Control Systems (PCC-EE 403)

Module 1: Introduction to control problem (4 Hours)

Industrial Control examples. Mathematical models of physical systems. Control hardware and their
models. Transfer function models of linear time-invariant systems.
Feedback Control: Open-Loop and Closed-loop systems. Benefits of Feedback. Block diagram
algebra, signal flow graph.
Module 2: Time Response Analysis (10 Hours)
Standard test signals. Time response of first and second order systems for standard test inputs.
Application of initial and final value theorem. Design specifications for second-order systems based
on the time-response. Concept of Stability. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria. Relative Stability analysis. Root-
Locus technique. Construction of Root-loci.
Module 3: Frequency-response analysis (6 Hours)
Relationship between time and frequency response, Polar plots, Bode plots. Nyquist stability
criterion. Relative stability using Nyquist criterion–gain and phase margin. Closed-loop frequency
response.
Module 4: Introduction to Controller Design (8 Hours)
Stability, steady-state accuracy, transient accuracy, disturbance rejection, insensitivity and
robustness of control systems. Root-loci method of feedback controller design. Design specifications
in frequency-domain. Frequency-domain methods of design. Application of Proportional, Integral
and Derivative Controllers, Lead and Lag compensation in designs. Analog and Digital
implementation of controllers.
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Module 5: State variable Analysis (10 Hours)
Concepts of state variables. State space model. Diagonalization of State Matrix. Solution of state
equations. Eigen values and Stability Analysis. Concept of controllability and observability. Pole-
placement by state feedback. Discrete-time systems. Difference Equations. State-space models of
linear discrete-time systems. Stability of linear discrete-time systems.
Module 6: Introduction to Optimal Control and Nonlinear Control (4 Hours)
Performance Indices. Regulator problem, Tracking Problem. Nonlinear system– Basic concepts and
analysis.

Text/References Books:
1. K. Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”, Prentice Hall, 1991.
2. B. C. Kuo, “Automatic Control System”, Prentice Hall, 1995.
3. N.S. Nise, “Control Systems Engineering”, Willey Publications.
4. M. Gopal, “Control Systems: Principles and Design”, McGraw Hill Education,1997.
5. I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, “Control Systems Engineering”, New Age International, 2009
6. R. T. Stefani, B. Shahian, C. J. Savant, and G. H. Hostetter, “Design of Feedback Control
Systems”, Oxford University Press.

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 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

 A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system configuration

that will provide a desired system response.
 The basis for analysis of a system is the foundation provided by linear system theory,
which assumes a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system.
 Therefore a component or process to be controlled can be represented by the
diagram, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Block diagram of a control system

Classification of Control Systems

1. Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

2. Linear and Nonlinear control system
3. SISO and MIMO Control Systems
4. Open-loop and Closed-loop control system

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A. Open-Loop System
 An open-loop control system operates without feedback and directly generates the
output in response to an input signal.
 An input signal is applied to the controller, whose output acts as the actuating
signal, the actuating signal then controls the controlled process so that the
controlled variable will perform according to prescribed standards.
 For an example of controller of the control systems are an amplifier, mechanical
linkage, filter, or other control element.
 An open-loop control system is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: Block diagram of an open-loop control system.

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Example of Open-loop System

Fig. 3: Open-loop motor control system.

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B. Closed-Loop System
 A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output and the
reference input by comparing them and using the difference as a means of control is
called a feedback control system.
 Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed-loop control systems.
 A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output signal and a
comparison with the reference input to generate an error signal that is applied to the
controller.
 The actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input signal and the
feedback signal, is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of
the system to a desired value.
 A closed-loop control system is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Block diagram of a closed-loop control system.

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Example of Closed-loop System

Fig. 5: Manual feedback control of a thermal system.

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Example of Automatic Control System

Fig. 6 : Automatic control of a thermal system.

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Block Diagram of Automatic Control System

Fig. 7: Automatic temperature control system.

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Compassion Between Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control System

A. Open-Loop Control System

Advantages
1. Simple in construction and design.
2. Economical.
3. Easy to maintain.
4. Generally stable.
5. Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages
1. To maintain the required quality in the output.
2. Recalibration is necessary from time to time.
3. Usually inaccurate and unreliable
4. Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
5. Do not adapt to environmental changes or to external disturbances

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B. Closed-Loop Control System
Advantages
1. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to the presence of a
feedback signal.
2. Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of output to input for variations in system
characteristic.
3. Facilitates automation.
4. Increased bandwidth.
5. Less affects on non-linearity’s and distortion.
Disadvantages
1. Complicated to design.
2. Tendency towards oscillation.
3. Required more maintenance
4. Systems may unstable operation.
5. Overall gain is reduced due to the presence of feedback.

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Feedback Control
 If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized
as part of the system input, then it is known as feedback.
 Feedback plays an important role in order to improve the performance of the control
systems.

Types of Feedback
 There are two types of feedback
1. Positive feedback
2. Negative feedback
1. Positive Feedback
 The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output C(s).
 The block diagram of positive feedback control system is show in the following Fig. 8.

Fig.8: Block diagram of a positive feedback control system.

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 The transfer function of positive feedback control system is
G
T (1)
1  GH
where, T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency

2. Negative Feedback
 Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system
output C(s).
 The following figure 9 shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.

Fig. 9: block diagram of a negative feedback control system.

 Transfer function of negative feedback control system is
G
T (2)
1  GH
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Effects of Feedback
1. Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
 From Eq. 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop
control system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH).
 So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).
 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases.
 In this case, 'GH' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is
negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases.
 In this case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is
positive.
 In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency.
 So, the feedback will increase the overall gain of the system in one frequency
range and decrease in the other frequency range.

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2. Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
 Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to
the variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as
T
Percentage change in T
S 
T
G
T
G
 (3)
G
Percentage change in G
where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.
 We can rewrite Eq. (3) as
T
T G
S 
T T
 (4)
G G G T
G
 Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Eq. 2, we get
T   G  (1  GH ).1  G ( H ) 1
     (5)
G G  1  GH  (1  GH )2 (1  GH ) 2
 Again from Eq. (2), we get
G (6)
 1  GH
T
 Substitute Eq. (5) and (6) in Eq. (4), we get
1 1
SGT   (1  GH ) 
(1  GH ) 2 1  GH
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2. Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

 So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the
reciprocal of (1+GH).
 The sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).
 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases.
 In this case, 'GH' value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases.
 In this case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
 In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency.
 The feedback will increase the sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range
and decrease in the other frequency range.
 Therefore, we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is
insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

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3. Effect of Feedback on Stability
1. A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to
be unstable.
2. In Eq. (2), if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the
control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
 Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control
system stable.

4. Effect of Feedback on Noise on Open-Loop

System
 Let us compare the transfer function
relations with and without feedback due
to noise signal alone.
 Consider an open loop control Fig. 10: Block diagram of an open-loop
system with noise signal as shown below. system with noise
 The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is
C ( s)
 Gb (7)
N ( s)
 It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.
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5. Effect of Feedback on Noise on Closed-Loop System

 Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

Fig. 11: Block diagram of an open-loop system with noise.

 The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is
C ( s) Gb
 (8)
N ( s ) 1  Ga Gb H
 It is obtained by making the other input (s)R(s) equal to zero.

 Compare Equation (7) and (8), we get,

 In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor
of (1+ GaGbH) provided that the term (1+ GaGbH) is greater than one.
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 Control Systems - Mathematical Models
 The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model.
 These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
 Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model.
 Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the
input and the output.
 The following mathematical models are mostly used.:

1. Differential equation model

2. Transfer function model
3. State space model

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1. Differential Equation Model
 Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems.
 Follow these steps for differential equation model.
 Apply basic laws to the given control system.
 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).
Example :
 Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following Fig. 1.
 This circuit consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor.
 All these electrical elements are connected in series.
 The input voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the
output voltage vo.

Fig. 1: RLC series circuit.

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 Mesh equation for this circuit is

 Substitute, the current passing through capacitor in the above equation.

 The above equation is a second order differential equation.

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2. Transfer Function Model
 Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems.
 The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial
conditions are zero.
 If x(t) and y(t are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s).
 The mathematical expression of transfer function is give by
Y ( s)
G ( s) 
X ( s)
 The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: Block diagram of transfer function model of an LTI system.

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2. Transfer function models
Impulse Response
 Consider that a linear-invariant system has the input δ(t) and output y(t).
 The system can be characterized by its impulse response g(t), which is defined as the
output when the input is a unit-impulse function δ(t).
y(t) = g(t) δ(t).
Definition of transfer function inters of impulse response
 The transfer function is defined as the Laplace transform of the impulse response of
the system, with all the initial conditions set to zero.
 Then the transfer function is defined as
G(s) = £ [g(t)]

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Transfer function of a linear time-invariant differential equation system

 Let us consider that the input-output relation of a linear time-invariant system is

described by the following n-th order differential equation

d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m r (t ) d m1r (t ) dr (t )
 an 1    a1  a y (t )  bm  bm -1    b1  b0 r (t ) ( n  m)
dt m1
0
dt n dt n-1 dt dt m dt

 The coefficients a0, a1, a2 . . . , an-1 and b0, b1, b2 . . . , bm are real constants.
 To taken the Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation and assume zero
initial conditions.
s nY ( s )  an -1s n-1Y ( s )    a1sY ( s )  a0Y ( s )  bm s m R ( s )  bm -1s m -1 R ( s )    b1sR ( s )  b0 R ( s )

 ( s n  an -1s n-1    a1s  a0 )Y ( s )  (bm s m  bm -1s m -1    b1s  b0 ) R ( s )

 The transfer is given by

Y ( s) bm s m  bm-1s m-1    b1s  b0
G(s)   ( n  m)
R(s) s n  an-1s n-1    a1s  a0

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Characteristic Equation
 The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by
setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero.
 Thus the characteristic equation of the system determined by

s n  an -1s n -1    a2 s  a1s  a0  0

Properties of the transfer function

 The properties of the transfer function are summarized as follows:

1. The transfer function of a system is the mathematical model expressing the
differential equation that relates the output to input of the system.
2. The transfer function is defined only form a linear time-invariant system.
3. It is not defined for non-linear system.
4. All initial conditions of the system are set to zero.
5. The transfer function of a continuous-data system is expressed only as a
function of the complex variable s.

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 Mathematical Models of Physical Systems
Electrical Systems
1. Transfer function of a R-C circuit
 Let us consider a R-C series circuit as shown in Fig. 7.
 Applying the KVL in the circuit and obtained the differential
equating as follows
1 1 Fig.7: R-C series circuit
Vin (t )  Ri (t )   i (t ) dt and Vo (t )   i (t )dt
C C
 Taking Laplace transform and assuming all initial conditions are set to zero, we have
 1  1
Vin ( s )   R   I (s) and Vo ( s )  I ( s)
 Cs  Cs
 1 
 I ( s)  C sVo ( s ) Vin ( s )   R 
and  CsVo ( s )  [ RCs  1]Vo ( s )
 Cs
 The transfer function of the R-C circuit is
Vo ( s) 1 1
G (s)   
Vin ( s ) RCs  1  s  1
where  = RC, is the time constant of the R-C circuit.
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2. R-L-C Series Network
 The transfer function of the R-L-C circuit shown in Fig.8
is obtained by writing the KVL equations
di ( t ) 1
Vin ( t )  R i ( t )  L
dt

C  i (t ) dt and

1 Fig. 8: R-L-C series circuit

Vo (t ) 
C  i (t ) dt
 Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the equations and assuming all initial
conditions are set to zero, we have
 1  1
Vin ( s )   R  Ls   I ( s ) and Vo ( s )  I (s)
 C s  Cs
 I ( s)  C sVo ( s)
and Vin ( s )  [ L C s 2  RCs  1] Vo ( s )

 The transfer function of the R-L-C circuit is

Vo ( s ) 1
G ( s)  
Vin ( s ) LCs 2  RCs  1

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Mechanical System-1
 The mass-spring-damper system is shown Fig. 9.
 The linear motion concerned is in the vertical direction.
 Application of force f(t) to the mass, results in a
displacement of x(t).
 The equation of motion for the system is obtained by
applying Newton’s Second law of translation motion:
d 2 x(t ) dx(t )
f (t )  M  B  K x(t )
dt 2
dt Fig. 9: Mass-spring-damper system.
d 2 x(t )
Here, M  Inertia force,
dt 2
dx(t )
B  Damping force,
dt
K x(t )  Spring restoring force,
and f(t) = Applied force.
 Taking Laplace transform of the equation, with initial conditions are zero, we have
F ( s )  [ M s 2  Bs  K ] X ( s )
 The transfer function of the mechanical system is
Y ( s) 1
G ( s)  
F ( s ) Ms 2  B s  K
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Mechanical System - 2
 A mechanical system shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10: Mechanical system 2.

 The equations of the balancing forces on M1 and M2 respectively are
d 2 x2 dx d
f (t )  M 2 2  B2 2  B12 ( x2  x1 )  K12 ( x2  x1 ) (1)
dt dt dt
d 2 x1 dx d
0  M1 2  B1 1  K1 x1  B12 ( x1  x2 )  K12 ( x1  x2 ) (2)
dt dt dt
 Taking Laplace Transform of the both equation (1) and (2), we get

F ( s )  ( M 2 s 2  B2 s  B12 s  K12 ) X 2 ( s )  ( B12 s  K12 ) X 1 ( s ) (3)

0  ( M 1s 2  B1s  B12 s  K12  K1 ) X1 ( s )  ( B12 s  K12 ) X 2 ( s ) (4)

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 From Eq.(4), we are find the X1(s),
( B12 s  K12 ) X 2 ( s )
 X1 (s)  (5)
M 1s 2  B1s  B12 s  K12  K1

 Substituting the value of X1(s) in Eq. (3), we get

( B12 s  K12 )( B12 s  K12 )

F ( s )  ( M 2 s 2  B2 s  B12 s  K12 ) X 2 ( s )  X 2 ( s)
M 1s 2  B1s  B12 s  K12  K1

 (M s2
2

 B2 s  B12 s  K12 )( M 1s 2  B1s  B12 s  K12  K1 )  ( B12 s  K12 ) 2 X 2 ( s )

 F ( s )( M 1s 2  B1s  B12 s  K12  K1 )

 Here, F(s) is the input and X2(s) is the output of the mechanical system, then the
transfer function is

X 2 (s) M 1s 2  B1s  B12 s  K12  K1

 (6)
F ( s ) ( M 2 s 2  B2 s  B12 s  K12 )( M 1s 2  B1s  B12 s  K12  K1 )  ( B12 s  K12 ) 2

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