That is a 1ong.time.

Yet we know that as soon as we close the proper switch, the

charge flows through a circuit and lamps light up. We need not wait several
minutes, not even seconds, to witness the effect of the current in a circuit, and .
there appears to be no observable dependence on the distance between the wall
switch and the light fixture, a distance generally considerably greater than 10cm.
TIE point is that om does not have to wait until a particular electron at the battery termiaal
reaches the lamp for the lamp filament to mpondto the <xurent. When the switch is
closed,the entire charge distribution within the condudoris set in motion almast
instantaneously, much as water starts to flow in a long pipe ss soon as we open a tap.
4) a) drift velocity will be doubled,

b) drift velocity will be halved,

i
c) drift velocity will remain unchanged.
5) i) By definition, E, the electric field, is related to the current density J, through
the relationship

1
But a = - and therefore,
P'

ii) E is related to V by
b
Vb- Va m J E.d (1)
a

Fmrn the Fig.8.13, E is parallel to the axis of the cylindrical wire. If we evaluate
(1) along a line in the direction of E and parallel to the cylinder axis, we obtain

Therefore, Vb is at a lower potential than Va.

6) a) Assuming radial flow of charge between rod and cylinder, we have at P

J = - I
2rc rL
andE - p.7 = &, where p is resistivity, with both J and
E in the direction of r. Then, by definition of the potential,

and so, noting the polarity of V,,we get .

solving for I, ,

ZLVr
I=
pln(rz/n)

b) From (a), J = - I
2zrL
I '
prln(rz/tr)
and E - Vt
rln(dr1)
--
PJm

Fmm Ohm's law, R Vr pln(dr1)

, . c)
I
I
2 d '
20
UNIT 9 TIC FIELD
Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives

9.2 Magnetic Field

Source of Magnetic Field
Definitiono f Magnetic Field
9.3 Gauss's Law for Magnetism
9.4 Biot and Savart Law
9.5 Force between Two Parallel Conductors (Definition of Ampere)
9.6 Ampere's Law
Applicationsof Ampere's Law
Differential Form of Ampere's Law

9.7 Torque on a Current Loop

9.8 Summary
9.9 Terminal Questions
9.10 Solutions and Answers

In Block 1 of this course, you were introduced to the concept of an electric charge and
studied some properties of charges at rest. You learnt that a static distribution of charge
produces a static electric field. Similarly, steady flow of charge (i.e., a steady current)
produces a static magnetic field, which is, infact, the topic of this unit. However, there .
are some major differences between the two fields which you will discover in this unit.
In the science laboratory, during your school days, you must have been fascinated with
magnets. Recall, when you tried to push two magnets together in a way they didn't
want to go, you felt a mysterious force! In fact, magnetic fields or the effect of such
fields have been known since ancient times when the effect of the naturally occurring
permanent magnet (Fe304) was first observed. The north and south seeking properties
of such materials played a large role in early navigation and exploration. Except for this
application, magnetism was a little known phenomenoi~until the 19th century, when
Oersted discovered that an electric current in a wire deflects a compass needle. This
discovery showed that electric current has something to do with the magnetic field
because a compass needle gets deflected and finally points inathenorth-south direction
only when placed in a magnetic field.
In this Unit, we shall consider in detail the production of the magnetic fields due to
steady currents, and the forces they exert on circuits carrying steady currents and on
isolated moving charge.
A good way of gaining a better understanding of the nature of fields is to know how
they affect the charged particles on which they act. Hence, in the next unit, you will
study the behaviour of charged particles in both electric and magnetic fields.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to :
r understand what is meant by the magnetic field, the right hand rule, Biot-Savart +

law, right hand method, Ampere's law,

r define the magnetic field at a point in tenns of the force on a steady current element
and also on a moving charged particle,
r use the formula for the force on a steady current eleclent-oron charged particle due
to a magnetic field to calculate the force o n a certain simple current cirrrying '

circuits, and solve simple phblems,

 BecQricCurrent and
Magnetic Field show that the divergence of B vanishes,
+ use Biot-Savart law to describe and compute the magnetic field generated by a
simple current flow,
s identify the nature of force (attraction or repulsion) on a given length of a long,
straight cunent-carrying wire that is laid parallel to a similar currentcarrying wire,
e use Atnpere's law to calculate the magnetic field Erom steady current distributions
having simple geometries,
e relate Ampere's law to its differential form via Stokes theorem,
compute the torque exerted by a steady magnetic field up011closed current loops,
+ appreciate how the forces on current-carrying conductors, placed in a magnetic
field, are used to understand the working of galvanometers and motors.

9.2 MAGNETIC FIELD

Wheneverwe speak of magnetic field, we speak in terms of bar magnets since this is
the way the fields were first studied. You are already awareof the basic features of the
magnetic field from your school days. For example, you know that the poles of a bar
magnet experience forces when placed in a magnetic field. If a bar magnet is suspended
Fig. 9.1: ?Whenthe magmet is Precly by a delicate fibre as shown in Fig. 9.1, a particular end of the magnet will always point
suspended, rr p d c u h r towards north. This end of the magnet is called the north pole of the magnet. The other
end of it points no& end is the south pole. Do you recall that this arrangement is a simple compass? The
lWs end o t Uac magolet is north poles of two magnets repel each other. The south pole of a magnet is always
d e f i i d PO tbe north p B c attracted by the north pole of another magnet. If one tries to break off the north or south
pole from a simple bar magnet, then this exercise proves to be futile. The broken
magnet becomes two new bar magilets each having a north and a south pole. This
shows that an isolated magnetic pole does not exist. a

In order to plot the magnetic field due to a bar magnet, we need only a compass needle.
The direction in which the compass needle points is taken to be direction of the
magnetic field. In class XII, you must have used this fact to plot the magnetic field in
the vicinity of the bar magnet as shown in Fig. 9.2a. The magnetic field lines are drawn
in such a way that a compass needle placed on the line will align itself tangentially to
the line. Fig. 9.2b shows the typical magnetic field for the bar magnet. Notice that the
field lines emerge from the north pole and enter the south pole.
These are some qualitative features with which we are all familiar.

(b) 92.1 Source of Magnetic Field

Fig. 9.2: a) A mmpm needle
poinls In the directiond As you know, the space near a ~ubbedglass rod (rubbed either by rubber or rabbit's fur)
the magnetic field. b) is characterised by an electric field which is denoted by E. Similarly, a magnetic field
Magnetic fie119lhes of a around a magnet may be represented by the symbol B. In electrostatics, the relation
magnet drawn using the
Pact that a compass needle between the electric field E and the electric charge is represented as follows:
should line up along the electric charge s E electric charge (9.1)
Pield lines

Tbat is, tlie electric charges set up an electric field and the field, in turn, exerts a force
(electric in nature) on another electric charge that may be placed in that field. Now, by
analogy, can you set up a similar relation for magnetism. Yes, the relation will be as
follows:
magnetic charge 2 ]B ;;z magnetic charge (9.2)

You knowthat the two poles, i.e., north and south always, occur together. A single
isolated pole is not known to exist. This means that there are no magnetic charges (also
called magneticmonopoles). How does, then, the magnetic field arise? The answer to
this question you will find in the following lines.
Let us consider two wires, running parallel to one another, as shown in Fig. 9.3 a. As
soon as the circuit is closed, the current in the two wires, flows in the same direction,
and the wires are found to attract. If the direction of one of the currents is reversed, the
wires repel each other. Thus the two sections of the wires in Fig.9.3 b, which are part of
same circuit, tend to move apaft. If a sheet of metal is put between the two wires, the
force with which wires attract or repel is not at all affected (Fig.9.3 c). How do. you
explai~mthis? Does electrostatic force account for the attraction of parallel ones? No, the
 Mngnelc Field
force acting is not an electrostatic or Coulomb force. This is because (i) there is no net
charge on the conductor (the charge density of conduclion electrons just compensates
for the positive charge on the lattice ions); (ii) the force is reversed in sign by revesir~g
the direction of either current; (iii) the force ceases as soon as the circuit is broken;
(iv) the force is not affected in the presence of a simple medium; (v) the attraction and
repulsion of the electric currents is contrary to the attraction or repulsion of the electric
charges.

(0'

Fig. 9.3: n) Parallel wires carrying currtnts in (be same direction w pulled logether.b) Pnralld wires
carrying curnnls in opposik directions nrr pushed apart c) A sheet of metal bclween Lhe two
wires docs not nlTect these foms.

'The experiments of Fig. 9.3 show that there is an additional force associated with a
moving charge, which is different from the electrostatic force. This new force that
comes into play when charges are moving is called the magnetic force. A charge sets up
an electric field whether the charge is at rest or is moving. However, a charge sets up a
magnetic field only if it is moving. You may ask a simple question. A bar magnet sets
up a magnetic field in its vicinity, but where are the moving electric charges in a bar
magnet? Actually the spinning and circulating electrons in the iron atoms of the
magnetic material are responsible for its magnetism. You will learn more about it in
Units 11 & 12 of this block.
Hence. in magnetism, we can think in terms of the'following relation : .PI
moving electric charge S B 3 moving electric charge (9.3)

As the moving charges constitute an electric current in a wire, Eq. (9.3) can be written Bs
electric current * B B electric current (9.4)

Eq. (9.3) or (9.4) tells us that (i) a moving charge or a current sets up a magnetic field
and also (ii) if we place a moving charge or a wire carrying a current in a magnetic
field. a force will' act on it. Now, let us define the magnetic field. But before doing this
try to answer the follotving SAQ.
g L

Fig. 9.41 A sLrrIgh1 wire CAI y h g

c u m n l and placed in n
SAQ 1 mnguetic field
experiences n force.
You have probably studied about an electric motor in your school, and you may be
knowing the principle on which it works. Briefly explain how an electric motor
illustrates Eq. (9.4).

9.2.2 Definition o f Magnetic Field

. In Block 1, we defined the electric field E at a point in terms of the electric force FEthat
acted on a test charge q at rest at that point as follows :
FE = q E (9.5)
As suggested by Eq. (9.3), we can define the magnetic field in terms of the magnetic
force exerted on a moving electric charge. It can also be defined in terms of the force on
23
 Ekechic C u m t cmd a current. Since current is a flow of electric charge, the two definitions are related. First,
Magnetic Field let us state the definition in terms of force on a current-carrying wire.
a) Force on currents
Experiments show that a wire, carrying o current placed in a magnetic field, experiences
a force. Fig. 9.4 shows a wire carrying a current I in a magnetic field produced by a
magnet. Since the field lines come out of the north pole and enter the south pole, the
field is directed from right to left. It is found that the wire experiences a force, which is
proportional to both the current and the strength of the magnetic field. When the wire is
placed parallel (or antiparallel)to the field lines, it experiences no force. But when the
wire is placed perpendicular to the field, the force on the wire is the maximum. These
two cases are shown in Fig. 9.5. This shows that the force on a wire is due entirely to
the component of the field that is perpendicular to the wire. In other words, the force
also depends on the relative orientation of the wire and the field lines. in Fig. 9.6,
suppose, the angle between the field lines (represented by B) and the current carrying
wire is 8. As said above, the force F on the wire of length L is dae entirely to the
cornponelit of B that is perpendicular to the wire. This component represented as EL is
given by (See Fig. 9.6)
.-. ... .
B-L = B sin 0,

F = maximum
(inlo pagc)

Fm.9.5 : The ronr oo a wire b due e d d y to (hc compownt &(be Bdd &at is pcrpendiculu to thc w i n

Fig. 9.6; The f o m on (he varks &s B sin 8, Lbat is, In proprtiw t o ' B ~ .

Further, the force on the wire of IengthL depends onL itself and the current I in the
wire. We conclude that the force P on a length L of the wire is given by
F =. U B sin 0 (9.6)
Recall that the vector cross product A x B gives rise to a vector of magnitude AB sin 8
which is perpendiciilar to the plane containing A and B. Using this in Eq. (9.6) we get
F =I ( L x B ) (9.7)
If there is surface area A placed
perpdiculy to a uniform magnetic
EieldB then the prodact o f magnctic
Here L is a vector the magnitude of which is the length L of the wire and its direction is
field B and the surface area A is an
important physicaI quantity which is
along the ahrent. I&. (9.6) or (9.7) shows that the B has the SI units of;N A- m- ' '.
called magnetic flux through the This unit is also given the name weber per square meter o r tesla (abbreviated as I?).
surface &A It i s dedotcd by 4 One tesla h a strong magnetic field, so that a smaller unit called the gauss (G) is often
asfouows used.

, I t a l a = la4gauss (9.8)
ThouPit oEmagaetic flux is weber. Since gauss is not an SI unit, we should aiways convert it to tesIas before using it in
Hence the unit of B is also weber per equations. The quantity B has,several names. Its correct name is.magnetic induction. It
square metre. It is alao called Tesla
0. is also designated as the magnetic field intensity, although another quantity, which you
will study in Unit 12 of this Block, is also given this name.
 The direction of the force on the wire is always perpendicular to the plane defined by B t Magnetic Field
and I. To find the direction of the force, we use right hand rule as shown in Fig. 9.7.
According to right hand rule: if one's right hand is held flat with the fingers pointing
in the direction of the field lines and the thumb pointing in the direction of the current,
then the palm of the band will push in the direction of the force. I

Let us now apply Eq.(9.6) or (9.7) to a simple situation so that we can better see its
- F
fi
meaning.
Fi.9.7: Rigbl b n d rule.
Example 1
A horizontal wire is canying a current from east to west. What is the direction of the
force on this current if we assume that at this location the magnetic field of eaPth points
due north? If the wire carries a current of 20A, find the force per unit length on it due to
the earth's magnetic field, which is about 1.0 G .

Solution
Using right hand rule, we find that when the thumb of the right hand points west and the
fingers point north, the palm faces down, hence the force on this wire will be down
(into the page).
Earth's magnetic field lin& are in a direction perpendicular to the wire. We hove
F - 'ILB sin 90"

Suppose the wire carrying current is not straight so that, at each point, its orientation
relative to the field changes, or suppose the field changes in magnitude/directionover -
the length of the conductor, we can still useEq. (9.7) to find the force. For this purpose
we imagine the wire to be broken up into small segments so that it is straight, and the
field is essentially conitant over its length. See Fig. 9.8. Now Eq. (9.7)can be applied to
each segment.
If the length of the small segment is dl then we can write for the small force dF on the
segment as

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.8:(n) A curved wire in a nonunif~cmmagnetic field (b)A s m d enough sqpment of tbe wire can be
treated as rn stmight wire in a uniform Bdd
We can obtain the total force on this arbitrarily' shaped long current-carrying wire
placed in a non-unifonn magnetic field B, by summing the expression for dF in
Eq. (9.9)~verthewhole wire giving
 Electric Current and
Magnetic Field

If we let the length dl approach zero, this sum becomes an integral, and we call write the
above expression as
F - I J ~ X B (9.10)
where, on the right hand side of the Eq. (9.10), we have the line integral taken over the
length of the wire and I, being a constant, is taken out of the integral. In particular, if the
magnetic field is uniform, which means that B is constant both in magnitude and
direction at all points of the wire, then we can write Eq. (9.10) as

In this expressionJdl is the vector joining the initial point of thd wire to its final point.
I
Further, if the current carrying wire is straight and of length L, the11we have

This is the sanie as Eq. (9.7).

So far we considered the force on the current in a wire. An electric current is simply a
group of charged particle sharing a colnnlon motion, so we should expect a charge to
experience a force in the magnetic field. This gives another way of defining the
magnetic fie'ld.
b) Force on a moving charge
The force which a magnetic field exerts on a moving positive charge can be obtained
from Eq. (9.7). Recall from the discussion of Unit 8 that the velocity v of the charge q in
a wire of cross-sectionA is related to I by Eq. (8.3) as follows :
I = qrdv

wser rz is the number of charge per unit volume. Substituting this expression for I into
Eq. (9.9) gives
dF = (dC)AnqvxB (9.11)
Here (&)A represents the volume of the wire segment of length (dL).So (&)An is the
number of moving charges in that portio~iof the wire for which we are writing the
force. Hence the force F on a single charge is given dF/( dL )Ail, i.e.,
k
F = qvxB (9.12)
I

The magnitude of the force is given by qvB sin 8.

The direction of the force'on the moving charge can be obtained by right hand rule
(Fig. 9.7 with I replaced by v ). Note, if the particle is negatively charged, the direction
of F will be reversed.

SAQ 2 '

Of the three vectors in the equation F = q v x B, which pairs are alGays at right
angles? Which may have ally angle between them.
Read the following example so that you can understand how the force on a charged
particle is calculated. It also illustrates the use of the right hand rule lor determining the
. direction of force.

Example 2
In a certain region a magnetic field of 0.10 T points vertically upward. Three protons
enter the region, two horizontally and one vertically, as shown in Fig. 9.9. All the three
are moving at 2.0 x lo3 ms-'. What is the force on each proton?
2.
F& 9.9 : Example 2 Solution
P ~ ~ t 2o isn moving vertically, i.e., parallel to the field ( sin 8 = Q ) ia Eq. (9.12).
Therefore, it experiences no force. Protons 1 and 3 are moving at right angles to the
field, so sin 8 =,1 in Eq. 9.12, and thus the forces on these two protons have the same
magnitude given by
26
 Since the protons carry a positive charge, the direction of the force is the direciion of
the vectorv x 18. For proton 1, tnoving to the right, v x 81 is out of the page. For proton
3, moving to the left, the force is illto tlic page. This exi1111pleshows clearly thai the
magnetic field alone does not detemiine the force. lde~~tical particles in the sanic field
may experience different forccs, if their velocities are not identical. If ihc pallicles were
electrons, the negative sign of the electron charge would have i~idicatcda force opposite
to tlie direction of v x B.
Eq. (9.12) is equivalent to Eq. (9.7) so that either of them can be taken as the defining
equation for B. In practice, we define B from Eq. (9.7), because it is much easier to
measure the force acting on a wire than 011 a single ~novingcharge.
In this section, you have learnt that a movink charge gives rise to a ~nagneticfield.
Now, suppose there is a current carrying wire, and you are asked to calculate the
magnetic field produced due to it at any point of spacc, then ccrtai~~ly you would like to
have laws analogous to Coulomb's a~idGauss's law. Let us first find out Gauss's law
for magnetism.

9.3 GAUSS'S LAW FOR MAGNETISM

Suppose magnetic charges-monopoles-exist,then they would give rise to ~nag~ietic
,fields like the electric fields due to electric point charges. Then these fields-and those
of magnetic charge distributions-would be described by laws analogous to Gauss's
law. hi particular, we would find tliat the flux of the inng~ieticfield through any closed
surface would depend only on the enclosed ~nag~ietic charge. We may write Gauss's
law for nag net is in as

- where the integral on the lefi is the flux of I3 over a closed surface enclosing the
magnetic charge or monopoles denoted by g and po is some constant. But the very
existence of the magnetic ~no~iopoles is uncertain. And even if they do exist, they seeiii '
Pig.9.LO; In Lhe absence of
to play no significant role in our world. hi the absence of the lnag~icticmonopoles, we magnetic nionopolcs,
must put g = 0 and then tlie magnetic flux through ally closed surlacc must be zero. the magnetic flux
We state this mathematically as Gauss's law for magnetism and write it as follows through a clnscd
surface must be zero.(h)
Thi! means there call
be no point where
magnetic field lhes
begin or end, for a
cl&ed surface
A consequence of Gauss's law for nlag~ietis~n is that iiiagnetic field lincs can never sumoundiug s i d l a
begin or end (Fig. 9.10). Unlike tlie electric field lilies, the ~izag~ieticfield lines liavc to point would have non-
forin closed loops. If we convert the above surface integral of Eq. (9.14) illto a volu~ne zero net flux (b) .
integral using the Divergence Theorem, we obtai~i Instend, n~egncticlicltl
liues generally for111
[v.B~v=
.r
0 (9.15) closed lrrolls .

The integratio~iis ove'r the volu~neetlcloscd by thc closcd surface of Eq. (9.14). Since
the Eq. (9.16) holds for ai!y arbitrary volume of inlegmtion, we must have

This equation is true, even if B varies witli time hnd is, in fact, one of Maxwell's
equations. Eq, (9.14) or Eq. (9.16) says that if the magnetic field exists, they l o ~ k
different fonn the fields of the point charges. I11 the next section, we will find out the
law analogous to Coulomb's law.

9.4 BIOT- AND SAVART LAW '

-
Can we calculate the magnetic fields produced by a current? Can we show that a current
loop has the magnetic field of a dipole? Interest in questions like these led the Fre~icli
 Uecttic Cumnt and scientists Jean Baptiste Biot a~idFelix Savart to experimentally detennine the fornl of
Magnetic Field
the magnetic field arising from a steady current. Known as Biot-Savart law, its result
gives the magnetic field-at a point due to a small element of current.
In Unit 1, we learnt to calculate the electric field that a given distributio~~
of charges set
up in the surrou~~ding space. Our approach was to divide the charge distribution into

Fig+.p.ll: (a) A ch.rge'daneot dq eshblirbtsa diienntid decCric field dement dE at point P. (b) A curnut
clement Id cshblIshes a diertntial magnetic IPekl W at point P.' I h c symbol x (the tail of an
-
arrow) shows h a t the drmeut dB points into (he page along tbc ntgativt z axis,

charge elements dqas in Fig. 9.1la. We then calculated the field dE set up by a given
charge elelllent at an arbitrary poi111P. Finally, we calculated E at point P by integrating
dE over the entire charge distribution.
The magnitude of dE is given as follows:

in which r is the distance from the charge element to the point P.

In the magnetic case, our approach will be the same. Fi$,.9.1 l b shows a wire of
arbitrary shape carryinga current I. What is the magnetic fiel'd B at an arbitrary point P
1
1
near this wire? We first break up the wire into differential current elements Idl,
1 corresponding to the charge elements dq of Fig. 9.1 la. Here the vector dl is a
differential element of length, pointing along the tangent to the wire in'the direction of
the current. Note that the differential charge element dq is a scalar, but the differential
--
current element Id is a vector.
Then the Biot-Savart law says that the magnitude of the magnetic h l d contributioiiset '
up by a given current element at point P is give11as follows :
po Zdlsin 8
a=--,
4~ rZ,.
Here pa is a constant, called the penneability co~lstaiitof free space. Its value is
4n;x TmA-I. This collstaiit plays a role in magnetic problems, lnGh like the role
that the pennittivity constant ep plays in electrostatic problems.
The full expression for dB in vector form is

( Biot - Savart law )

p, i d l x ;
a=-- ' !
4~ rZ
Hew ; is a unit vector pointidg from dl towards P. Eq. (9.18) is the analogof
Coulomb's law, and is called the law of Biot and Savart. TAe direction.of dB in Fig.
9.11b is that of the vector dl 'x,; where i?is a unit vector that points from the current
element to the point P at which yob Wish to know the field. The symbol x (representing
the tail of an arrow) in Fig. 9.1 l b shows that dB at point P is directed into the plane of
the page at right angles.
Coulomb's law gives the electric tield of a point c h a ~ in e tenns of the charge and the
distance from the charge to the Beld point.The electric field varies as the invetse
 '
square of the distance, and its direction lies along the line joining the charge with the
field point. Analogously, the Biot-Savart law gives the magnetic field at a given point
in terms of the current element (its source) and the distance to the field point. Like the
electric field of a point charge, the magnetic field of an isolated current element varies .
as the inverse square of the distance. But here the similarity ends. Unlike the electric
charge in Coulomb's law, the current element Id1 has associated with it a directio~las
well as a magnitude. Hence the magnetic field of the current element is not symmetric
about the element, but depends on the position of the field point relative to the directioii
of the current element. This directional character is expressed by the cross product in
Eq. (9.18). As shown in Fig. 9.1lb, the magnetic field is at right angles to both the ,121Magactic ~ d bdc s
current element and the vector from the current element to the field point. Also, you geocnUy meircle r
current.
have learnt in the previous section that the magnetic lines have no sources unlike the -
electric field lines which end or originate on electric charges, but are continuous and
join back on themselves.
h t us see how Eq. (9.18) and Fig. 9.11b show this to be true. Let the point P move
around the cumnt axis at a constant distance from the axis. From Eq. (9.18), the
magnitude of dB is constant along this path, and at each point it has a direction tangent
to the path. These are just the requirements for the lines to be concentric circles around
the current. Hence, the magnetic field lines encircle the current as shown in Fig. 9.12.
The direction in which the circular field lines point depends on the direction in which
the current flows. If the direction of the current flow is reversed, the direction of the
field line is also reversed as shown in Fig. 9.13.

(4 (b)
rig. 9.13 m e direction in which (he fidd lines pdat is debnnhcd by the direction in which tbe current
flows (a) When the curtent flows i n t Lbe ~ page, tbedidd lines t o m dockwise circles. (b)Whm the
c u m n t flows out , d ( h e page, the circles s n mnticlo~kwisc,

However, there is an easy way to remembe~these directions. Just close the palm of your
right hand and point your thumb in the direction of the current as shown in Fig. 9.13. In
either case you will f h d that your fingers will naturally curl around in the directioti of
the magnetic field lines. This simple tecliiiique for remembering the direction of the
magnetic field is illustrated in Fig. 9.14, and is referred to asthe right-hand method.
Do not confuse it with the right band rule for v e c t c cross products shown in Fig. 9.7.

Fig,9.14 By using your right hand to 'grippa cunmt- umyhg conduebr, you can llad out the dlrrdioa d
a tbc magnetic fld&When your (humb -points in the d i d m ofcurrent now,your Engem indicate
f the mag&lic fId&
the dimdon o
 A horizontal vrlire crrrries a current from east to west. What is the direction of the
magnetic field due to ellis current directly above and below the wire?
Refer again to Fig. 9.1 1b. Since the inagnetic field obeys the superposition principle,
the nct field at P clue to entire circuit, of which the wire is a part, will be the vector sum
or line integral of the lields of individual current elements:

wlnere the integratiul~is taken over the entire path through which the currellt I flows.
Eel us apply Biot-Savart law to calculate a magnetic field for sinlple situation.

a) Ca8cmll;ltioaa o Q Bdoe 80 a Ismg straight wise carrying la current

As show11ita Fig. 9.15, suppose P is a poilie at which we are to calculate the inagnetic
a current I. 7% distance between the point P
lield due to a long straight wire carryi~~g
and the wire is r.
The: differential inagi~eticfield set up at point P by the current eleiile~~t
Id1 is given in
~lxigniiudcb y Eq. (9.191, i.e.,
116) Id1 sin 0
d~ = - (9.17)
47~ 1.2

The direction of d l 3 is given by the right hand nncthod. Here it points out of page. This
is true irrespective of the positioi~of (4 along the wire, so that at point P all the dB' s
from all tlie current ellcme~llsId! poillt in the same direction. Thus lo find the ~nagliitude
of total lnagnetic ficld B at point P we integrate Eq. (9.17) obtainilig
n ..J~B =
4x
where 8 is the angle between and 1~61.
111 order to sulnup the co11trib~ttio11~
from all elelnents of [he long straight wire, we
change Lhe variables fi-o1n8and r to $ (See figure).
Now, sill 0 = sin ( JX - ) = cos 41. (Frorn figure ) (9.20)
I>rawAC J-PB, then - AC = -rd0 = cos q,
4 Vig. 9-15 Cafculmting the mmgnetic AB dl
Deld set up by s current
tin e loug strnigbt wire. [Angle 11etweenACand AB beillg equal to angle between PA and P O j
The fidd dB associated ... ril sin 0 -
- Z
dicosc)
with $becumcut element
PiA poi& out of the
-
I' I' 2 (From Eq. 9.20)
p a p , ns shown,

B=- [ sin 4~ + sin $1 ]

43cR
For an infir~itelylong straight wire

I The magnitude of B, thus, falls off invers~lyas the first power of the distance from an
infinitely long wire. Eq. (9.22) shows that the lines of the magnetic field f o ~ m
concentric circles around the wire. This expression for B is,analogous to the expressiot~
for E due to a long charged wire = 42Ep( ?),
- and thus shows its electrostatic
equivalent nature. -

30

A
 Mawetic Field
b) Calculation of B along the axis oCa current loop
Let us coiisider a circular loop of radius a aiid carrying a current I. As shown in Fig.
9.16, we choose a point P on its axis at a distance b froin its centre. The magnetic field
dB at P due to a current element of length dl is give11by

For all eleil~eiitsaround the loop, r is perpeildicular to I d , hence, the value of sin 8 in

Fig. 9.16 : Magnetic field along the axis d a current loop.

the cross-product liere is 1 and so I
1

dB e--p4lI dl
4~ r 2
Since r 1-dl lleilce dB is always perpendicular to the plane coilsistiiig of r and dl. Thus I

dB is perpeiidicular to r at the point P as show11in Fig. 9.16. It can be resolvcd illto two
compoilents, one dB sill cp along the axis aiid the other dB cos $ at right angles to the
axis. Here 4 is the angle between rand the axis of the loop. You will iiolice that the
compoilents of dB perpendicular to the axis will cancel, as inay easily bc seen by
coilsidering the field due to an element opposite to dl. Therefore, the resultant I3 is in I
the direction of the axis and will be given by summing only the components dS sin +. 1
Thus, B is given by i 1
B= S dB sill $
= !&?!dlsin$-
41t r z I

-F
- I *pl
4~ r2

+
As we are around the current loop, both and rare coilstants,so they are taken outside
the integral. The length integrated around the loop is b,
so that

B =
w,l sill $ 2na
4nr
If sin 4 and r are expressed in terms of the constants a and 0, we get
WI a2 (9.23)
B e -
2 ( a 2 + b2 )3/2
When we choose the point P far from the loop ( b >> u ) , the expression for B is written
as

B I -- (9.24)
4~ r3

Here we have writtenA = m2, the Area of the loop. This relation shows that the current

distances is like the electric field of an electric dipole E [-

loop generates its own magnetic field. Notice that the inagnetic field of the loop at large
&(f)]onitsaxis
(See Sec. 3.6 of Unit 3.) This shows that the term (LA corresponds to electric dipole
moment p of the electric dipole, Therefwe, the termL4 i s called the magnetic dipole ~ i g9.171
. he current-canyiug .
moment of the loop and is represented by p .
This shows there is a similarity between a bar magnet which is.magnetic dipole, and a much like that ofthc
current loop. The similarity can also be seen by plotting the magnetic field around Ule short bar magnet shown
current loop. When a compass is used to plot,the magnetic field, the result show11in m (c),
 Elecllic Current and Fig. 9.17a and b is obtained. You should collvi~lceyourself that this is reaso~~able by
Mngnelic Field
applying the right halid method to a portio~iof the loop. Observe Fig. 9 . 1 7 ~and note
that rlle magnetic field of loop is much like that of a bar magnet. The current loop call
be considered to have the north and south poles. We shall see in a later section that this
is one aspect o l a very i~llportantsimilarity between bar magnets and current loops.
Alter going through this section I hope you can tell why the two wires, shown in Fig.
9.3, are attl-actedin one case while they are repelled in another case. If not, read the
followi~~g section. It will also help you in defining the unit ampere which we have been
using so far without defining it precisely.
But before defini~~g ampere do the following SAQ.

SAQ 4
Write otie analogy and one differe~~ce
between Coulomb's law and Biot-Savart law.

9.5 FORCE BETWEEN TWO P LLEL

CONDUCTORS @EFINITI[ON OF AMPERE)
In this section, we will find l o w much force docs one of the wires in Fig. 9.3 exert on
the other. We assulile that the wires are Iiuear, parallel and very long. Here, one of the
wires experie~icesa force, because it is in the magnetic field caused by the current in
other wire.
Fig. 9.18 shows two long, parallel wires separated by a distance d and carryi~igcurrents
11and I2 in the same direction. The current in wire 2 prnduces a magnetic field Bz at all
points around the wire. From Eq. (9.22) the magnitude of Bz at the site of wire 1 is
given by

Bz = cro I2
- (9.25)
2Rd
12

Fig. 9.1&Twoparallel wims carrying currents in the same diitiw altrnct cach other.
The right hand method tells us that the direction of Bz at any p o i ~on~ t wire 1, is out of
the page, as shown in F!g. 9.18.
Now, wire 1, which is carrying a current 11, finds itself immersed in an external
magnetic lield B2. If L is the length of this wire, it will experience a lorce given by
Eq. (9.7), whose magnitude is

What is the direction of this force? The right-hand rule says that FI points towards the
wire 2. This means that wire 1 is attri. ted towards wire 2.
Similarly, for currents in the opposite direction, you should be able to sliow that the
wires repel each other. The rule is that parallel current attract and antiparallel
current repel.
The force between current-carrying conductors forms the basis for the definition of the
ampere. The ampere is that constant current which, if maintaillea in two straight parallel
I
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one meter
apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these conductors a force equal to
2x newtons per meter of length.
In other words, suppose we have two straight pamllel coilductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross- section, and placed one meter apart in vacuum. When constant
 current is made to flow in both the conductors, it is observed that each of these
conductors experiences a force. The constant current which produces force equaI ttr
2x newtons per meter of length of the conductor is known as ampere.

9.6 PEWE'S LAW

In electrostatics, we used Coulomb's law to calculate the electric field due to an
arbitrary charge distributions. Do you remember that in Block 1, Unit 2, we used
Gauss's law to solve electric field problems of appropriately high symmetry with ease
and elegance. There we made simple observatio~aabout the number of lines of force
emerging from closed'surface and then formulated Gauss's law.
In magnetism, the situation is similar. We can calculate the magnetic field caused by
any current distributions using Biot and Savart law. Now the question is can we make a
statement analogous to Gauss's law that would help us to calculate a magnetic field
with similar ease and elegance? Gauss's law for the electric field relates the amount of
charge enclosed by a surface'to the number of lines of force emerging frgm that surface.
To quantify "number of lines of force", we introduced the concept of flux. Is there an Fig. 9.19: Magnetic field lines
analogous concept that would prove useful in describing the magnetic field due to a ' surrounding a
current? Yes, a clue to its nature comes from the fact that the magnetic field lines are current-carrying wire.
closed loops surrounding a current.
Consider the magnetic field of a long, current-carrying wire as shown in Fig. 9.19. The
magnitude of this field decreases inversely with distance from the wire as evident from
Eq. (9.22). Draw an arbitrary closed loop around the wire. The quantity that will prove
useful is the length'of this loop, weighted'at each point by that component of the
magnetic field, which is in the direction of the loop. We call this quantity the
circulation around the loop. Let us calculate the circulation for a circular loop labelled
1 that coincides with a field line as shown in Fig. 9.19. At all points 011 the circle
labelled 1, the magnitude of the magnetic field B1 is given by Eq. 9.22, i.e.,

where I is the current in the wire and r, is the radius of this circle. Since the circular
loop is always in the same direction as the field (because it coincides with a field line),
the circulatioll becomes simply the loop circumference multiplied by the field strength.

This shows that circulation does not depend on the loop radius r l . Let us calculate
circulation around another circular loop of radius r2labelld 2. This loop also coincides
with a field line. Therefore,

This shows that the circulation aqund iny field line is the same. It also shows that the
circulation around any loop coi~icidingwith a field line is proportio~~alto the current in

..o.
the wire which is encircled by that field line.
What will be the circulation around the closed loop that does not coincide with a field
line? Fig. 9.20a shows the two field lines (shown thin). Let us consider, the closed loop

-
.,

Fig. 9.20: (a) M-dc

0
(shown by bold line ig.Fig. 9.20b) that encircles the wire but does hot coincide'with a

(8) @)
field h e s due to currentvrrying wire) (b)A dosed loop that docs noi coincide with a
single afcld lint, The clrmlatioo around this loop is Lbe same as the drculntion around a field he.
Electric Current and single field line. To calculate the circulation around this loop, we move around the loop,
Magnetic Field
taking the product of the distance moved with the field compol~entin tlie direction of
motion. When we move along the straight portion cu anid bd of the loop, it contributes
nothing to the ci~culationaround the loop because when we move at right angles to the
field there is no field component in the direction of motion.
What about tlie contribution to the circulation from the arc ab that lies on the inner field
line? It will be the same as the contribution we would get if we moved along the arc cd
which is not the part of our loop. This is because (1) the circulation aiound the inner
and outer field lines is the same as Eq. 9.27 or Eq.9.28 shows and (2) the arc ab
occupies the same fraction of the inner field line as the arc cd does of the outer field
line. Thus the circulation around our closed loop is just what wewould get while going
around the outer field line. Therefore, according to Eq. (9.210,circulation has the value
pal. This observation shows that the circulation around any closed loop eneinrling s
steady straight cmrl-ent is proportiannl to the current I encircled by that loop and
Is given by p d .
This statement is a simplified version ofAmperefs law. This law is true for any type of
current and ally closed loop, a s long as the encircled current is steady (never chonging
in time). If the current is not in a single wire, but in a number of wires, we simply add
all the currents to obtain the net current encircled by our loop. If there are currents
flowing in opposite directions, then we give the opposite signs to opposite directions of
the current. The algebraic sum of currents encircled by the loop is the net current that
determines the circulation around the loop.
For a counter-clockwise traversal of the loop, currents pointing out of the loop are take11
as positive, those pointing inward being negative. To remember this convention the
right-hand method will help you. If the fingers of your right hand (the curly elenlent)
Fig. 9.212 Ampen's l a w is applied represent the direction of traversal around the loop, then your extended right thumb (the
to an arbitrary straight element) represents the positive direction for currents ellcircled by the loop.
AmpcrInn loop that
encloses two long SAQ 5
straight wires but
excludes a thM wire. Fig. 9.21 shows thecross-sections of three loiig straight wires that pierce the plarie of
Note the directions of
the currents.
the page at right angles to it. The wires carry culTerlts i ~ ,i2 and i s in the directions
shown. Find the net current encircled by the Amperian loop.
In talking about circulation, we must specify the sense-clockwise or counter-clockwise
-in which we traverse the loop. We adopt the convention that dirculation is positive if,
when we curl the fingers of our right hand around the loop, our right thumb points in
the general direction of the net current encircled by the loop.
Let us evaluate the circulation around an irregular loop L in a magnetic field as shown
in Fig. 9.22. 7'

(a (b)
Fig.9.22: (a) Ao Lmgulnr loop in a magnetic tiel$ (b) a magnified view shows that the cmtribullon to the
eireulnlionh an inhnitesimd segment d of the loop isjust B.d.

Let us examine a small part of the loop so that it is essentially linear and the magnetic
field is essentially constant in magnitude and direction over it. This small segment of
the loop is represented by dl whose magnitude dl is the length of the segment and
whose direction is the local direction of the loop. Then the contribuiion dC from d to
the circulation C around the loop is the length of dl weighted by the componerlt of the
magnetic field in the direction of dl,i.e.,
where 8 is the angle between the field and the direction of the Ioop segment dl.
The circulation around the loop is just the sum bf contributio~lsfrom all the segrneuts
dl, i.e., C = 2 dC. As the segments get arbitrarily small, this sum becomes an integral
for the total circulation, i.e.,

You must have encountered line integrals similar to this one in Block 1 of this course
when electric potential was defined. Here line integral means just a sum of many dot
products of the field with segments dl of the loop. The circle on the integral sign
reminds that you are dealing with a closed loop.
Therefore, mathematically, Ampere's law can be expressed as follows

This statement is true for any arbitrary loop provided the current I is steady and it is the
net current encircled by the loop.

SAQ 6
II I
Apply Ampere's law qualitatively to the three paths shown in Fig.9.23. Fig. 9.23 :
I11 electrostatics, we deterlnined the strength of the electric field due to various charge
distributions using Gauss's Law. However, we could use Gauss's law only for certain
symmetrical charge distributions by constructing suitable closed surfaces in the electric
field. We consider Ampere's law as playing the same role in steady state magnetism as
Gauss's law played in electrostatics. We shall see that Ampere's law can be used to
determine the magnetic fields only due to symnletric current distributio~ls.For this
purpose, we have to co~lstmctsuitable closed loops called Amperinn loops in the
magnetic field over which the line integral$l . dl is to be evaluated. We shall illustrate
this by few examples.

9.6.1 Applications of Ampere's Law

1) Magnetic field due to a long strsight.current-carryingwire

We shall determine the magnetic field at a distance r. from a long straight wire carrying
a current I as shown in Fig. 9.24. The wire is cylindrically sym~ilctric,so that the
magnitude of the magnetic field cannot depend on angular position around the wire. We
also know that since there are no magnetic monopoles on the wire, the magnetic field
lines cannot begin or end on the wire and go radially outwad. Hence the magnetic field Fig. 9.24 I Magnetic nelcl due
to long straigl~twire,
lines must be closed loops. The only field lines that are both closed and exhibt
cyclindrical symmetry are circles concentric with the wire. It is useful to &member the
right hand method for determining the direction of B (for your benefit wc are giving it Right Hnnd methodif we grasp
again in the margin remark). the w h with the right haud, tllc
thumb pointing in the direction
Now we shall use Ampere's law to determine the magnitude of B at a distance r metres of Lhe current, thou the fingers
from the axis of a long straight wire of radius R ( r > R ) metres and carrying a current I will curl round the wire in the
amperes. Here we assume that r is small in compariso~~ with the length of the wire so direction of D,
that the wire can be considered to be infinitely long.
To evaluate the line'integral in Ampere's law, welmust find an amperian loop. Here
field lines are themselves appropriate loops. We construct a circular path of radius r
with its centre o n the axis of the wire. From symmetry, the magnitude of the field on
this circular path (or line) is constant. Here amperian loop coincides with a field line. So
the field is everywhere in the same direction as the loop. Hence

s o that B . k -
EZPdric Current and
Mmgaetic Field

Example 3
A long cylindrical wire of radius R carries a steady current I which is uniformly
distributed over its cross-sectional area. Determine the magnetic field at a distance
r ( < R ) from the axis of the wire.

Solution
We first notice that the point at a distance r < R is inside the wire. In this case also, we
assert that, by symmetry, B has a constant magnitude at all points on a path which is a
circle of radius r with its centre on the axis of the wire and with its plane perpendicular
to the axis of the wire. The direction of B at every point along this circle is along the
tangent to the circle at that point. We choose this circle as the path of integration for the
line integral in Ampere's law. Hence,

However, the current enclosed by this path is not I but the part of the current which passes
through the m-section of area zr '.
The mmnt = JL r x cumnt per unit area of ms-section

Hence,

B = - IQrJ
2 . n ~ ~

SAQ 7
Plot B as a function of r from the axis of the wire (of radius R ) to some distance outside
it.
2) Magnetic field due to a solenoid
In Block 2, we have found that we can produce a uniform electric field between the two
closely spaced, charged conducting plates of a capacitor. Is there an analogous device
that will produce a uniform magnetic field? Yes,the device is solenoid. Let us see how
it produces a uniform magnetic field. You know that when a current flows in a circular
loop, the magnetic field is found to be directed as shown in Fig. 9.17. The field lines
have been drawn using the right hand method. You observe that field lines circle the
win. A solenoid can be thought of as a cylindrical stack of current-caving loops.

'I

F
ig.9.25; A ioosely wound,cail of w i n The magnetic lldd arising ltam c m n t io Ule rrirc b stroagcet
witbin the coil. Ibe field is shown only in tbe phw of the pnge) &b am pdob w h e n current
emerges from that plane, rrcrsses where eumnt g a s into plane ofpage.

Fig. 9.25 shows a solenoid of four turns. Here the turn are loosely wound compared to
the common solenoids. Close to any part of the wire are magnetic field lines encircling
the wire. We show these field lines at the lop and bottom of the coil, where the wires
cross the plane of the page. The net field anywhere is the vector sum of the fields of the
 individual parts of the loop. You can see that inside the coil, the fields from elements of Magnetic Ficlld
wire at the top and bottom have a component to the right, and so tend to reinfore.
Above the top of the coil, the fields arising from elements at the top all have a
component to the left, while fields from elements at the bottom have a component to the
right, thereby weakening the net field. 'A similar weakening of the field occurs below
the bottom of the coil. Hence the net field is strong and points to the right within the
coil, and is weaker and points to the left outside the coil, as shown in the Fig. 9.25.
Suppose the coil is tightly wound and its length is longer than its diameter, as suggested Fig. 9.26 : A longer ceutrd section
in Fig. 9.26. In such situation the field is still stroiig illside the coil of the solenoid, and of n long, more tightly
as the individual turns get arbitrarily close, the irregularities in the field disappear, wound mlenoid.
giving straight field lines inside the solenoid.
What about the field lines outside the solenoid? The exterior field lii~esmust connect
the field lines emerging from the right of the solenoid to those going into the left
because field lines cannot begin or end. The field lines close to the solenoid axis bend
very gradually, and spre'ad far from the solenoid before they return to the other end.
To find the value of B inside a solenoid by use of Ampere's law we must note two
points: (i) the magnetic field is directed lengthwise along the axis of a tightly wound,
long solenoid; (ii) if the solenoid is long, the field lines emerging from the end of the
solenoid will fan out widely as they come back around to enter the other end. This
indicates that the magnetic field outside the solenoid is many times weaker than it is
inside. Consequently, we approximate the situation and consider the field outside thc
solenoid to be negligibly small.
We will apply Ampere's law to calculate the field within the solenoid. Consider a
closed linear path PQRS as shown in Fig. 9.27. For this path,

The integrals over QR and SP are zero as for part of these paths (outside the solenoid)

.
Fie. 9.272 Cross stclloo of ? long eolenold, showGg s rectangularrmpcdau loop.

over RS is zero as B -
B = 0and for another part inside the solenoid B is perpendicular to 4.The integral
0 outside the solenoid along this path. The only integral that is
different from zero is overPQ. Hence

For this path, B is along the direction of the path, which means $ B dl = . Q
.
B d
so that

BL
v

where L is the length of the path PQ. 1f thi's path encloses N turns of wire of the
Elechic Current nnd NI.
solenoid each carrying a current I, then the right hand side of Ampere's law is l-4~
Mngnetic Field
Finally, we have

where FZ is the number of turns per unit le~~gtli

of the solenoid.
The fornlula given by the Eq. (9.34) derived for an infinitely loug solenoid, holds quite
well for actual solenoids, for points well inside the sole~ioidaway from its ends. Note
that ]B does not depend upon the positio~~ of the point within the solenoid as long as we
are far away from the ends of the solenoid. Therefore, we coilclude that B is uniform
over the cross-sectio~iof the solenoid. This proves to be a practical way to set up a
known uniform rnagletic field for experimeiital purposes.

3) Magnetic field Inside a toroid

If a solenoid is bent illto the form of a circle so as to join its two'ends, one obtains a
toroid as shown in Fig. 9.28. Tlie field lines of B inside the toroid, by symmetry,
are circular and concentric wit11 the center of the toroid. Also the magnitude of field is
coilstant along any field line. Choosing our alnperian loop to be a circle of radius r that
coincides with a field line, we call readily calculate the circulation around this loop:

; : Symmetry requires that the field lines be circular. Also shown is an amperia Imp (bold) for use in
~ i g9.28
calculathg the Ileld

Here we could evaluate the line integral because B is constarit on the a~nperianloop and
the loop coincides with a field line. As a result the integral is just the field strength
times the circumference 21dr of the loop. How much current is encircled by the loop ? If
the toroid consists ofN tunis, and carries a current I, the11a11 alnperiail loop inside the
tomid coil encircles a total current NI. This is because each tun1 carries current in the
same direction through the path we have chosen. Usi11g Ampere's law to relate this
current to the circulation, gives
~ I ' =B p&TI,
so that

This result holds when our amperiaii loop is within the toroid itself. On the other hand,
if our amperian loop is inside the inner edge of the toroidal coils, there is no current
encircled, and the magnetic field is zero. If the amperian loop is outside the outer edge
of the coils, it encircles equal but opposite currents, again giving zero field. From Eq.
(9.35) we see that B is not constant over the cross-section of the toroid unlike the
stmiglit solenoid.
 Magnetic Field

There is another way to express Ampere's law. Eq. (9.31) gives the integral form of this
law. Zn this section, we will transform the integral form into the differential form viz:
GurlB = wj (9.36)

--
where j is the current density.
Let us consider the line integral$^. d around a closed pitlie, as shown in Fig. 9.29a.
Here we have replaced the magnetic field, B by a general vector field F. The closed
path C call he visualized as the hou~idaryof some surface S which spans it. In the
integrand, dl is the element of path which is an infinitesimal vector locally tangent to C.
Now the closed path C is divided into two, thus making two loops C1 and C2,
(Fig.9.29b). Take the line integral around each of these in the same directional sense.
The sum of the circulatioils around C1 and Cz will be the same as original circulation
around C. The reason is that the extra co~itributionfrom the bridge dividing the original F
surface area into two parts cancels out since the two line integrals over the bridge have (a)
the same but opposite signs. The same reasoning is applied, no matter how many
sub-divisions are made. Further sub-division into many loops C1, Cz, . . ., Ci, . . ..
(Fig. 9.29~)leaves the sum unchanged, i.e.,
$ P . ~ - $ F. d l ~ t $ F . & + . . .
C c1 cz

where each tenn in the sum of circulations around subareas of the original area is
indicated .by a particular value of the subscript i. If we conti~iueto subdivide the whole
loop indefinitely, then in the limit, we amve at a quantity, characterislic of the field F in
Fig. 9.29: a) The circulation or F
a local neighbourhood. When we sub-divide the loops, we not'only make loops with around t h e curve C is .
s~nallercirculation, but also with smaller area. So il is-naturalto consider the ratio of the the Line iutegral d R ,
loop circulation to the loop area, just as we considered ratio of flux to volume in Unit 2 the tangential
of Block 1. The area ai of a bit of surface that spans a small loop Ci is a vector, hence, component of F,b) The
the surface has an orientatioii in space. As we make loops smaller and smaller in some circulation around Ihe
neighbourhood, we get a loop oriented in any direction we choose. whole loop i s lhe sun1 ut
the drculaiions around
Let us choo%esome particular orientation for the loop as it is sub-divided finally. If the the two loops. c) When
unit vector n denotes the normal to the loop then it has to remain fixed in direction even the whole loop b divided
if the loop su~oundinga particularpoint P shri~iksdown towards the zero size. The Into a number d snlall
loops, fhe cirmlntion
direction of n, according to the right hand screw method, is as shown in Fig. 9.30. The around the whde Iwp is
limit of tlie ratio of circulatio~lto loop area will be written as follows: the sum of (he

-
clrcul~Uonsaround the
SGF. mi little loops.
lim (9.38)
Oi-. 0 ai
The limit obtained in the Eq. (9.38) is a scalar quantity which is associated with the
point P in the vector field F and with direction I?. If the directions are towards 2,y^ and
then we get three different numbers. It turns out that these numbers can be coilsidered
as components of a vector called curl F. That is, the number we get for the limit with d
in a particular direction is the component, in that direction, of the vector curl F.

( curl F ) . n" = lim0

oi - -
ai
(9.39)
FIE.9.301Right-hand-smw
Let us write again the expression for the circulation around the original path: relalion between the

$,~.rn - ZJ''
N

i-1
F e da
N
1 . i
i- 1
(9.40)
surface normal md tbe
drculption
direction
Is Wrca
loline
which
Antegrad
the

III the last step we merely multiplied and divided by a;, In the.right hand side suppose N
is made enormous and all the a'i's shrink.Then according to Eq. (9.40) the quantity in
parentheses becomes ( curl F).$i where fii is the unit vector normal to the ith.100~.So,
we have on the right hand the sum of the product "loop area times the normal
39
 connporlent of curl F ". The sum is over all loops that make up the entire surface S
i n gThis is equal to the surface integral of the vector curl F over S, Thus
~ ~ , a e r ~ lC.

]
F.di
ai
ai ( curl F .i i
i- 1i . i- 1

We thus find that

where dS is the area enclosed by the closed path. Now using Eq. (9.42) we can write
Eq. (9.31) as follows:

Since I= SJ. dS we write Eq. (9.43) as

Since d§ is nonzero, the quantity within brackets must be zero.

INrlB;] (9.44)
which is the differential form of Ampere's' law. The relation given by Eq.(9.42) is
known as Stokes Theorem. I

We now use the definition of the curl (Eq.9.39) to find an expression for the curl in
terms of cartesian co-ordinates. We would learn how to calculate curl F when the vector
function F ( x, y, z ) is explicitly given. Since the curl of a vector isitself a vector we

will find its expression by finding its three mutually perpendicular components. Let us
start by a calculation of the circulation about a path of very simple shape that encloses a
rectangular patch of surface in the xy-plane as shown in Fig. 9.31. That is, we am taking
n^ 3 2. m e patch is considered to be vej small so that vector F.does not change much
along any one side of the rectangle. In Fig. 9.32 we look down on to the rectangular
patch from above. To calculate the circulation we start at the point ( x, y ) - t h e lower
left corner of the figure--we go around in the direction indicated by arrows. Along the
first side which is marked (I), the tangential component is Fx(1) and the distance is Ax.
Hence the first part of the integral is Fx ( 1 ) A x. Along the second side, marked (2), we
get Fy( 2 ) A y , Along the third we get - Fx (. 3 ) A x and along the f ~ u r t h- Fy( 4 ) A y.
Qe minus sign is introduced because the tangential component has to be in the
direction oftravel. The wlqle line integral is then
 Magnetic Field

Fig.9.32: Looking down on the patch in Fig.9.31.

Now let us consider the first and third terms. Together they are

As we have assumed the patch to be infinitesimally small, the difference is zero. This is
true to the first approximation. But we can be more accurate by taking into account the
rate of change of F,. When we do so, we write

(See also Unit 2 of Block 1.)

-
If we had considered the next approximation, it would have involved t e r m in ( A y )
also. But since we will ultimately think of the limit as A y 0, such terms can be
neglected, Using Eq. (9.47) in (9.46) we find

Similarly, for the other two terms in the circulation, we can write

Thus, the line integral around the whole rectangle is

Now Ax A y is the magnitude of the area of the enclosed rectangle wlrich we have

Hence the quantity ---Y- z)

represented by a vector in the z - direction.
( at -- is the limit of the ratio :
line iitegral arouhd patch
as the patch shrinks to zero si72.
Area of patch
If the rectangular patch had been oriented with its nonnal in the positive y-direction like
shown in Fig. 9.33, we would have found the expression

for the limit of the corresponding ratio.

If the patch had been oriented with its normal in the positivex-direction as shown in
Fig. (9.33), we would have obtained

Thus curl F is given by the following expressions:

Flectric Cumat and
MagneticField

FiS.9.33: For each aritntatlon, (he Urnil of tbc nth dcircdatioa/mgives a componzentof F d ahnt
point. H a e the patcheshnve beenshown sepamted. In arturl dl the patches should dwter a m w ~ d
the polnt where curl F is king detenui~~ed

Now that we have finished our discussio~lof the magnetic field generated by a steady
current, we turn again to the study of forces on conductors carrying currents. The force
on a currentcarrying wire is the basis for many practical devices, including electric
- motors that start automobiles and run refrigerators. In this section, you will know that
the working of galvanometer, which is the most important current measuring
.instrument, depends on the action of the magnetic field in exerting a torque on a current
loop.
Many electromechanical devices make use of the fact that a current-carrying coil of
wire is caused to rotate by a magnetic field. When a current loop is placed in a uniform
magnetic field as shown in Fig. 9.34, it is acted upon by equal and opposite forces and
having same line of action. Therefore, the total force on the current loop is zero. But, a
toque does exist on such a coil which can make it rotate. This $ easily seeh in Fig. 9.34.

If you apply the right-hand rule to the wires of the loop shown in Fig. 9.34 you will
notice @efollowing: The forces on the upper and lower sides of the loop (not shown in
Figure) are parallel to the axis of rotation and are equal and opposite. They cannot cause
any rotationeither. However, the forces hat act on the sides of the loop can indeed
cause it to turn. The turning effect zero when the coil is in the position shown in Fig.
9.34a, a torque is seen to exist for the position shown in Fig. 9.34b. Even though the
magnitude of forces FI and Fi are same in the two casesFthe lever arm from the axis is
zero in (a) while non-zero in @). Let us now find the quantitative relation for the torque.
Consider the rectangular loop PQRS carrying a current I and immersed in a uniform

- -
magnetic field B as shown in Fig. 9.35a.
Let PQ RT = 1and QR SP b. The vertical sides PQ and RS of the loop are
perpendicular to the magnetic field. Therefore, the magnitude of the force on these sides
is given by
Fi = F2 = 113.
These two forces are equal, parallel and oppositely directed, and hence they form a
couple.
42
 (a) Parapoaivc view (b) Top 6~
Fi~9.35:Torque on the coil. i

Suppose, at any instant, the axis of the loop NN' (axis normal to the plane of the loop)
makes an angle 0 with the magnetic field as shown in Fig. 9,35b. Then at that instant
the magnitude of the torque z' due to forces F1 and W2 is given by
. -
z1 F1( Fz.
) x perpendicular distance

But 1 x b = A (area ofthe loop)

:. z' - L4B sill 0
This toque acts on every turn of the coil. If there are N turns, the total toque-c is

The quantities in parentheses are grouped together because they are all properties of the
coil viz., its number of turns, its area and the current it carries. Eq.(9.53) tells us that a
current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field will tend to rotate. We can express the
torque in vector notation if A is defined as a vector such that its magnitude is the area
ab of the loop and its direction is along the perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The
direction of A is given by the right hand rule: Wrap your fingers around the loop in the
direction of the current; your thumb then points in the direction of A. 'Ihen we can write

Eq. (9.54) should remind you of Eq. (3.40) for the torque on an electric dipole in an
electric field. Eq. (3.40) is

with p the electric dipole moment and E the electric field. Comparison yith Eq. (9.54)
suggests that a current loop in a magnetic field behaves analogously to all electric
dipole in an electric field. The quantity NIA is called the magnetic dipole moment of the
current loop. That is
p = NIA (9.55)
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity and for a current loop its direction is along
the direction of A. Using Eq. (9.59, the torque on a current loop can be written as
t = VXB (9.56)
The torque tends to align the magnetic moment with the field.

SAQ 8
A circular loop of radius 5.0 cm consists of 10 turns of wire, A current of 3.0 A flows in
the wire. What is the magnitude of the loop's magnetic moment? Suppose initially the
Electric Current and magnetic moment is aligned with a uniform magnetic field of 100 Gauss. Now the loop
Magnetic Field
is turned 90" from its original orientation. How much torque is required to hold the loop
in its new orientation?
Eq. (9.56) shows that if a current carrying loop is placed in a fixed magnetic field then
the torque experienced by it will depend on the current flowing in the loop. This is the
principle of the galvanometer.

9.8 SUMMARY
e A long straight wire carrying a currentZ through a uiliforln lnag~ieticfield B
experiences a force due to the action of the field on the moving electric charges
that constitute the current. The force on a section of the wire of length 1 is given
by
F = ZlxB
where I is a vector of magnitude 1, pointing in the direction in wliicll the current flows
along the wire.
e A magnetic field B is said to exist in any region in which a rlloving charge
experiences a force that depends on its charge, its velocity v and the magnetic field.
If B and v make an angle 8,the force on the moving charge is given by
F = qvxB
or F = qvB sin 0
e The direction of force on currents and moving charges is given by the right hand
rule as shown in Fig. 9.7. It states that if one's right hand is held flat with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the field lines and the thumb pointing in the
direction of the current, then the palrn of the hand will push in the direction of the
force.
Q Gauss's law for magnetism relates the number of magnetic field lines emerging
from a closed surface to the net magnetic monopole enclosed. Siilce magiletic
monopoles do not exist, Gauss's law for magnetism says that the magnetic flux
through any closed surface is zero

This shows that magnetic lines have no beginning or end rather they formclosed loops.
r A current gives rise to a magnetic field. The magnetic field set up by a current
carryiiig conductor can be found from Biot-Savart law:

where dS is the contribution to the field from a current I flowing along a n infinitesimal
vector dl . is a constant whose value is 4n x 10- NA-~and f is a unit vector from
the current element Id1 towards the poini where the field is being calculated.
The direction of the magnetic field is given by means of right' hand method as
illustrated in Fig. 9.13.
8

e The magnetic field at a point which is at a distance of r from a long straight wire
carrying a cumrit I is given by

e The magnetic field at a point along the axis of a circular loop carrying current is
given by
 Magnetic Field

where a is the radius of the circular loop carrying currentI and bis the distance of the
point (along the axis of the loop) from the centre of the loop.
When the point is far from the loop then

where A = rn 2.
This shows that current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole.

Two parallel wires carrying currents in the same (or opposite) d i ~ c t i o nattract
(or repel) each other. If these two wires are separated by a distance d in a vacuum,
then the force (qof attraction (or repulsion) on a segment of length I of either wire
is given by

where I1 and I 2 are the currents flowing in the two wires. The force between two
current carrying wires is used to define the ampere which is the basis of the whole
system of electrical units.
Another way of finding the magnetic fieId in symmetrical cases is by use of
Amperes law. This law relates the circulation (or line integral) of the magnetic field
around an a&itraly closed loop to the cumnt encircled by the loop, i.e.,

It is used to calculate the magnetic field in situ,ationswith high symmetry.

r A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil having many turns of wire, Inside the solenoid,
there is a uniform field given by
B = W J where n is the number of turns per unit length.
r The field inside a toroidal coil is given by
B e - MI
2m
where r is the distance from the aytre of the toroid andN is the total number of turns
wound on the toroid.

Differential form of ampere's law is

curl B = p~ J
where J is the cumnt density at a given point.

Stoke's theorem states that :J curl F . dS

S
= SF.dl.
o A closed current loop in a magnetic field behaves like a magnetic dipole with
magnetic dipole moment ( p)
p = NIA
whereN is the number of turns in the loop, I the loop current and Avector perpendicular
to the plane of the loop with magnitude equal to the loop area. The torque (z)
experienced by such current loop is given by
z = pxB
This torque is the operating principle in ammeters, voltmeters and electric motors.
 1) In Madras, ti= horizontal component of the earth's field is 3.6 x ~ b m - ~a. ~ f
vertical wire carries a current of 30A upward there, what is the magnitude and
direction of the force on lm of the wire?
2) Find the force on each segment of the wire shown in Fig. 9.36, if B = 0.15 T.
Assume that the current in the wire is 15A. ( sin 65" = 0.9063 )'
C
P

P
i
B
P

3) Fivevery long, straight, insulated wires are closely bound together to form a small
cable. Currents carried by the wires are
ill 52 0 4 I2 = - 6 4 13 = 1 2 4 14 = - 7 4 Is = 18A (negative currents are
opposite in direction to the positive). Find B at a distance of 10 cm from the cable.
4) In the Bohr model of the hydrogen ato~nthe electron follows a circular path
centeredon the nucleus. Its speed is v and the radius of the orbit is r.
a) Show that the effective current in the orbit is e v / a r.
b) Show that p = - ( e/2m ) L , where L = rnr v is the angular momentum of
the electron in its orbit.

9,10 SOLUTIONS AND MSWERS

SAQs
1) In most motors current in a wire sets up a magnetic field, and tlie magnetic field, in
turn, exerts a force on a second current-carrying wire causing the shaft to rotate.
2) The pairF and v, and F and Bare always at right angles. Vectors v and B
may have any angle between them.
3) Refer to Fig. 9.37, applying the right hand method shows that directly above the I
wire B points north; and directly below it points south.
4) Both are inverse square laws. In Coulomb's law electrical force acts along r on
Fig. 9.37
stationary charge. In Biot-Sava~tlaw, magnetic force acts perpendicular to r .
5) Net current i = il - i2.
Current i3 lies outside the loop and is not encircled by it helice it is not included in
calculating i.

6) ~ o r ~ a t h ~ o . 2 $ B . d0s-ntcunedbzem.~or~~~o.1and3$~.d
= mi. - k

7) Inside the wire, the field increases linearly with distance from the w i k axis. O m L

- Inside Ouuidc

,
r--,
b W 8r ' I h c m r g n d k W d M ~ d ~ b a t e . ' I b e d m B F k l B n t t b c b d t b e w i P .
1
46
 Magnetic Field
we reach the surface bf the wire the field begins to decrease inversely with
distance. Fig. 9.38 shows the rough plots of the field strengths both inside and
outside a wire.
8) As described by Eq. (9.55), the magnetic moment p, is given by

The magnitude of the torque needed to hold the new orientation is given by Eq.
(9.56) as

= 2.4 x Nm.

Terminal Questions
1) The vertical component of B is parallel to the current and does not contribute to

-
the force; therefore,
F EBH = ( 3 0 A ) ( 1 m ) (3.6 x 10-5 ~ b m - ~ 10.8 -
)
-
x I O - ~ Nwest.
,

2) For each straight segment F = I L x B, where E is the directed line segment. In

BC, F = ILB -( 5 A ) ( 0.16 m ) ( 0.15 T ) -

sections AB and DE, L and IB are parallel, so sin 0 3 0, and F = 0. In section
0.12 N, into page, In section
CD,F = ( 5 A ) ( 0 . 2 0 M ) ( O . l 5 T ) s i n 6 5 " = 0.136N,outofpage.
3) By superposition the field is just the sum of the fields due to the individual
currents. At r = 10 cm all the fields are either parallel or antiparallel as the
currents are parallel or antiparallel. Then

4) a) Since charge e passes a point once every revolution,

I e/T, whereT = ( 2 n r ) / v , s o t h a t I = (ev)/(2nr).(b)In
magnitude, the dipole moment is

and because the electron is negatively charged, p is antiparallel to L.