Matter

Chapter 1
 What is Chemistry?
The branch of science that is concerned with the
study of the properties and behaviour of matter.
• Matter
- the physical material of the universe.
- by definition it is classified as anything that has mass and
occupies space.
• Property- any characteristic that allows us to distinguish particular
types of matter.
What is matter and what is it made of?
• Everything around us can be classified as matter- the air,
furniture and clothes you are wearing are what we call
matter.
• Definition: It is anything that has a mass and occupies
space.
• Matter can be classified in two principal ways:

MATTER

Physical State Chemical Composition

• Solid • Element
• Liquid • Compound
• Gas • Mixture
Physical states of Matter- solid, liquid or gas

solid liquid gas

 Physical States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

• Definite shape and volume • Distinct volume and takes • No fixed volume and
• Particles are ordered and the shape of the portion of conforms to the shape of
dense the container it occupies the container
• Motion of particles are • Particles are close and • Particles are far apart and
restricted moderately ordered unordered
• Incompressible • Particles can move with • Particles move at high
ease speeds
• Incompressible • Compressible
Chemical Composition- element, compound or mixture
• A pure substance is any form of matter that contains only
one element or compound- it has the same constant
composition. For eg. Salt or sugar
• Mixtures are combinations of two or more pure substances
in which each individual substance retains its own unique
characteristics and can be separated by physical means.
There are two types of mixtures:
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE
Cannot distinguish the different All components of the mixture are
components for eg. air or saltwater visible because they are not uniformly
mixed for eg. sand
 Classification of Matter
Matter
Is it uniform?

NO YES
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous Does it consist of more
than one component?

Pure substance NO YES

Can it be separated into
simpler substances?
Homogeneous
NO
Element YES
mixture

Compound
 Problems
Use your flow diagram or system of classification to decide
whether the following are pure substances, heterogeneous
or homogeneous mixtures?
-Sea sand
-Ocean
-Petrol
-Sodium
-Milk
 Problems
Use your flow diagram or system of classification to decide
whether the following are pure substances, heterogeneous
or homogeneous mixtures?
-Sea sand Heterogeneous mixture
-Ocean Heterogeneous mixture
-Petrol Homogeneous mixture
-Sodium Pure substance
-Milk (fresh milk Homogeneous, Spoiled milk heterogeneous)
 Properties of Matter
• There are two systems of classifying properties of matter:
i) Physical or chemical properties
ii) Intensive and extensive properties
 Properties of Matter
• There are two systems of classifying properties of matter:
i) Physical or chemical properties
ii) Intensive and extensive properties
• Physical properties can be measured without changing the
identity and composition of the substance and can be used to
describe the appearance of the matter.
• Chemical properties describe the way in which a substance
might change (react) to form new compounds with different
compositions.
Physical properties Chemical properties
- Colour - Flammability
- Odour - Reactivity with water
- Density - Toxicity
- Hardness - Oxidation
- Melting point/ Boiling point
- Electrical conductivity
- Maleability
 Problems
Classify each of the following as either a chemical or physical
property?
- Vinegar tastes sour
- Gallium metal melts at 29 °C
- Iron rusts in areas with high humidity
- Gold can be hammered into thin sheets allowing light to
pass through it
- Gold is mined by reacting gold ores with cyanide
 Problems
Classify each of the following as either a chemical or physical
property?
- Vinegar tastes sour Physical property
- Gallium metal melts at 29 °C Physical property
- Iron rusts in areas with high humidity Chemical property
- Gold can be hammered into thin sheets allowing light to
pass through it Physical property
- Gold is mined by reacting gold ores with cyanide Chemical
property
Intensive and Extensive Properties of Matter
• There are two systems of classifying properties of matter:
i) Physical or chemical properties
ii) Intensive and extensive properties
• Properties that do not depend on the amount of sample
examined are called intensive properties and can be used
to identify substances. Eg. Boiling and melting points.
• Extensive properties depend on the quantity of sample for
eg. Mass or volume.
 Changes of Matter
• Physical changes only affects the physical form of the
matter and not its chemical identity for eg. When ice melts
and becomes liquid the chemical composition still remains
the same (H2O).
• Chemical changes involve the transformation of matter into
new kinds of matter for eg. Iron that reacts with oxygen to
form rust (Fe2O3.xH2O).
Physical Chemical

vs
 Problems
Classify each of the following as either a chemical or physical
change?
- Coarse salt that is ground into finer crystals.
- Passing an electrical current through molten magnesium
chloride yields magnesium and chlorine.
- Bromine that was kept in a reagent bottle was opened and
it vaporized.
- An antacid tablet was added to a glass of water and you
notice bubbles forming in the water and the water turning
milky.
 Problems
Classify each of the following as either a chemical or physical
change?
- Coarse salt that is ground into finer crystals. Physical
change
- Passing and electrical current through molten magnesium
chloride yields magnesium and chlorine. Chemical change
- Bromine that was kept in a reagent bottle was opened and
it vaporized. Physical change
- An antacid tablet was added to a glass of water and you
notice bubbles forming in the water and the water turning
milky. Chemical change
 Changes of State of Matter
• All changes in the state of matter are considered physical
changes. Why??
• Each physical state can be interchanged based on whether
heat is added or released from a system.

Liquid

Sublimation
Gas Solid
Deposition
 Structure of Matter
• What have we covered so far:
• We have classified Matter
• Investigated the different properties
• The changes matter can undergo
but an important question that we need to ask is:

What is this fundamental “stuff” made up of?

 From Alchemy to Chemistry
• The ancient Greek philosophers believed that everything was made up
of four ancient elements- earth, water, wind and fire.
• Their thoughts as well as those from philosophers in the Middle East,
Asia and Egypt gave rise to the proto-science of Alchemy.
• In fact, the word chemistry comes from the word alchemy which in turn
dates back to the old name for Egypt (khem meaning "black earth“)
 From Alchemy to Chemistry
• Alchemists without knowing it discovered many substances that we today call
elements.
• Element- a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by
chemical means.
• More scientific approaches were developed from alchemy to study these
“unique substances” by the first chemists as they compared different
elements in the hope of better understanding their fundamental structure
and nature.
• By 1661 a rejection of the notion that matter was made up of ancient
elements such as fire and water was made by the scientist Robert Boyle.
• This was followed by Antoine Lavoisier who by 1789 made the first
classification of elements as being metallic or non-metallic in nature.
 Atoms
• As chemists performed experiments with different
elements and measured the amount of these elements
reacting with one another it became clear that elements
reacted in whole number ratios.
• John Dalton (1800’s) used the idea of atoms to explain this
phenomenon.
• He suggested that elements react in whole number ratios
which were multiples of some discrete unit- atoms.
• Thus, each element must be composed of small particles he
called atoms.
• Not originally his idea- Democritus (Greek philosopher) was the first
to state that the material world was made up of indivisible particles
he called “atomos”-meaning indivisible.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
I. All matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called
atoms.
II. All atoms of an element are identical but differ from atoms of
other elements.
III. Atoms of two or more elements can combine to form
compounds in ratios of whole numbers.
IV. Atoms of an element cannot be changed into atoms of a
different element by means of chemical reactions.
V. Atoms can neither be created or destroyed by chemical
reactions.
How do we know atoms are real?
Have you ever seen an atom?
Have you ever seen atoms?
 Brownian Motion
• Robert Brown studied particles of pollen grains moving
through water using a microscope in 1827 which he noticed
were constantly moving about.
• Albert Einstein published a paper in 1905 explaining how
this motion observed by Brown was actually the movement
of pollen grains by individual molecules of water thereby
proving the existence of atoms.
 The Structure of the Atom
• Atoms are small.
• Three subatomic particles form an atom- protons,
neutrons and electrons.
• Protons (abbreviated “p”) are positively charged particles
(+ charge) that together with neutrons (neutral particle,
“n”) are found in the nucleus of atoms.
• Electrons (“e-”) are negatively charged particles (- charge)
with a mass 1836 times smaller than the mass of a proton
and are located outside the nucleus in energy levels.
 The Structure of the Atom
• The number of protons in an atom is referred to as the
Atomic Number, Z and it is used to define an element.
• In an atom which is neutral (carries no charge)- the
number of protons equal the number of electrons.
• Together, the number of protons and number of neutrons
is called the Mass Number, A.
• Whenever A and Z is known we can easily determine the
number of neutrons in an atom since nr. of Neutrons= A-Z.
• Atoms of a particular element all have the same atomic
number but can have different mass numbers.
 The Nuclide Symbol
• For each element we can use a notation called the Nuclide
Symbol to indicate which element is represented as well as
the atomic and mass numbers.

Charge = indicates
Mass Number =
𝑨𝑨 𝒏𝒏 whether an atom gained

𝒁𝒁𝑿𝑿
protons + neutrons or lost electrons to form
an ion
Atomic Number = p+
(and if the atom is neutral
Chemical symbol
also the number of e-)
 Problems
Indicate the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in
each of the following atoms:
- 39
19𝐾𝐾
- 56
26𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
- 11𝐻𝐻
- 173
70𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
 Problems
Indicate the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in
each of the following atoms:
- 39
19𝐾𝐾 protons 19 electrons 19 neutrons 20
- 56
26𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 protons 26 electrons 26 neutrons 30
- 11𝐻𝐻 protons 1 electrons 1 neutrons ????
- 173
70𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 protons 70 electrons 70 neutrons 103
 Ions
• As mentioned already, the Nuclide Symbol can be used to
also indicate the charge of an atom.
• When electrons are lost from an atom the once neutral
atom now becomes more positively charged due to no. of p+
> e- (cation)
• When electrons are gained by an atom it becomes
negatively charged due to p+<e- (anion)
Electron loss Electron gain
Cation+ Atom Anion-

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 −

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
11 p+, 10 e- 11 p+, 11 e- 11 p+, 12 e-
 Problems
Indicate the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in
each of the following ions:
- 39
19 𝐾𝐾 +

- 56
26 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 2+

- 11𝐻𝐻 +
- 173
70 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 3+
 Problems
Indicate the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in
each of the following ions:
- 39
19 𝐾𝐾 + protons 19 electrons 18 neutrons 20

- 56
26 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 2+ protons 26 electrons 24 neutrons 30

- 11𝐻𝐻 + protons 1 electrons 0 neutrons 0

- 173
70 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 3+ protons 70 electrons 67 neutrons 103
 Isotopes
• Most elements consist of atoms in which the number of
protons are always the same but the number of neutrons
changes.
• In such cases, the variants of a particular element are called
isotopes.
• This will result in the mass number, A changing for different
atoms of the same element.

3 4
2𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 2𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
 The Periodic Table
• By the 19th century chemists had already determined the
atomic numbers of certain elements.
• In 1869 Mendeleev arranged the elements in terms of
increasing atomic number in different horizontal and
vertical columns.
• He recognized that some elements shared similar chemical
properties and belonged in a sort of “chemical family”-
what we today typically refer to as a group.
The first Periodic Table
Discovery of the elements
Oldest Periodic Table (1888)
 The Periodic Table
• Students must know the first 36 elements of the periodic
table.
 The Periodic Table
• The elements in the modern periodic table are divided into
main group (pink) and transition elements (blue middle
block).
• The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical
columns are called groups with group numbers that use
either a roman numeral designation with A and B or are
numbered 1-18.
Group

Period
 The Periodic Table
• The majority of elements in the periodic table are metals.
• They occupy the left side and middle of the periodic table
with the exception of Hydrogen (H).
 The Periodic Table
Metallic elements share certain physical properties:
• Shiny in appearance
• Good conductors of electricity and heat
• Malleability (can be made into thin sheets)
• Ductility (can be made into wires)
• Are solid at room temperature (except Mercury, Hg)
• High density and high melting and boiling points
 The Periodic Table
• The metals are separated from the non-metals by a step-
like line in the periodic table.
• Hydrogen although on the left side of the periodic table is a
non-metal.
 The Periodic Table
Non-Metallic elements also share certain physical
properties:
• Some elements are solids, gasses or even liquids at room
temperature.
• Not generally shiny in appearance
• Poor conductors of heat and electricity
• Low density, melting and boiling points.
 The Periodic Table
• Elements that lie close to the stair-like line in the periodic table
are called semi-metals or metalloids and have properties that are
a mixture of metallic and non-metallic properties.
• Semi-metal elements include Boron (B), Silicon (Si), Germanium
(Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and Tellurium (Te).
 Trends in the Periodic Table
• Atomic radius increases down a group an decreases across periods in the
periodic table.
• Ionization energy- energy needed to remove an electron from an atom.
Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
• Electron Affinity- amount of energy that is released when an electron is
added to a neutral atom in forming an anion. Same trend as Ionization
energy.
Ionization Energy

Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity

Electron Affinity
Atomic Radius

Atomic Radius
 The Periodic Table
• Many of the groups in the periodic table have special
names:
Group Name Elements
1 or 1A The Alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
2 or 2A The Alkaline Earth metals Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
3 or 3A The Icosagens B, Al, Ga, In, Tl
4 or 4A The Crystallogens C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb
5 or 5A The Pnictogens N, P, As, Sb, Bi
6 or 6A The Chalcogens O, S, Se, Te, Po
7 or 7A The Halogens F, Cl, Br, I, At
8 or 8A The Noble gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
 The Periodic Table
• Many of the groups in the periodic table have special
names:
Group Name Elements
1 or 1A The Alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
2 or 2A The Alkaline Earth metals Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
3 or 3A The Icosagens B, Al, Ga, In, Tl
4 or 4A The Crystallogens C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb
5 or 5A The Pnictogens N, P, As, Sb, Bi
6 or 6A The Chalcogens O, S, Se, Te, Po
7 or 7A The Halogens F, Cl, Br, I, At
8 or 8A The Noble gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
 Relative Atomic Masses

• Scientists chose the 12C atom as the reference and assigned

a mass value of exactly 12.0000. All other atomic masses are
then determined by comparing their relative weights to this
12C-atom.

• Example: The relative atomic mass of a 12C atom is 12.000

and that of a hydrogen atom is 1.00794. This means that a
hydrogen atom has roughly 1/12th the mass of a 12C atom.
• A useful mass unit that we use is the atomic mass unit, amu
which is defined as:
1
1 amu= x the mass of a 12C atom
12
• A 12C atom therefore has a mass of 12.000 amu and a
hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.00794 amu.
 Relative Atomic Masses
• By now you might have noticed that the relative atomic
masses in the periodic table are not given as whole numbers
but rather as fractional numbers.
• This is because the mass reported is the average of the
relative atomic masses of all the isotopes of a specific
element.
• In order to determine the atomic masses given in the
periodic table we need two pieces of information:
• The masses of the isotopes of the element in amu
• The isotopic abundances (given as % or fraction)
 Relative Atomic Masses
% 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Average atomic mass= (atomic mass of isotope 1 x )+
100
% 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(atomic mass of isotope 2 x )+
100
% 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(atomic mass of isotope 3 x ) ....
100

• Example: Li has two isotopes, 6Li and 7Li with the following atomic
masses and natural abundance:
Mass number Isotopic mass (amu) Natural abundance (%)
6 6.015 7.59
7 7.016 92.41

7.59 92.41
The average atomic mass of Li = (6.015 x ) + (7.016 x )
100 100
=6.94 amu
 Problems
1. The natural isotopes of chlorine were determined to
have the following atomic masses: 35Cl (34.9688 amu,
75.76 %) and 37Cl (36.9659 amu, 24.24 %). What is the
average atomic mass for Cl?
2. Neon has the following isotopic masses and fractional
abundances. Determine the average atomic mass of
Neon.
Mass number Isotopic mass (amu) Fractional Natural abundance
20 19.992 0.9051
21 20.994 0.0027
22 21.991 0.0922
 Problems
1. The natural isotopes of chlorine were determined to
have the following atomic masses: 35Cl (34.9688 amu,
75.76 %) and 37Cl (36.9659 amu, 24.24 %). What is the
average atomic mass for Cl?

The average atomic mass of Cl:

75,76 24,24
= (34.9688 x ) + (36,9659 x ) = 26,4924 + 8,9605
100 100
= 35,4529 amu
 Problems
1. Neon has the following isotopic masses and fractional
abundances. Determine the average atomic mass of
Neon.
Mass number Isotopic mass (amu) Fractional Natural abundance
20 19.992 0.9051
21 20.994 0.0027
22 21.991 0.0922

The average atomic mass of Ne:

= (19,992 x 0,9051) + (20,994 x 0,0027) + (21,991 x 0,0922) = 18,0948
+ 0,05668 + 2,02757
= 20,18 amu