This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: E2021 − 15 (Reapproved 2023)

Standard Test Method for

Hot-Surface Ignition Temperature of Dust Layers1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2021; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope 2. Referenced Documents

1.1 This test method covers a laboratory procedure to 2.1 ASTM Standards:4
determine the hot-surface ignition temperature of dust layers, E771 Test Method for Spontaneous Heating Tendency of
that is, measuring the minimum temperature at which a dust Materials (Withdrawn 2001)5
layer will self-heat. The test consists of a dust layer heated on E1445 Terminology Relating to Hazard Potential of Chemi-
a hot plate.2,3 cals
1.2 Data obtained from this test method provide a relative E1491 Test Method for Minimum Autoignition Temperature
measure of the hot-surface ignition temperature of a dust layer. of Dust Clouds
2.2 IEC Standard:6
1.3 This test method should be used to measure and describe
IEC 1241-2-1 Electrical Apparatus for Use in the Presence
the properties of materials in response to heat and flame under
of Combustible Dust; Part 2: Test Methods—Section 1:
controlled laboratory conditions and should not be used to
Methods for Determining the Minimum Ignition Tempera-
describe or appraise the fire hazard or fire hazard risk of
tures of Dusts, Method A
materials, products, or assemblies under actual fire conditions.
However, results of this test method may be used as elements
3. Terminology
of a fire risk assessment that takes into account all of the factors
that are pertinent to an assessment of the fire hazard risk of a 3.1 Definitions—For definitions of other terms used in this
particular end use product. standard, see Terminology E1445.
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
standard. No other units of measurement are included in this 3.2.1 hot-surface ignition temperature of a dust layer,
standard. n—lowest set temperature of the hot plate that causes ignition
of the dust layer.
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the 3.2.2 ignition of a dust layer, n—initiation of self-heating or
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- combustion in a material under test.
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter- 3.2.3 ignition time, n—time between the start of heating and
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. the point at which the maximum temperature or flaming
Specific precautionary statements are given in Section 8. combustion is reached.
1.6 This international standard was developed in accor- 3.2.4 temperature rise, ∆T, n—the difference between Tmax
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard- and the initial set temperature of the hot plate.
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
3.2.5 Tmax, n—maximum temperature measured during test.
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical 4. Summary of Test Method
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
4.1 The test material is placed within a metal ring on top of
a hot plate, that is at a preset constant temperature.
1
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E27 on Hazard
Potential of Chemicals and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E27.04 on
4
the Flammability and Ignitability of Chemicals. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Current edition approved May 1, 2023. Published May 2023. Originally contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
approved in 1999. Last previous edition approved in 2015 as E2021 – 15. DOI: Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
10.1520/E2021-15R23 the ASTM website.
2 5
This test method is based on recommendations of the National Materials The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
Advisory Board of the National Academy of Sciences (1).3 www.astm.org.
3 6
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St.,
this standard. 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, http://www.ansi.org.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

1
 E2021 − 15 (2023)
4.2 The sample temperature is monitored to determine NOTE 1—Much of the literature data for layer ignition is actually from
temperature rise due to oxidative reactions or decomposition a basket in a heated furnace (4), known as the modified Godbert-
Greenwald furnace test. Other data are from nonstandardized hot plates
reactions, or both. (5-9).
4.3 Ignition is considered to have taken place when either of 5.6 Additional information on the significance and use of
the following occurs: this test method may be found in Ref. (10).
4.3.1 Temperature in the dust layer at position of thermo-
couple rises at least 50 °C above the hot plate temperature, or 6. Limitations and Interferences
4.3.2 Visible evidence of combustion is apparent, such as
red glow or flame. 6.1 This test method should not be used with materials
having explosive or highly reactive properties.
4.4 Hot plate surface temperature is varied from test to test,
as necessary, until the hot-surface ignition temperature is 6.2 If the metal (for example, aluminum) plate or ring reacts
determined. with the test material, choose another type of metal that does
not react.
5. Significance and Use
5.1 This test method is applicable to dusts and powders, and 7. Apparatus
provides a procedure for performing laboratory tests to evalu- 7.1 The complete apparatus, shown in Fig. 1, consists of a
ate hot-surface ignition temperatures of dust layers. circular metal (for example, aluminum) plate centrally posi-
5.2 The test data can be of value in determining safe tioned on top of a hot plate. The dust layer is confined within
operating conditions in industrial plants, mines, manufacturing a metal ring on top of the metal plate. An example of an
processes, and locations of material usage and storage. apparatus that has been found suitable is given in Appendix
X2.
5.3 Due to variation of ignition temperature with layer
7.1.1 Heated Surface, consisting of a metal plate of approxi-
thickness, the test data at one thickness may not be applicable
mately 200 mm diameter and at least 20 mm thick. This plate
to all industrial situations (see Appendix X1). Tests at various
is centrally placed on top of a commercial hotplate. A thermo-
layer thicknesses may provide a means for extrapolation to
couple is mounted radially in the metal plate, with its junction
thicker layers, as listed in the following for pulverized Pitts-
in contact with the plate within 1.0 mm 6 0.5 mm of the upper
burgh bituminous coal dust (2). Mathematical modeling of
surface. This thermocouple is connected to a temperature
layer ignition at various layer thicknesses is described in Ref.
controller. The plate and its thermocouple-controller assembly,
(3).
in conjunction with the commercial hotplate, should satisfy the
Layer Thickness, mm Hot-Surface Ignition Temperature, °C
6.4 300
following requirements:
9.4 260 7.1.1.1 The plate should be capable of attaining a maximum
12.7 240 temperature of 450 °C without a dust layer in position,
25.4 210
7.1.1.2 The temperature controller must be capable of main-
5.4 This hot plate test method allows for loss of heat from taining the temperature of the plate constant to within 65 °C
the top surface of the dust layer, and therefore generally gives throughout the time period of the test,
a higher ignition temperature for a material than Test Method 7.1.1.3 When the temperature of the plate has reached a
E771, which is a more adiabatic system. constant value, the temperature across the plate should be
5.5 This test method for dust layers generally will give a uniform to within 65 °C, as shown in Fig. 2,
lower ignition temperature than Test Method E1491, which is 7.1.1.4 The temperature control should be such that the
for dust clouds. The layer ignition temperature is determined recorded plate temperature will not change by more than
while monitoring for periods of minutes to hours, while the 65 °C during the placing of the dust layer and will be restored
dust cloud is only exposed to the furnace for a period of to within 2 °C of the previous value within 5 min of placing the
seconds. dust layer, and

FIG. 1 Schematic of Hotplate Layer Ignition Apparatus

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 E2021 − 15 (2023)
8.4 The user should use due caution around the hot surfaces
present on the test apparatus.
8.5 Tests should be conducted in a ventilated hood or other
area having adequate ventilation to remove any smoke or
fumes.

9. Sampling and Test Specimens

9.1 It is not practical to specify a single method of sampling
dust for test purposes because the character of the material and
its available form affect selection of the sampling procedure.
Generally accepted sampling procedures should be used. See
MNL 32 Manual on Test Sieving Methods.
9.2 Tests may be run on an as-received sample. However,
since finer dusts have lower hot-surface ignition temperatures
(2) and due to the possible accumulation of fines at some
locations in a processing system, it is recommended that the
test sample be at least 95 % minus 200 mesh (75 µm). To
achieve this particle fineness, grind, pulverize, or sieve the
sample.
FIG. 2 Uniformity of Aluminum Plate Temperature at Set Tempera-
ture of 250 °C NOTE 2—The operator should consider the thermal stability and the
friction and impact sensitivity of the dust during any grinding or
pulverizing. In sieving the material, the operator must verify that there is
no selective separation of components in a dust that is not a pure
7.1.1.5 The thermocouple in the plate and its readout device substance.
should be calibrated and should be accurate to within 63 °C. NOTE 3—It may be desirable in some cases to conduct dust layer
7.1.2 Metal Ring, to be placed on the heated metal plate, for ignition tests on a material as sampled from a process because (a) dust
streams may contain a wide range of particle sizes or have a well-defined
containing the dust layer. Stainless steel is suitable for most specific moisture content, (b) materials consisting of a mixture of
dusts. The standard ring is 12.7 mm (1⁄2 in.) in depth and chemicals may be selectively separated on sieves, and (c) certain fibrous
approximately 100 mm (4 in.) in diameter. Rings may be of materials may not pass through a relatively coarse screen. When a material
other depths. is tested in the as-received state, it should be recognized that the test
7.1.3 Dust Layer Thermocouple—Slots on opposite sides of results may not represent the lowest dust layer ignition temperature
possible. Any process change resulting in a higher fraction of fines than
the perimeter of the ring accommodate the positioning of a type normal or drier product than normal may decrease the ignition tempera-
K bare thermocouple (0.20 mm to 0.25 mm or 10 mil in ture.
diameter) through the dust sample. This bare thermocouple is
positioned parallel to the surface of the metal plate with its 10. Calibration and Standardization
junction at the geometric center of the dust layer. This 10.1 The calibration of the dust sample thermocouple and
thermocouple should be connected to a digital thermometer for the thermocouple embedded in the circular metal plate must be
observing the temperature of a dust layer during a test. checked using appropriate standards.
Temperature measurements with the thermocouple should be
made either relative to a fixed reference junction temperature 10.2 The temperature across the metal plate should be
or with automatic cold junction compensation. Most digital uniform to within 65 °C when measured across two diameters
thermometers have built-in compensation. The thermocouple at right angles, as shown in Fig. 2. This requirement must be
in the dust layer and its readout device should be calibrated and satisfied at two plate temperatures, one in the range of between
should be accurate to within 63 °C. 200 °C and 250 °C and the second in the range of between
300 °C and 350 °C, measured at the center of the plate.
7.2 Ambient Temperature Thermometer, placed in a conve-
nient position within 1 m of the hot plate but shielded from heat 10.3 Verify the performance of the apparatus using at least
convection and radiation from the hot plate. The ambient two dust layers having different hot-surface ignition tempera-
temperature should be within the range of 15 °C to 30 °C. tures. Representative data including both published and unpub-
lished values (2)7 for 12.7 mm thick layers of three dusts are:
8. Hazards Brass 155 °C to 160 °C
Pittsburgh coal dust 230 °C to 240 °C
8.1 The user should consider the toxicity of the sample dust Lycopodium spores 240 °C to 250 °C
and possible combustion products. The brass was a very fine flake (100 % minus 325 mesh)
8.2 This test method should not be used with materials with a small amount (<1.7 %) of stearic acid coating. The
having explosive or highly reactive properties. lycopodium is a natural plant spore having a narrow size
8.3 Metal dusts can ignite and burn with high temperatures.
If a flame is observed, the dust layer should be covered with a 7
Some data are from unpublished work of the Fenwal (Marlborough, MA) and
flat metal sheet to exclude the air and extinguish the flame. Fike (Blue Springs, MO) companies.

3
 E2021 − 15 (2023)
distribution with 100 % minus 200 mesh and mass median 11.2.3 Continuously monitor the temperatures of the hot
diameter of ;28 µm. This is the reticulate form Lycopodium plate and of the dust layer as a function of time to the end of
clavatum. The Pittsburgh seam bituminous coal has ;80 % the test. A typical test period is two hours. Continue the test if
minus 200 mesh, a mass median diameter of ;45 µm, and any self-heating is evident. Self-heating may be indicated by
36 % volatility. Additional data that can be used for calibration localized heavy smoke, or increasing temperature. Terminate
are those listed in 5.3 for different layer thicknesses of this coal the test if the layer has completely melted, ignited, or reached
dust. a maximum temperature without igniting and is cooling down.

11. Procedure NOTE 5—Ignition in particulate or fine dusts exposed to elevated

temperatures generally is preceded by a more or less protracted period of
11.1 General Set-Up—Set up the apparatus in a position free self-heating, usually due to atmospheric oxidation. Depending on the
from drafts while exhausting smoke and fumes. Ensure that the temperature of exposure, self-heating may result in no more than a
air flow in the hood is sufficient for removing smoke and transient, although sometimes substantial, rise in temperature within the
fumes, but low enough so as not to disturb the layer or affect material that does not lead to the propagation of combustion. It is
necessary to be certain that failure to ignite at a given temperature is not
the test results. This can be achieved by adjusting the baffles in merely a result of premature termination of a test. Thus, the temperatures
the back of the hood. If desired, an angled mirror can be at which ignition fails to occur must be confirmed by continuing a test
provided above the test sample for visual observation. long enough to establish that any such transient self-heating is definitely
decreasing in rate, and the temperature inside the layer is decreasing to a
11.2 Procedure for Individual Test: steady value comparable to or lower than the temperature of the hot plate.
11.2.1 Centrally place a ring of the required height on the This behavior may often be accompanied by a discoloration of the dust but
clean surface of the heated metal plate. Make adjustments to not by active and visible combustion of the layer. Discoloration shall not
the thermocouple position. Set the desired test temperature on be considered to be an ignition.
the temperature controller and heat the hot plate. 11.2.4 Take the reported test temperature from the initial set
11.2.2 When hot plate temperature is steady within the temperature of the metal plate, not from the thermocouple in
required limit, fill the ring with the test dust, and level the the dust layer.
surface of the layer within a period of 2 min. Do not compress
the dust layer. Put the dust into the ring with a spatula and 11.3 Test Series Procedures:
distribute with mainly sideways movements of the spatula until 11.3.1 Repeat at different temperatures with fresh layers of
the ring is slightly over-filled; then, level the layer by drawing dust until a hot-surface ignition temperature is determined.
a straight edge across the top of the ring. Remove the excess Initially, the set temperature may be varied in ;50 °C steps
dust that spills on the metal plate. The amount of dust that will from run to run to get an approximate ignition temperature.
just fill the ring can be predetermined so as to minimize However, for the final determination of ignition temperature,
spillage. Also to minimize spillage, it is convenient to use a vary the set temperature in 10 °C increments. The ignition
scoop with a concave edge, as shown in Fig. 3, and to draw the temperature must be high enough to cause ignition in the layer,
straight edge towards the scoop. but no more than 10 °C higher than a temperature that fails to
NOTE 4—The bulk density of each dust should be determined to provide cause ignition or self-heating. An example of test data at two
a reference should data on a similar material yield significantly different temperatures is shown in Fig. 4. In this example, the hot-
results in later tests. To determine the bulk density, a layer of dust is surface ignition temperature is 290 °C, since the dust layer
formed in the above manner on a tared sheet of paper and weighed. The ignited at 290 °C but did not ignite at 280 °C.
bulk density should be measured two or three times and the average value
should be reported. The bulk or apparent density is calculated from the 11.3.2 Confirm the ignition temperature by a duplicate test
weight of the dust and the filled volume of the ring. at the same temperature.

FIG. 3 Scoop Used to Remove Spillage

4
 E2021 − 15 (2023)

FIG. 4 Test Data Showing Nonignition at Set Temperature of 280 °C and Ignition at Set Temperature of 290 °C

11.3.3 Confirm the temperature at which ignition does not 12.1.2 The volatility, initial moisture, bulk density, and so
occur (10 °C lower than ignition temperature) by at least one forth, of the material, if known,
duplicate test. Record this temperature. 12.1.3 Hot surface ignition temperature of the dust layer,
11.3.4 Discontinue the test series if ignition of a dust layer rounded to the nearest integral multiple of 10 °C,
does not occur at a set temperature of 450 °C. Report this fact 12.1.4 Any observations of flame, smoke, etc.,
and the maximum duration of the test. 12.1.5 The highest temperature at which the dust layer did
11.3.5 If melting occurs, report this fact and the melting not ignite,
temperature, and discontinue the test series.8 NOTE 7—Repeatability and reproducibility sometimes may be very
11.3.6 If flames appear above the surface of the dust but the poor for reasons associated with the physical nature of the dusts and the
dust itself does not ignite, consider the temperature at which behavior of the dust layers during the test. When this occurs, it should be
the flames appear to be the ignition temperature.9 reported and all results should be accepted as equally valid. The test report
11.3.7 If foaming10 of the dust layer occurs, record this fact should include a brief description of the nature of the combustion
following ignition, especially noting behavior such as unusually rapid
and continue the testing until ignition, flaming, or melting is combustion or violent decomposition. Factors likely to affect the signifi-
observed, or until the sample cools. cance of the results also should be reported; these include difficulties in the
preparation of layers, distortion of layers during heating, decrepitation,
NOTE 6—With organic dusts, combustion usually takes the form of
and melting.
charring followed by smoldering and glowing that will progress through
the layer and leave a residue of ash. Sugars, starches, and some other dusts 12.1.6 Ignition time,
turn dark, melt, expand, foam, and sometimes char with or without 12.1.7 Depth of dust layer,
ignition. With dust layers composed of certain fine size metal powders,
12.1.8 If the material does not ignite, report this fact and list
ignition may be characterized by the relatively sudden appearance of
highly incandescent smoldering combustion progressing rapidly through the highest test temperature,
the layer. Other fine metal powders may burn at a high temperature. 12.1.9 If the material melts before it ignites, report that
melting occurred above the highest hot plate temperature at
12. Report which no ignition was observed,
12.1 Report the following information: 12.1.10 A complete table of test data should be included, an
12.1.1 Complete identification of the sample including example of which is shown in Appendix X3, listing results in
name, source, and description (if not implicit in the name) of descending order of temperature rather than in the order in
the material tested, which the tests were performed,
12.1.11 Temperature-time curves for the tests may illustrate
8
Some materials, such as sulfur, melt prior to ignition.
the results, and illuminate specific types of behavior, as shown
9
This phenomenon may occur with some hydrides, for example. in Fig. 4, and
10
Some dusts, such as starch, may foam when heated. 12.1.12 Any changes from the standard test procedures.

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 E2021 − 15 (2023)
13. Precision and Bias 13.2 Bias—Because the values obtained are relative mea-
13.1 Precision: sures of ignition temperature, no statement on bias can be
13.1.1 Repeatability—Duplicate results for the same dust made.
obtained by the same operator with the same apparatus should
agree to within 10 °C. 14. Keywords
13.1.2 Reproducibility—Results obtained for the same dust 14.1 dust layer ignition; hot surface ignition; ignition tem-
in different laboratories should agree to within 20 °C. perature

APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. APPLICATION OF RESULTS

X1.1 The occurrence of ignition in a layer of dust on a justification. More elaborate treatment based on thermal igni-
surface at a given temperature depends critically on the balance tion theory (3) will permit estimates of the ignition tempera-
between the rate of heat generation (self-heating) in the layer tures of layers in other configurations (for example, layers on
and the rate of heat loss to the surroundings. The temperature curved surfaces). However, if accurate predictions of ignition
at which ignition of a given material occurs therefore depends temperature under widely different conditions of exposure (in
on the thickness of the layer. It is beneficial to conduct tests at particular, exposure to a symmetrical high-temperature envi-
two or more layer thicknesses, especially at greater ronment rather than to an unsymmetrical environment like that
thicknesses, and to determine the hot-surface ignition tempera- on a hot plate) are desired, it is preferable to use results
tures for these thicker layers (2, 6). It is then possible to obtained for an experimental procedure matching the different
estimate hot-surface ignition temperatures for other layer environment more closely (for example, ignition in an oven, as
thicknesses by interpolation or extrapolation of the experimen- in Test Method E771). When extensive prediction is intended,
tal results, when plotted as the logarithm of the thickness it is recommended that ignition temperatures be determined for
versus the reciprocal of the ignition temperature in K. This is at least three layer thicknesses and that thicker layers be
the simplest predictive procedure that has some theoretical emphasized.

X2. HOT-SURFACE LAYER IGNITION TEMPERATURE APPARATUS

X2.1 Construction of Heater Surface—Provided the re- choice of which depends primarily on the heating device
quirements presented in 7.1 describing the heated surface available. If the hot plate heater consists, for example, of
(metal plate) are satisfied, the detailed construction of the exposed coiled filaments intended to run at red heat, there
heated surface is not critical. An example is shown in Figs. should be an air gap of about 10 mm between the heater and the
X2.1 and X2.2. The heated surface consists of a circular metal plate so that heat transfer occurs by radiation and convection.
plate (aluminum or stainless steel) of approximately 200 mm If, however, the heater is designed for direct contact and heat
diameter, at least 20 mm thick, and with a smooth surface. It transfer occurs mainly by conduction, the plate needs to be
should be provided with an insulating skirt or cover (G in Fig. thicker so that hot spots are avoided. A thickness of not less
X2.1). The metal plate may be mounted on any suitable than 20 mm is recommended.
electrically heated hot plate, as is commercially available. X2.1.2 The general arrangement is shown in Figs. X2.1-
Ordinary steel is not recommended for the heated surface X2.3. It is preferable to insert indicating and controlling
because of the potential for corrosion problems. thermocouples in holes drilled radially from the edge of the
X2.1.1 There are two ways of achieving a sufficiently plate and parallel to the surface at a depth of 1 mm from the
uniform temperature distribution across the heated plate, the surface.

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 E2021 − 15 (2023)
X2.2 Measurement of Temperature Distribution on Heated X2.2.2 The measured surface temperature usually will be
Metal Surface—Apparatus suitable for measuring the tempera- lower than the set point temperature of the plate depending on
ture distribution across the hot plate is illustrated in Fig. X2.3. the detailed construction of the thermocouple. This is immate-
The measuring element should consist of a fine thermocouple rial and can be ignored. The essential requirement is an
with the junction flattened and brazed to a disc of copper or accurate measurement of temperature differences rather than of
brass foil 5 mm in diameter. This should be placed at a absolute values.
measuring point and covered with a piece of insulating material X2.2.3 An alternate approach uses a handheld surface
5 mm in thickness and 10 mm to 15 mm in diameter, held by thermocouple probe fitted with insulation.
a vertical glass rod that moves freely in a tubular guide and to
which a fixed load is applied (see Fig. X2.3). X2.3 Measuring Thermocouple—The measuring thermo-
couple in the center of the dust layer is held in place by two
X2.2.1 Temperature measurements should be made along threaded metal rods, each supplied with a spring coil and a
two diameters at right angles and at points 20 mm apart and wingnut as shown in Fig. X2.3. This thermocouple can be
recorded as in Fig. 2. The thermocouple must be allowed to lowered or raised, depending on layer thickness, using the
reach a steady temperature at each point. wingnuts.

FIG. X2.1 Hot-Surface Layer Ignition Apparatus

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 E2021 − 15 (2023)

FIG. X2.2 Top View and Side View of Hot-Surface Layer Ignition Apparatus

8
 E2021 − 15 (2023)

FIG. X2.3 Measurement of Surface Temperature Distribution

X3. TYPICAL TEST DATA FOR DETERMINING THE HOT-SURFACE IGNITION TEMPERATURE OF A DUST LAYER

X3.1 Examples of the temperature versus time data for two TABLE X3.1 Surface Temperature
of these tests (at 240 °C and at 250 °C) are shown in Fig. X3.1. Surface Set Tmax, ∆T,
Time to
The test at 240 °C is a nonignition, and the test at 250 °C is an Tmax, Result of Trial Comments
Temperature,°C °C °C
min
ignition. See Table X3.1.
300 457 +157 60 Ignition smoke, charring
250 520 +270 65 Ignition smoke, charring
240 174 –66 35 Nonignition no change
240 180 –60 35 Nonignition no change
230 138 –92 35 Nonignition no change

FIG. X3.1 Examples of Hotplate Layer Ignition Test Data

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 E2021 − 15 (2023)

REFERENCES

(1) National Academy of Sciences, National Materials Advisory Board, Burgess, D., “Practical Ignition Problems Related to Intrinsic Safety
Committee on Evaluation of Industrial Hazards, Classification of in Mine Equipment,” Report of Investigations 8464, U.S. Bureau of
Combustible Dusts Relative to Electrical Equipment in Class II Mines, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1980.
Hazardous Locations, NMAB 353-4, National Academy Press, (6) Bowes, P.C., and Townsend, S.E., “Ignition of Combustible Dusts on
Washington, DC, Appendix B: Layer Ignition Temperature, pp. Hot Surfaces,” British Journal of Applied Physics, Vol 13 , pp.
29–42, 1982. 105–114, 1962.
(2) Miron, Y., and Lazzara, C.P., “Hot-Surface Ignition Temperatures of (7) Bowes, P.C., Self-Heating: Evaluating and Controlling Hazards,
Dust Layers,” Fire and Materials, Vol 12, pp. 115–126, 1988. Elsevier, New York, pp. 211–217, 1984.
(3) Hensel, W., Krause, U., John, W., and Machnow, K., “Critical (8) Bowes, P.C., and Cameron, A., “Self-Heating and Ignition of Chemi-
Parameters for the Ignition of Dust Layers at Constant Heat Flux cally Activated Carbon,” Journal of Applied Chemistry and Biotech-
Boundary Conditions,” Paper 13f in Proceedings of the 28th Annual nology , Vol 21, pp. 244–250, 1971.
Loss Prevention Symposium, AIChE and ASTM, Atlanta, GA, April (9) Beever, P.F., and Thorne, P.F., “Isothermal Methods for Assessing
17–21, 1994. Combustible Powders, Part I—Theoretical and Experimental
(4) Dorsett, H.G., Jr., Jacobson, M., Nagy, J., and Williams, R.P., Approach,” Current Paper CP 5/82, Building Research Establishment,
“Laboratory Equipment and Test Procedures for Evaluating Explosi- Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, England, July 1982.
bility of Dusts,” Report of Investigations 5624, U.S. Bureau of Mines, (10) Guidelines for Engineering Design for Process Safety, Center for
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1960. Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical
(5) Litchfield, E.L., Kubala, T.A., Schellinger, T., Perzak, F.J., and Engineers, New York, Cap 11.4.3, p. 325, 1993.

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