1.

1 Physical quantities and

measurement techniques
FOCUS POINTS
Describe how to measure length, volume and time intervals using simple devices.
Know how to determine the average value for a small distance and a short time interval.
Understand the difference between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each.
Calculate or determine graphically the resultant of two perpendicular vectors.

This topic introduces the concept of describing space and time in terms of numbers together with
some of the basic units used in physics. You will learn how to use simple devices to measure or
calculate the quantities of length, area and volume. Accurate measurements of time will be needed
frequently in the practical work in later topics and you will discover how to choose the appropriate
clock or timer for the measurement of a time interval. Any single measurement will not be entirely
accurate and will have an error associated with it. Taking the average of several measurements, or
measuring multiples, reduces the size of the error.

Many physical quantities, such as force and

velocity, have both magnitude and direction; they
are termed vectors. When combining two vectors
to find their resultant, as well as their size, you
need to take into account any difference in their
directions.

Units and basic quantities

Before a measurement can be made, a standard or
unit must be chosen. The size of the quantity to be
measured is then found with an instrument having a Figure 1.1.1 Aircraft flight deck
scale marked in the unit.
Three basic quantities we measure in physics are
length, mass and time. Units for other quantities
Powers of ten shorthand
are based on them. The SI (Système International This is a neat way of writing numbers, especially if
d’Unités) system is a set of metric units now used they are large or small. The example below shows
in many countries. It is a decimal system in which how it works.
units are divided or multiplied by 10 to give smaller 4000 = 4 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 4 × 103
or larger units.
400 = 4 × 10 × 10 = 4 × 102
Measuring instruments on the flight deck of a
passenger jet provide the crew with information about 40 = 4 × 10 = 4 × 101
the performance of the aircraft (see Figure 1.1.1). 4=4×1 = 4 × 100
0.4 = 4/10 = 4/101 = 4 × 10 −1
0.04 = 4/100 = 4/102 = 4 × 10 −2
0.004 = 4/1000 = 4/103 = 4 × 10 −3
2

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 Significant figures

The small figures 1, 2, 3, etc. are called powers of To obtain an average value for a small distance,
ten. The power shows how many times the number multiples can be measured. For example, in ripple
has to be multiplied by 10 if the power is greater tank experiments (Topic 3.1), measure the distance
than 0 or divided by 10 if the power is less than 0. occupied by five waves, then divide by 5 to obtain
Note that 1 is written as 100. the average wavelength.
This way of writing numbers is called standard
notation.
Significant figures
Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt
Length to find its true value and is subject to errors
The unit of length is the metre (m) and is the arising from limitations of the apparatus and
distance travelled by light in a vacuum during the experimenter. The number of figures, called
a specific time interval. At one time it was the significant figures, given for a measurement
distance between two marks on a certain metal bar. indicates how accurate we think it is and more
Submultiples are: figures should not be given than are justified.
1 decimetre (dm) = 10 −1 m
For example, a value of 4.5 for a measurement
has two significant figures; 0.0385 has three
1 centimetre (cm) = 10 −2 m significant figures, 3 being the most significant and
1 millimetre (mm) = 10 −3 m 5 the least, i.e. it is the one we are least sure about
since it might be 4 or it might be 6. Perhaps it had
1 micrometre (µm) = 10 −6 m to be estimated by the experimenter because the
1 nanometre (nm) = 10 −9 m
reading was between two marks on a scale.
When doing a calculation your answer should
A multiple for large distances is have the same number of significant figures as the
5 measurements used in the calculation. For example,
1 kilometre (km) = 103 m ( mile approx.) if your calculator gave an answer of 3.4185062, this
8
would be written as 3.4 if the measurements had
1 gigametre (Gm) = 109 m = 1 billion metres two significant figures. It would be written as 3.42
for three significant figures. Note that in deciding
Many length measurements are made with rulers; the least significant figure you look at the next
the correct way to read one is shown in Figure 1.1.2. figure to the right. If it is less than 5, you leave the
The reading is 76 mm or 7.6 cm. Your eye must be least significant figure as it is (hence 3.41 becomes
directly over the mark on the scale or the thickness 3.4), but if it equals or is greater than 5 you increase
of the ruler causes a parallax error. the least significant figure by 1 (round it up) (hence
3.418 becomes 3.42).
If a number is expressed in standard notation,
correct wrong
the number of significant figures is the number of
digits before the power of ten. For example,
2.73 × 103 has three significant figures.

70 80

object

Figure 1.1.2 The correct way to measure with a ruler

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 1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Sometimes we need to know the area of a triangle.

Test yourself It is given by
1 How many millimetres are there in these 1
area of triangle = 2 × base × height
measurements?
a 1 cm The area of a circle of radius r is π r2 where
b 4 cm π = 22/7 or 3.14; its circumference is 2πr.
c 0.5 cm
d 6.7 cm
e 1m Worked example
2 What are these lengths in metres?
a 300 cm Calculate the area of the triangles shown in Figure 1.1.4.
b 550 cm
c 870 cm a area of triangle = 1 × base × height
2
d 43 cm so area of triangle ABC = 1 × AB × AC
e 100 mm 2
3 a Write the following as powers of ten with one = 1 × 4 cm × 6 cm = 12 cm 2
figure before the decimal point: 2
100 000 3500 428 000 000 504 27 056 1
b area of triangle PQR = × PQ × SR
b Write out the following in full: 2
10 3 2 × 106 6.92 × 10 4 1.34 × 102 109 1
= × 5 cm × 4 cm = 10 cm 2
4 a Write these fractions as powers of ten: 2
1/1000 7/100 000 1/10 000 000 3/60 000 C
b Express the following decimals as powers of R
ten with one figure before the decimal point:
0.5 0.084 0.000 36 0.001 04
6 cm
4 cm
90°
Area A 4 cm B P S Q
The area of the square in Figure 1.1.3a with 5 cm
sides 1 cm long is 1 square centimetre (1 cm2).
Figure 1.1.4
In Figure 1.1.3b the rectangle measures 4 cm by
3 cm and has an area of 4 × 3 = 12 cm2 since it has Now put this into practice
the same area as twelve squares each of area 1 cm2. 1 Calculate the area of a triangle whose base is 8 cm and
The area of a square or rectangle is given by height is 12 cm.
2 Calculate the circumference of a circle of radius 6 cm.
area = length × breadth
The SI unit of area is the square metre (m2) which is
the area of a square with sides 1 m long. Note that
Volume
1 cm 2 = 1 m × 1 m = 1 m 2 = 10−4 m 2 Volume is the amount of space occupied. The unit of
100 100 10000 volume is the cubic metre (m3) but as this is rather
large, for most purposes the cubic centimetre (cm3)
is used. The volume of a cube with 1 cm edges is
a 1 cm
1 cm3. Note that
1 cm 1 1 1
3 cm 1 cm 3 = m× m× m
100 100 100
1
= m 3 = 10−6 m 3
1000 000

b 4 cm

Figure 1.1.3

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 Volume

For a regularly shaped object such as a rectangular

block, Figure 1.1.5 shows that
volume = length × breadth × height

5 cm

meniscus

3 cm

4 cm

Figure 1.1.6 A measuring cylinder

Worked example
a Calculate the volume of a block of wood which is 40 cm
long, 12 cm wide and 5 cm high in cubic metres.
volume V = length × breadth × height
= 40 cm × 12 cm × 5 cm
= 2400 cm3
= 2400 × 10 −6 m3
= 2.4 × 10 −3 m3
3 ! 4 ! 5 cubes
b Calculate the volume of a cylinder of radius 10 mm and
Figure 1.1.5 height 5.0 cm in cubic metres.
volume of cylinder V = πr 2h
The volume of a cylinder of radius r and height
h is πr 2h. r = 10 mm = 1.0 cm and h = 5.0 cm
The volume of a liquid may be obtained by so V = πr 2h
pouring it into a measuring cylinder (Figure 1.1.6). = π × (1.0 cm)2 × 5.0 cm
When making a reading the cylinder must be
= 16 cm3 = 16 × 10 −6 m3 = 1.6 × 10 −5 m3
upright and your eye must be level with the bottom
of the curved liquid surface, i.e. the meniscus. Now put this into practice
The meniscus formed by mercury is curved
1 Calculate the volume of a rectangular box which is 30 cm
oppositely to that of other liquids and the top long, 25 cm wide and 15 cm high in cubic metres.
is read. 2 Calculate the volume of a cylinder of radius 50 mm and
Measuring cylinders are often marked in millilitres height 25 cm in cubic metres.
(ml) where 1 ml = 1 cm3; note that 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
(= 1 litre).

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 1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Time or mechanical switch is useful. Tickertape timers

or dataloggers are often used to record short time
The unit of time is the second (s), which used to be intervals in motion experiments. Accuracy can be
based on the length of a day, this being the time improved by measuring longer time intervals. Several
for the Earth to revolve once on its axis. However, oscillations (rather than just one) are timed to find
days are not all of exactly the same duration and the period of a pendulum; the average value for the
the second is now defined as the time interval for period is found by dividing the time by the number
a certain number of energy changes to occur in the of oscillations. Ten ticks, rather than single ticks, are
caesium atom. used in tickertape timers.
Time-measuring devices rely on some kind of
constantly repeating oscillation. In traditional
clocks and watches a small wheel (the balance Test yourself
wheel) oscillates to and fro; in digital clocks and 5 The pages of a book are numbered 1 to 200 and
watches the oscillations are produced by a tiny each leaf is 0.10 mm thick. If each cover is 0.20 mm
quartz crystal. A swinging pendulum controls a thick, what is the thickness of the book?
6 How many significant figures are there in a length
pendulum clock. measurement of
To measure an interval of time in an experiment, a 2.5 cm
first choose a timer that is precise enough for the b 5.32 cm
task. A stopwatch is adequate for finding the period c 7.180 cm
in seconds of a pendulum (see Figure 1.1.7 opposite), d 0.042 cm?
but to measure the speed of sound (Topic 3.4), 7 A rectangular block measures 4.1 cm by 2.8 cm by
2.1 cm. Calculate its volume giving your answer to
a clock that can time in milliseconds is needed. an appropriate number of significant figures.
To measure very short time intervals, a digital 8 What type of timer would you use to measure
clock that can be triggered to start and stop by the period of a simple pendulum? How many
an electronic signal from a microphone, photogate oscillations would you time?

Practical work

Period of a simple pendulum A to O to B to O to A (Figure 1.1.7). Repeat the

For safe experiments/demonstrations related timing a few times for the same number of
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge oscillations and work out the average.
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that 1 The time for one oscillation is the period T.
is also part of this series. Determine the period of your pendulum.
In this investigation you have to make time 2 The frequency f of the oscillations is the
measurements using a stopwatch or clock. number of complete oscillations per second
A motion sensor connected to a datalogger and and equals 1/T. Calculate a value for f for your
computer could be used instead of a stopwatch pendulum.
for these investigations. 3 Comment on how the amplitude of the
oscillations changes with time.
Attach a small metal ball (called a bob) to a piece 4 Plan an investigation into the effect on T of
of string, and suspend it as shown in Figure 1.1.7 (i) a longer string and (ii) a larger bob.
opposite. Pull the bob a small distance to one 5 What procedure would you use to determine
side, and then release it so that it oscillates to and the period of a simple pendulum?
fro through a small angle. 6 In Figure 1.1.7 if the bob is first released
Find the time for the bob to make several at B, give the sequence of letters which
complete oscillations; one oscillation is from corresponds to one complete oscillation.

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 Systematic errors

is given by the scale reading added to the value of x.

7 Explain where you would take The equation for the height is
measurements from to determine the length
of the pendulum shown in Figure 1.1.7. height = scale reading + x
height = 5.9 + x

metal plates
By itself the scale reading is not equal to the
height. It is too small by the value of x.
This type of error is known as a systematic error.
The error is introduced by the system. A half-metre
string ruler has the zero at the end of the ruler and so can
support
be used without introducing a systematic error.
stand When using a ruler to determine a height, the ruler
must be held so that it is vertical. If the ruler is at an
angle to the vertical, a systematic error is introduced.

8
7
pendulum
bob
P

6
B O A

5
Figure 1.1.7
4
3

Systematic errors
2

Figure 1.1.8 shows a part of a ruler used to measure

1

the height of a point P above the bench. The ruler

chosen has a space before the zero of the scale. This
0

x
is shown as the length x. The height of the point P
bench

Figure 1.1.8

Going further
Vernier scales and micrometers
Lengths can be measured with a ruler to a precision of
about 0.5 mm. Some investigations may need a more
precise measurement of length, which can be achieved
by using vernier calipers (Figure 1.1.9) or a micrometer
screw gauge.

Figure 1.1.9 Vernier calipers in use

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 1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Vernier scale Micrometer screw gauge

The calipers shown in Figure 1.1.9 use a vernier scale. This measures very small objects to 0.001 cm. One
The simplest type enables a length to be measured to revolution of the drum opens the flat, parallel jaws
0.01 cm. It is a small sliding scale which is 9 mm long by one division on the scale on the shaft of the gauge;
but divided into ten equal divisions (Figure 1.1.10a) so this is usually mm, i.e. 0.05 cm. If the drum has a scale
of 50 divisions round it, then rotation of the drum by
1 vernier division = 9 mm one division opens the jaws by 0.05/50 = 0.001 cm
10
(Figure1.1.11). A friction clutch ensures that the jaws
= 0.9 mm exert the same force when the object is gripped.
= 0.09 cm
jaws shaft drum
One end of the length to be measured is made to
coincide with the zero of the millimetre scale and the
other end with the zero of the vernier scale. The length
of the object in Figure 1.1.10b is between 1.3 cm and 0 1 2 35
1.4 cm. The reading to the second place of decimals is
obtained by finding the vernier mark which is exactly mm
30
opposite (or nearest to) a mark on the millimetre scale.
In this case it is the 6th mark and the length is 1.36 cm,
since object friction
clutch
OA = OB − AB
OA = (1.90 cm) − (6 vernier divisions) Figure 1.1.11 Micrometer screw gauge
= 1.90 cm − 6(0.09) cm The object shown in Figure 1.1.11 has a length of
= (1.90 − 0.54) cm 2.5 mm on the shaft scale + 33 divisions on the drum
= 1.36 cm scale
Vernier scales are also used on barometers, travelling = 0.25 cm + 33(0.001) cm
microscopes and spectrometers.
= 0.283 cm
a Before making a measurement, check to ensure that
vernier scale mm scale the reading is zero when the jaws are closed. Otherwise
the zero error must be allowed for when the reading is
5 taken.

1 2
mm

b
O object A B

5 10

1 2
mm

Figure 1.1.10 Vernier scale

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 Scalars and vectors

Scalars and vectors A vector can be represented by a straight line

whose length represents the magnitude of the
Length and time can be described by a single quantity and whose direction gives its line of
number specifying size, but many physical action. An arrow on the line shows which way
quantities have a directional character. along the line it acts.
A scalar quantity has magnitude (size) only. Scalars are added by ordinary arithmetic;
Time is a scalar and is completely described when vectors are added geometrically, taking account
its value is known. Other examples of scalars are of their directions as well as their magnitudes. In
distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy and the case of two vectors FX and FY acting at right
temperature. angles to each other at a point, the magnitude of
A vector quantity is one such as force which is the resultant F, and the angle θ between FX and F
described completely only if both its size (magnitude) can be calculated from the following equations:
and direction are stated. It is not enough to say,
FY
for example, a force of 10 N, but rather a force of F= FX 2 + FY 2 , tan θ =
10 N acting vertically downwards. Gravitational field FX
strength and electric field strength are vectors, as The resultant of two vectors acting at right angles
are weight, velocity, acceleration and momentum. to each other can also be obtained graphically.

Worked example
Calculate the resultant of two forces of 3.0 N and 4.0 N Graphical method
acting at right angles to each other. The values for F and θ can be found graphically by drawing
Let FX = 3.0 N and FY = 4.0 N as shown in Figure 1.1.12. the vectors to scale on a piece of graph paper as shown in
Figure 1.1.12.
scale 1 cm = 1 N F First choose a scale to represent the size of the vectors
(1 cm could be used to represent 1.0 N).
Draw the vectors at right angles to each other. Complete the
rectangle as shown in Figure 1.1.12 and draw the diagonal
from the origin as shown. The diagonal then represents the
4.0 N resultant force, F. Measure the length of F with a ruler and
use the scale you have chosen to determine its size. Measure
the angle θ, the direction of the resultant, with a protractor.
Check that the values for F and θ you obtain are the same
θ as those found using the algebraic method.

3.0 N Now put this into practice

Figure 1.1.12 Addition of two perpendicular vectors 1 Calculate the following square roots.
a 62 + 82
Then b 52 + 72
F= FX2 + FY2 = 3.02 + 4.02 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5.0 N
c 22 + 92
FY 2 Calculate
and tan θ =
4.0
= = 1.3 a tan 30°
FX 3.0
b tan 45°
so θ = 53º. c tan 60°.
3 Calculate the resultant of two forces of 5.0 N and 7.0 N
The resultant is a force of 5.0 N acting at 53° to the force which are at right angles to each other.
of 3.0 N. 4 At a certain instant a projectile has a horizontal velocity
of 6 m/s and a vertical velocity of 8 m/s.
a Calculate the resultant velocity of the projectile at
that instant.
b Check your answer to a by a graphical method.

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 1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 1.1 you should know and After studying Topic 1.1 you should be able to:
understand the following: ✓ write a number in powers of ten (standard
✓ how to make measurements of length and time notation) and recall the meaning of standard
intervals, minimise the associated errors and use prefixes
multiple measurements to obtain average values ✓ measure and calculate lengths, areas and
volumes of regular objects and give a result with
✓ the difference between scalars and vectors and the correct units and an appropriate number of
recall examples of each. significant figures

✓ determine by calculation or graphically the

resultant of two vectors at right angles.

10

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