝑉𝑥 𝐼𝑖𝑦 𝐼𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦̅𝑖

For 𝑖 𝑡ℎ wall in 𝑥 −direction: 𝑉𝑖𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑦
+ 𝑇𝑠 ∗ ∑(𝐼 ̅ 𝑖 2 +𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 2 )
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦

𝑉𝑦 𝐼1𝑥 𝑇𝑠 ∗ 𝐼1𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅1

𝑉1𝑦 = + ;…
∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∑(𝐼𝑖𝑦 ∗ 𝑦̅𝑖 2 + 𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗ 𝑥̅𝑖 2 )

𝑉𝑦 𝐼𝑖𝑥 𝑇𝑠 ∗𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 1

For 𝑖 𝑡ℎ wall in 𝑦 −direction: 𝑉𝑖𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑥
+ ∑(𝐼 ̅𝑖 2
+𝐼𝑖𝑥 ∗𝑥̅ 𝑖 2 )
𝑖𝑦 ∗𝑦

Note that the first term in the expression for 𝑉𝑖𝑦 ≈ 0 because 𝑉𝑦 = 0.

Steps of lateral load distribution in shear walls

Step 1: Determine the external horizontal force H acts generally eccentric to assumed origin of
axis (E). In the case of EQ it passes through the mass center.

Step 2: Determine storey shear and made to pass through the origin of chosen axis (E).

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Step 3: Determine the storey shear 𝑉𝑥 at the center of stiffness result in a uniform translation (i.e.
symmetrical shear wall) of the in plane rigid slabs in the 𝑥 −direction. In addition to storey, the
torsional moment 𝑇𝑠 may results in rotation (i.e. symmetrical shear wall) of the slabs about the
center of stiffness.

Step 4: Determine shear wall stiffness and the story shear is distributed according of their
moments of inertias

2.2.1.3.Dual system (Mixed wall-frame system)

A dual system is a structural system in which an essentially complete frame provides support for
gravity loads and resistance to lateral loads is provided by a specially detailed moment-resisting
frame and shear walls or braced frames. The moment-resisting frame must be capable of
resisting at least 25% of the base shear and the two systems must be designed to resist the total
lateral load in proportion to their relative rigidities.

The frame deflects in a so called shear mode whereas the shear wall predominantly responds by
bending as a cantilever. Compatibility of horizontal deflection generates interaction between the
two. The linear sway of the moment frame combined with the parabolic sway of the shear wall
results in enhanced stiffness because the wall is restrained by the frame at the upper levels while
at the lower levels the shear wall is restrained by the frame.

However, a frame consisting of closely spaced columns and deep beams tends to behave more
like a shear wall responding predominantly in a bending mode. Similarly a shear wall weakened
by large openings acts more like a frame by deflecting in a shear mode. The combined structural
action therefore, depends on the relative rigidity of the two and their modes of deformation.

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Shear wall behavior Frame behavior

Stiffness of Frame + Wall > Stiffness of Frame or Stiffness of Wall.

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