ME-322

Manufacturing Process

Contents
▪ Introduction
▪ Metal Casting Fundamentals & Processes
▪ Ch7 + Ch8
▪ Joining and Assembly Processes – Welding
▪ Ch25 + Ch26
▪ Material Removal Processes
▪ Ch17 + Ch18 +Ch19
▪ Fundamentals of Metal Forming
▪ Bulk Deformation Processes
▪ Sheet Metalworking
 MACHINING OPERATIONS
AND MACHINE TOOLS

Chapter 18: 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 18.4

1. Machining and Part Geometry
2. Turning and Related Operations
3. Drilling and Related Operations
4. Milling
 Machining

▪ Material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is

used to mechanically cut away material so that the
desired part geometry remains
▪ Most common application: metal parts
▪ Most versatile of all manufacturing processes for
producing a variety of part shapes and geometric features
with high precision and accuracy
▪ Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but in
general is not as accurate as machining
 Classification of Machined Parts

▪ Rotational - (a) cylindrical or disk-like shape

▪ Non-rotational - (b) block-like and plate-like
Machining Operations and Part Geometry

▪ Each machining operation produces a characteristic

part geometry due to two factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and workpart
• Generating – part geometry determined by
feed trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by the
shape of the cutting tool
 Generating Shape
Part geometry is created by the relative motions between tool
and workpart

▪ Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c)

contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling
 Forming to Create Shape

Part geometry is created by the shape of the cutting tool

▪ Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c)
broaching
 Forming and Generating

▪ Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a)

thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling
 Turning and Related Operations

▪ Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating

workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape
▪ Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
▪ Variations of turning performed on a lathe
▪ Facing
▪ Contour turning
▪ Chamfering
▪ Cutoff
▪ Threading
Turning Operation
 Operations Related to Turning
Round Shapes with Single point Cutting Tool

Turning straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpieces, such

as shafts, spindles, pins, handles, and various machine
components.
Facing, to produce a flat surface at the end of the part, such as
parts attached to other, or to produce grooves for O-ring
seat.
Note that tool tips are different for different operations.
Round Shapes with Single point Cutting Tool

Parting, also called cutting off, to cut a piece from the end of a part, as in making
slugs or blanks for additional processing into discrete parts.

Threading, to produce external and internal threads in work piece.

Boring, to enlarge a hole made by a previous process or in a tubular workpiece,

or to produce internal groove.

Note that tool tips are different for different operations.

Round Shapes with Multiple point Cutting Tool

Form tools, to produce various shapes for

functional purposes or for appearance.

Drilling, to produce a hole, which may be followed

by tapping or boring to improve the accuracy of the
hole and surface finish.

Knurling, to produce a regularly shaped geometric

roughness on cylindrical surfaces, as in making ↳
knobs.
 Engine Lathe
▪ Diagram of an engine lathe showing its principal
components and motions
Engine Lathe
Methods of Holding Workpiece in a Lathe
(a) Holding the work between centers, (b) chuck, (c) collet, and
(d) face plate
Other Production Turning Machines

▪ Turret lathe
▪ Chucking machine
▪ Bar machine
▪ Automatic screw machine
▪ Multiple spindle bar machine
 Turret Lathe

▪ Tailstock replaced by “turret”

that holds up to six tools
▪ Tools rapidly brought into
action by indexing the turret
▪ Tool post replaced by
four-sided turret to index
four tools
▪ Applications: high
production work that
requires a sequence of cuts
on the part
 Chucking Machine
▪ Uses chuck in its spindle to hold workpart
▪ No tailstock, so parts cannot be mounted between
centers
▪ Cutting tool actions controlled automatically
▪ Operator’s job: to load and unload parts
▪ Applications: short, light-weight parts
 Bar Machine

▪ Similar to chucking machine except collet replaces

chuck, permitting long bar stock to be fed through
headstock
▪ At the end of the machining cycle, a cutoff
operation separates the new part
▪ Highly automated
▪ Computer numerical control
▪ Applications: high production of rotational parts
Multiple Spindle Bar
Machines
▪ More than one spindle, so
multiple parts machined
simultaneously by multiple tools
▪ Example: six spindle
automatic bar machine works
on six parts at a time
▪ After each machining cycle,
spindles (including collets and
workbars) are indexed (rotated)
to next position
 Six Spindle Bar Machine
▪ (a) Part; (b) sequence of operations: (1) feed stock to stop,
(2) turn main diameter, (3) form second diameter and
spotface, (4) drill, (5) chamfer, and (6) cutoff
 Automatic Screw Machine

▪ Same as automatic bar machine but smaller

▪ Applications: high production of screws and similar
small hardware items
 Boring
▪ Difference between boring and turning:
▪ Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole
▪ Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing
cylinder
▪ In effect, boring is internal turning operation
▪ Boring machines
▪ Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the axis of
rotation of machine spindle
Boring
 Vertical Boring Mill

▪ Applications:
Large, heavy
workparts that
have low L/D ratio
Cutting Conditions in Turning
Radial
Axis 3

Cutting Speed:
1 Longitudin
al Axis V    D  N (mm/min)
Speed
(mm/min) 2 N: Rotational Speed (rev/min)

D: Workpiece diameter (mm)

Depth of Cut, Feed, and Speed:
Depth of cut (d): Is the radial interference between tool and the work piece (mm)
Feed rate (f ): is defined as the distance the tool travels in axial direction during one
revolution of the part (mm/rev).
Cutting speed (V): is defined as the speed in tangential direction at which the work
moves with respect to the tool (mm/min).
RMR  vfd mm3/min
 Cutting Conditions in Turning

Axial speed = (mm/min)

Cutting Time (Tm) : The time required to turn a work piece of length l

L
Tm 
f N

V  D N
Example
An engine lathe is used to turn a cylindrical work part 150 mm in
diameter by 500 mm long. Cutting speed = 2.50 m/s, feed =
0.30 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 3.0 mm. Determine (a) cutting
time and (b) metal removal rate.

Solution:
(a) N = v/(πD) = (2.50 m/s)/0.150 = 5.305 rev/s
fr = Nf = 5.305(.30) = 1.59 mm/s
Tm = L/fr = 500/1.59 = 314 s = 5.24 min

Alternative calculation,
Tm = 150(500)π/(2,500 x 0.30) = 314 s = 5.24 min

(b) RMR = vfd = (2.50 m/s)(103)(0.30 mm)(3.00 mm) = 2250

mm3/s
Example
A 15.24 cm long, 1.27 cm diameter, 304 stainless-steel rod is being reduced in
diameter to 1.2192 cm, by turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm,
and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 20.32 cm/min. Calculate the cutting
speed, RMR, cutting time, power dissipated, and cutting force.
Given:
Do = 1.27 cm L=15.24 cm. Material: 304 stainless steel
Df = 1.2192 cm N=400rpm fr =axial speed = 20.32 cm/min
To find:
Cutting speed (V), MRR, Cutting time (t)

Solution: 𝐷 −𝐷 (mm)
with 𝑑=
V  D N (mm/min) 2
N: Rotational Speed (rev/min)
MRR = RMR  vfd
d: depth of cut (mm),
Cutting time, Tm  L  f  N  (min)
f: Feed rate (mm/rev)
P  u t  MRR/60 (W)
Fc  P / V (N) ut: Specific Energy (W-s/mm3)
 Drilling and Related Operations
▪ Creates a round hole in a workpart
▪ Compare to boring which can only enlarge an existing hole
▪ Cutting tool called a drill or drill bit
▪ Machine tool: drill press
 Through Hole vs. Blind Hole

▪ (a) Through hole - drill exits opposite side of work

(b) blind hole – drill does not exit opposite side
 Drill Point Angle

Point Angle

135° Harder Materials

118° Standard 90° Softer Materials
stainless steel, titanium
plastic
Minimizes burring
 Speeds and Feeds in Drilling

W ORKPIECE SURFACE FEED, mm/rev (in./rev) RPM

MATERIAL SPEED DRILL DIAMETER
m/min ft/min 1.5 mm 12.5 mm 1.5 mm 12.5 mm
(0.060 in.) (0.5 in.)
Aluminum alloys 30-120 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 6400-25,000 800-3000
Magnesium alloys 45-120 150-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 9600-25,000 1100-3000
Copper alloys 15-60 50-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 3200-12,000 400-1500
Steels 20-30 60-100 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-6400 500-800
Stainless steels 10-20 40-60 0.025 (0.001) 0.18 (0.007) 2100-4300 250-500
Titanium alloys 6-20 20-60 0.010 (0.0004) 0.15 (0.006) 1300-4300 150-500
Cast irons 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Thermoplastics 30-60 100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.13 (0.005) 6400-12,000 800-1500
Thermosets 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.10 (0.004) 4300-12,000 500-1500

Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds and
feeds also depends on the specific surface finish required.
 Operations Related to Drilling

▪ (a) Reaming, (b) tapping, (c) counterboring

 More Operations Related to Drilling
▪ (d) Countersinking, (e) center drilling, (f) spot facing
 Drill Press
▪ Upright drill press stands on the floor
▪ Bench drill similar but smaller and mounted on a table or
bench
 Radial Drill Press
▪ Large drill press designed
for large parts
 Gang and multiple-spindle Drill Presses

multiple-spindle

Gang Gang
CNC Drill Presses
 Work Holding for Drill Presses
▪ Workpart in drilling can be clamped in any of the
following workholders:
▪ Vise - general purpose workholder with two jaws
Work Holding for Drill Presses
▪ Fixture - workholding device that
is usually custom-designed for the
particular workpart
Work Holding for Drill Presses
▪ Drill jig – similar to fixture but
also provides a means of
guiding the tool during drilling
 Cutting Conditions in Drilling

Cutting Speed: N: Rotational Speed (rev/min)

D: Drill diameter (mm)
V    D N (mm/min)
f: Feed (mm/rev)

Volume of material removed per unit time (mm3/min)

 D2 (mm3/rev)
R MR per rev.  f
4
  D2 
R MR  f  N (mm3/min)
 4 
 
 D
D2 2  mm3
RMR   f rf   N (mm/min)
MR 4 4  𝑚𝑖𝑛
 mm

mm2 X
𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Cutting Conditions in Drilling

Cutting Time in through hole:

The time required to drill a hole

of depth “t”

N: (rev/min)
(mm/min) f: (mm/rev)
 Cutting Conditions in Drilling

Cutting Time in blind hole:

The time required to drill a hole

of depth “d”
 Problem
A drilling operation is performed on a steel part using a 12.7-mm-diameter
twist drill with point angle = 118. The hole is a blind hole with a depth of
60 mm. Cutting speed = 15 m/min, and feed = 0.20 mm/rev. Determine (a)
cutting time of the operation and (b) metal removal rate after the drill bit
reaches full diameter.

Solution:

(a) N = v/πD = 15(103)/(12.7) = 376 rev/min

fr = Nf = 376(0.20) = 75.2 mm/min
A = 0.5D tan (90 – θ/2) = 0.5(12.7)tan(90 – 118/2) = 3.82 mm
Tm = (d + A)/fr = (60 + 3.82)/75.2 = 0.845 min
(b)
 D2
RMR = 0.25πD2fr = 0.25(12.7)2(75.2) = 9,526 mm3/min RMR   fr
4
 Milling
▪ Machining operation in which work is fed past a
rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
▪ Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
▪ Cutting tool called a milling cutter
▪ Cutting edges called teeth
▪ Machine tool called a milling machine
▪ Interrupted cutting operation
▪ Basic milling operation creates a planar surface
▪ Other geometries possible
 Milling Machines

(a) Horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-type milling

machine.
(b) Vertical-spindle column-and-knee-type milling
machine.
 Two Forms of Milling

▪ (a) Peripheral milling and (b) face milling

Peripheral Milling
Horizontal Milling
Slab Milling
Face Milling
Vertical Milling
Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling

▪ Peripheral milling
▪ Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
▪ Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
▪ Face milling
▪ Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being
milled
▪ Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter
Types of Peripheral Milling

▪ (a) Slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling, (d)

straddle milling, and (e) form milling
 Types of Face Milling
▪ (a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, and
(c) end milling
 Face Milling

▪ High speed face milling

operation using
indexable inserts
(photo courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.)
 Types of Face Milling

▪ (d) Profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface

contouring
 Up milling and Down milling
In peripheral milling, the direction of cutter rotation distinguishes two forms of
milling: up milling and down milling.

In up milling, also called conventional milling, the direction of motion of the cutter
teeth is opposite the feed direction when the teeth cut into the work. It is milling
‘‘against the feed.’’
In down milling, also called climb milling, the direction of cutter motion is the same
as the feed direction when the teeth cut the work. It is milling ‘‘with the feed.’’

(a) Up milling or
conventional milling

(b) Down milling or

climb milling
 Up milling and Down milling

The direction of motion of the cutter The direction of cutter motion is

teeth is opposite the feed direction the same as the feed direction
It is milling ‘‘against the feed.’’ It is milling ‘‘with the feed.’’
 CUTTING CONDITIONS IN MILLING

Axial speed (mm/min)

/rev
CUTTING CONDITIONS IN
MILLING

Material removal rate in milling

(mm3/min)

Slab (peripheral) milling showing entry of cutter into the workpiece.

CUTTING CONDITIONS IN
MILLING
Time required to mill a workpiece

The time required to mill a workpiece of length L must account for the
approach distance required to fully engage the cutter. First, consider the
case of slab milling:

Where A is the approach distance to reach full cutter depth

CUTTING CONDITIONS IN
MILLING
Time required to mill a workpiece
For face milling, let us consider the two possible cases
The first case is when the cutter is centered over a rectangular workpiece

A
CUTTING CONDITIONS IN
MILLING
Time required to mill a workpiece
The second case is when the cutter is offset to one side of the work
Problem
Peripheral milling is performed on the top surface of a rectangular work part
that is 400 mm long by 50 mm wide. The milling cutter is 70 mm in diameter
and has five teeth. It overhangs the width of the part on both sides. Cutting
speed = 60 m/min, chip load = 0.25 mm/tooth, and depth of cut = 6.5 mm.
Determine (a) machining time of the operation and (b) maximum material
removal rate during the cut.

Solution:
(a) N = v/πD = 60(103) mm/70 = 273 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 273(5)(0.25) = 341 mm/min
A = (d(D-d))0.5 = (6.5(70-6.5))0.5 = 20.3 mm
Tm = (400 + 20.3)/341 = 1.23 min

(b) RMR = wdfr = 50(6.5)(341) = 110,825 mm3/min

Two Basic Types of Milling Machines:
Based on Spindle orientation

▪ (a) Horizontal and (b) vertical

 Other Classifications of Milling Machines

Special types of knee-and-column milling machine: (a) universal—overarm,

arbor, and cutter omitted for clarity: and (b) ram type.
 Other Classifications of Milling Machines

Simplex bed-type milling machine horizontal spindle.

Other Classifications of Milling Machines

Other than spindle orientation, milling machines can be

classified into the following types:
▪ (1) knee-and-column
▪ (2) bed type
▪ (3) planer type
▪ (4) tracer mills
▪ (5) CNC milling machines

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