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DC Machine
A DC machine is an electromechanical energy alteration device. The working
principle of a DC machine is when electric current flows through a coil within a
magnetic field, and then the magnetic force generates a torque that rotates the dc
motor. The DC machines are classified into two types such as DC generator as well
as DC motor.

DC Machine
The main function of the DC generator is to convert mechanical power to DC
electrical power, whereas a DC motor converts DC power to mechanical power.
The AC motor is frequently used in industrial applications for altering electrical
energy to mechanical energy. However, a DC motor is applicable where good speed
regulation & an ample range of speeds are necessary like in electric-transaction
systems.
Construction of DC Machine
The construction of the DC machine can be done using some of the essential parts
like Yoke, Pole core & pole shoes, Pole coil & field coil, Armature core, Armature
winding otherwise conductor, commutator, brushes & bearings. Some of the parts of
the DC machine is discussed below.

Construction of DC Machine
Yoke
Another name of a yoke is the frame. The main function of the yoke in the machine is
to offer mechanical support intended for poles and protects the entire machine from
moisture, dust, etc. The materials used in the yoke are designed with cast iron, cast
steel otherwise rolled steel.

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Pole and Pole Core

The pole of the DC machine is an electromagnet and the field winding is winding
among pole. Whenever field winding is energized then the pole gives magnetic flux.
The materials used for this are cast steel, cast iron otherwise pole core. It can be built
with the annealed steel laminations for reducing the power drop because of the eddy
currents.

Pole Shoe
Pole shoe in the DC machine is an extensive part as well as to enlarge the region of
the pole. Because of this region, flux can be spread out within the air-gap as well as
extra flux can be passed through the air space toward armature. The materials used
to build pole shoe is cast iron otherwise cast steed, and also used annealed steel
lamination to reduce the loss of power because of eddy currents.

Field Windings
In this, the windings are wounded in the region of pole core & named as field
coil. Whenever current is supplied through field winding than it
electromagnetics the poles which generate required flux. The material used
for field windings is copper.

Armature Core
Armature core includes a huge number of slots within its edge. The armature
conductor is located in these slots. It provides the low-reluctance path toward the flux
generated with field winding. The materials used in this core are permeability low-
reluctance materials like iron otherwise cast. The lamination is used to decrease the
loss because of the eddy current.

Armature Winding
The armature winding can be formed by interconnecting the armature conductor.
Whenever an armature winding is turned with the help of prime mover then the voltage,
as well as magnetic flux, gets induced within it. This winding is allied to an exterior
circuit. The materials used for this winding are conducting material like copper.

Commutator
The main function of the commutator in the DC machine is to collect the current from
the armature conductor as well as supplies the current to the load using brushes. And
also provides uni-directional torque for DC-motor. The commutator can be built with a
huge number of segments in the edge form of hard drawn copper. The Segments in
the commutator are protected from the thin mica layer.

Brushes

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Brushes in the DC machine gather the current from the commutator and supply it to
the exterior load. Brushes wear with time to inspect frequently. The materials used in
brushes are graphite otherwise carbon which is in rectangular form.

Types of DC Machines
The excitation of the DC machine is classified into two types namely separate
excitation, as well as self-excitation. In a separate excitation type of dc machine, the
field coils are activated with a separate DC source. In the self-excitation type of dc
machine, the flow of current throughout the field-winding is supplied with the machine.
The principal kinds of DC machines are classified into four types which include the
following.

 Separately excited DC machine

 Shunt-wound/shunt machine.
 Series wound/series machine.
 Compound wound / compound machine.
Separately Excited
In Separately Excited DC Machine, a separate DC source is utilized for activating the
field coils.

Shunt Wound
In Shunt wound DC Machines, the field coils are allied in parallel through the armature.
As the shunt field gets the complete o/p voltage of a generator otherwise a motor
supply voltage, it is normally made of a huge number of twists of fine wire with a small
field current carrying.
Series Wound
In series-wound D.C. Machines, the field coils are allied in series through the armature.
As series field winding gets the armature current, as well as the armature current is
huge, due to this the series field winding includes few twists of wire of big cross-
sectional region.

Compound Wound
A compound machine includes both the series as well as shunt fields. The two
windings are carried-out with every machine pole. The series winding of the machine
includes few twists of a huge cross-sectional region, as well as the shunt windings,
include several fine wire twists.

The connection of the compound machine can be done in two ways. If the shunt-field
is allied in parallel by the armature only, then the machine can be named as the ‘short
shunt compound machine’ & if the shunt-field is allied in parallel by both the armature
as well as series field, then the machine is named as the ‘long shunt compound
machine’.

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EMF Equation of DC Machine

The DC machine e.m.f can be defined as when the armature in the dc
machine rotates, the voltage can be generated within the coils. In a
generator, the e.m.f of rotation can be called the generated emf, and Er=Eg.
In the motor, the emf of rotation can be called as counter or back emf, and
Er=Eb.
Let Φ is the useful flux for every pole within webers

P is the total number of poles

z is the total number of conductors within the armature

n is the rotation speed for an armature in the revolution for each second

A is the no. of parallel lane throughout the armature among the opposite
polarity brushes.

Z/A is the no. of armature conductor within series for each parallel lane

As the flux for each pole is ‘Φ’, every conductor slashes a flux ‘PΦ’ within a
single revolution.

The voltage produced for each conductor = flux slash for each revolution in
WB / Time taken for a single revolution within seconds

As ‘n’ revolutions are completed within a single second and 1 revolution will
be completed within a 1/n second. Thus the time for a single armature
revolution is a 1/n sec.

The standard value of produced voltage for each conductor

p Φ/1/n = np Φ volts
The voltage produced (E) can be decided with the no.of armature conductors
within series I any single lane among the brushes thus, the whole voltage
produced

E = standard voltage for each conductor x no. of conductors within series for
each lane

E = n.P.Φ x Z/A
The above equation is the e.m.f. the equation of the DC machine.

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Losses in DC Machine
We know that the main function of a DC machine is to convert mechanical energy
to electrical energy. Throughout this conversion method, the whole input power cannot
be changed into output power because of the power loss in different forms. The type
of loss may change from one apparatus to another. These losses will decrease the
apparatus efficiency as well as the temperature will be increased. The DC machine
energy losses can be classified into Electrical otherwise Copper losses, Core losses
otherwise Iron losses, Mechanical losses, Brush losses, and Stray load losses.

DC Machine Advantages
The advantages of this machine include the following.

 DC machines like dc motors have various advantages like starting torque is high,
reversing, fast-starting & stopping, changeable speeds through voltage input
 These are very easily controlled as well as cheaper when compared with AC
 Speed control is good
 Torque is high
 Operation is Seamless
 Free from harmonics
 Installation and maintenance is easy
Applications of DC Machine
At present, the generation of electrical energy can be done in bulk in the form of AC
(an alternating current). Therefore, the utilization of DC machines like motors and
generators DC generators are extremely limited because they are utilized mainly for
providing excitation of tiny & middle range of alternators. In industries, DC machines
are used for different processes like welding, electrolytic, etc.

Generally, the AC is generated and after that, it is changed into DC with the help of
rectifiers. Therefore DC generator is suppressed through an AC supply which is
rectified to use in several applications. DC motors are frequently used like variable
speed drives & where changes in the severe torque occur.

The application of DC machine as a motor is used by dividing into three types like
Series, Shunt &Compound whereas the application of dc machine as a generator is
classified into separately excited, series, and shunt-wound generators.

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What is Alternator?
An alternator is defined as a machine or generator which produces AC (Alternating
Current) supply and it converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, so it is also
called an AC generator or synchronous generator. There are different types of
alternators based on applications and design.

Construction of an Alternator
The main components of an alternator or synchronous generator are rotor and stator.
The main difference between rotor and stator is, the rotor is a rotating part and stator
is not a rotating component means it is a stationary part. The motors are generally run
by rotor and stator.

alternator-or-synchronous-generator

The stator word based on the stationary and the rotor word based on the rotating. The
construction of the stator of an alternator is equal to the construction of the stator of
an induction motor. So induction motor construction and synchronous motor
construction are both are same. Thus the stator is the stationary part of the rotor and
the rotor is the component that rotates inside of the stator. The rotor is located on the
stator shaft and the series of the electromagnets arranged in a cylinder causing the
rotor to rotate and create a magnetic field. There are two types of rotors they are shown
in the below figure.

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types-of-rotors

Salient Pole Rotor

The meaning of the salient is projecting outward, which means the poles of the rotor
are projecting outward from the center of the rotor. There is a field winding on the rotor
and for this field winding will use DC supply. When we pass the current through this
field winding N and S poles are created. The salient rotors are unbalanced so the
speeds are restricted. This type of rotor used in hydro stations and diesel power
stations. The salient pole rotor used for low-speed machines approximately 120-
400rpm.

Cylindrical Rotor
The cylindrical rotor is also known as a non-salient rotor or round rotor and this rotor
is used for high-speed machines approximately 1500-3000 rpm and the example for
this is a thermal power plant. This rotor is made up of a steel radial cylinder having the
number of slots and in these slots, the field winding is placed and these field windings
are always connected in series. The advantages of this are mechanically robust, flux
distribution is uniform, operates at high speed and produces low noise.

An AC motor comes in many shapes and sizes, but we can’t have an AC without a
rotor and stator. The rotor is made up of a cast iron and the stator is made up of silicon
steel. The prices of the rotor and stator depend on the quality.

Working Principle of Alternator

All the alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According to this
law, for producing the electricity we need a conductor, magnetic field and mechanical
energy. Every machine that rotates and reproduces Alternating Current. To
understand the working principle of the alternator, consider two opposite magnetic
poles north and south, and the flux is traveling between these two magnetic poles. In
the figure (a) rectangular coil is placed between the north and south magnetic poles.
The position of the coil is such that the coil is parallel to the flux, so no flux is cutting
and therefore no current is induced. So that the waveform generated in that position
is Zero degrees. If the rectangular coil rotates in a clockwise direction at an axis a and
b, the conductor side A and B comes in front of the south pole and C and D come in
front of a north pole as shown in figure (b). So, now we can say that the motion of the
conductor is perpendicular to the flux lines from N to S pole and the conductor cuts
the magnetic flux. At this position, the rate of flux cutting by the conductor is maximum

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rotation-of-rectangular-coil-between-two-magnetic-poles

because the conductor and flux are perpendicular to each other and therefore the
current is induced in the conductor and this current will be in maximum position.

The conductor rotates one more time at 90 0 in a clockwise direction then the
rectangular coil comes in the vertical position. Now the position of the conductor and
magnetic flux line is parallel to each other as shown in figure (c). In this figure, no flux
is cutting by the conductor and therefore no current is induced. In this position, the
waveform is reduced to zero degrees because the flux is not cutting.
In the second half cycle, the conductor is continued to rotate in a clockwise direction
for another 900. So here the rectangular coil comes to a horizontal position in such a
way that the conductor A and B comes in front of the north pole, C and D come in front
of the south pole as shown in the figure (d). Again the current will flow through the
conductor that is currently induced in the conductor A and B is from point B to A and
in conductor C and D is from point D to C, so the waveform produced in opposite
direction, and reaches to the maximum value. Then the direction of the current
indicated as A, D, C and B as shown in figure (d). If the rectangular coil again rotates
in another 900 then the coil reaches the same position from where the rotation is
started. Therefore, the current will again drop to zero.
In the complete cycle, the current in the conductor reaches the maximum and reduces
to zero and in the opposite direction, the conductor reaches the maximum and again
reaches zero. This cycle repeats again and again, due to this repetition of the cycle
the current will be induced in the conductor continuously.

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waveform-of-one-complete-cycle

This is the process of producing the current and EMF of a single-phase. Now for
producing 3 phases, the coils are placed at the displacement of 120 0 each. So the
process of producing the current is the same as the single-phase but only the
difference is the displacement between three phases is 120 0. This is the working
principle of an alternator.
Characteristics
1. Output Current with Speed of Alternator: The output of the current reduced or
decreased when the alternator speed reduced or decreased.
2. The efficiency with Speed of Alternator: Efficiency of an alternator is reduced when
the alternator runs with low speed.
3. Current Drop with Increasing Alternator Temperature: When the temperature of
an alternator increased the output current will be reduced or decreased.
Applications

 Automobiles
 Electrical power generator plants
 Marine applications
 Diesel electrical multiple units
 Radiofrequency transmission
Advantages

 Cheap
 Low weight
 Low maintenance
 Construction is simple
 Robust
 More compact
Disadvantages
 Alternators need transformers
 Alternators will overheat if the current is high

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Classification of induction motors

What is Squirrel Cage Induction Motor?

Definition: Squirrel cage motor is one of the types of induction motors. In order to
generate motion, it hardens electromagnetism. As the output shaft is connected to
the rotor inner component which is looking like a cage. Hence it is called squirrel
cage. The two-end caps i.e, circular in shape are joined by rotor bars. These are

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acted based on the EMF i.e, generated by the stator. This EMF is also generated
outer housing that is made of laminated metal sheets and wire coiling. The two main
parts of any type of induction motor are the stator and the rotor. The squirrel cage is
a simple method of pulling an electromagnetic induction effect. A 4-pole squirrel
cage induction motor is shown below.

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Working Principle
Squirrel induction motor working is based on the principle of electromagnetism.
When the stator winding is supplied with a three-phase AC, it produces a rotating
magnetic field (RMF) which has a speed called synchronous speed. This RMF
causes voltage induced in the rotor bars. So, that short-circuit current flows through
that. Due to these rotor currents, a self magnetic field is generated which interacts
with the stator field. Now, as per the principle, the rotor field starts opposing its
cause. when the RMF catches the rotor moment, the rotor current drops to zero.
Then there would be no relative moment between the rotor and RMF.
Hence, the zero tangential force is experienced by the rotor and reduces for a
moment. After this reduction in the moment of the rotor, the rotor current is induced
again by the reconstruction of relative motion between the RMF and the rotor. Hence
the tangential force of the rotor for the rotation is restored and starts by following the
RMF. In this case, the rotor maintains a constant speed, which is less than the speed
of RMF and synchronous speed. Here, the difference between the speed of RMF
and the rotor is measured in the form of slip. The final frequency of the rotor can be
obtained by the multiplication of slip and supply frequency.

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Construction

Parts that are required for the construction of squirrel cage induction motor are
stator, rotor, fan, bearings. The stator consists of mechanically and electrically 120
degrees apart three-phase winding with metal housing and core. In order to provide
the path of low reluctance for flux generated by AC current, the winding is mounted
on the laminated iron core.

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Motor Parts
Rotor converts given electrical energy into mechanical output. The shaft, a core,
short-circuited copper bars are the parts of the rotor. In order to avoid hysteresis and
eddy currents that are leading to power loss, the rotor is laminated. And I order to
prevent cogging, conductors are skewed which also helps to give a good
transformation ratio.

Motor Construction
A fan attached at the back of the rotor for heat exchange helps in maintaining under
a limit of the temperature of the motor. For the smooth rotation, bearings are
provided in the motor.

Difference between Squirrel Cage Induction Motor and

Slip Ring Induction Motors.
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motor

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The construction of squirrel cage induction Construction of slip ring induction motors needs slip
simple and rugged. rings, brushes, short-circuiting device, etc.
This type of motor has less overhang and These motors have the highest overhang and poor
better space factor in slots. space factor in slots.
Cost and maintenance are less. The cost is more.
Higher efficiency (in case of machines, not
designed for high starting torque) Low efficiency and more copper losses.
Small copper losses and better power factor. Poor power factor and can be improved at the start.
The cooling factor is better because of its bare
end rings and the availability of more space for
rotor fans. The cooling factor is not quite efficient.
Poor speed regulation when operated with external
resistances in the rotor circuit. The motor needs slip
rings, brush gear, short-circuiting device and
These motors have better speed regulation, starting resistors, etc. Possibility of increasing
simple starting and low staring torque with starting torque due to external resistances in the
high starting current rotor circuit.
Power factor is poor at starting The power factor can be improved.
Speed control is possible by the insertion of
There is no possibility of speed control. external resistors in the rotor circuit.
Explosion-proof against protection. Explosion-proof against protection.
Classification of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
In order to meet the industry requirements, three-phase squirrel cage induction
motors in a range up to 150KW at various standard frequencies, voltages and,
speeds. According to their electrical characteristics, of these motors are divided into
6 types as discussed below,

Class-A Design
These type motors have low resistance, reactance, slip, and higher efficiency at full
load. The main disadvantage is high starting current which is 5 to 8 times of full-load
current at rated voltage. These motors are widely used in small ratings for machine
tools, centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, etc.

Class B Design
These motors have high reactance and operate 5-150KW range. These motors can
be replaced with class A motors for new installations because of its characteristics
which are similar to Class A motors and have the same staring current. (around 5
times the full-load current at rated voltage).

Class C Design

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These motors are known as double cage motors that high starting torque with the
low starting current. Applications of class C motors are, driving air compressors,
conveyors, reciprocating pumps, crushers, mixers, large refrigerating machines, etc.

Class D Design
These motors are squirrel cage motors with high resistance. Hence, they give high
starting torque with the low starting current. These motors have low operating
efficiency and limited to drive intermittent loads involved in high accelerating duty
and high-impact loads such as punch presses, shears, bulldozers, small hoists, etc.

Class E Design
These motors operate with low starting torque, normal starting current, and also low
slip at rated load.

Class F Design
These motors are operated with low starting torque, low starting current, and normal
slip.

Advantages
The advantages of a squirrel cage induction motor include the following.

 Simple and rugged construction.

 The low initial as well as maintenance cost.
 Maintains constant speed.
 The overload capacity is high.
 Simple starting arrangement.
 High power factor.
 Low rotor copper loss.
 High efficiency.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of a squirrel cage induction motor include the following.

 Motor
 High starting current
 Very sensitive to fluctuations in supply voltage
 Low power factor at light loads.
 Speed control is very difficult
 Very poor starting torque due to its low rotor resistance.
Applications
The applications of squirrel cage induction motor include the following.

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 Suitable for industrial drives of small power where speed control is not required
such as for printing machinery, flour mills, and other shaft drives of small power.
 Centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, etc
 In driving air compressors, conveyors, reciprocating pumps, crushers, mixers,
large refrigerating machines, etc.
 Punch presses, shears, bulldozers, small hoists, etc.

Single phase induction motor

These motors are designed to operate from single phase supply, are manufactured in large no. of
types for the use in home, offices, factories etc. small motors come in Kilo Watt power ratings. By
the advancement made in designs of fractional kilo watt motors, the applications of these motors
differs.

• Induction Motors

• Repulsion Motors

• A.C. Series Motors

• Un-exited Synchronous Motors

By its starting method

• single-phase capacitor-start motors

• capacitor-run motors

Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor Run IM

The working principle of capacitor-start inductor motors is almost the same as capacitor-
start capacitor-run induction motors.

We already know that a single-phase induction motor is not self-starting because the
magnetic field produced is not a rotating type. To produce a rotating magnetic field, there
must be some phase difference.

In the case of a split-phase induction motor, we use resistance for creating phase difference,
but here we use a capacitor for this purpose. We are familiar with the fact that the current
flowing through the capacitor leads to the voltage.

So, in capacitor start inductor motor and capacitor start capacitor run induction motor, we
are using two winding, the main winding, and the starting winding. With starting winding,
we connect a capacitor, so the current flowing in the capacitor, i.e., Ist leads the applied
voltage by some angle, φst. The running winding is inductive in nature so, the current
flowing in running winding lags behind applied voltage by an angle, φm.

Now there occur large phase angle differences between these two currents, which produce
a resultant current. This will produce a rotating magnetic field since the torque produced by
these motors depends upon the phase angle difference, which is almost 90o. So, these
motors produce very high starting torque. In the case of capacitor start induction motor, the
centrifugal switch is provided to disconnect the starting winding when the motor attains a

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speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed but in the case of capacitor start capacitors
run induction motor.

There is no centrifugal switch so, the capacitor remains in the circuit and improves the
power factor and the running conditions of the single-phase induction motor.

Application of Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor Run IM

These motors have high starting torque; hence they are used in conveyors, grinders, air
conditioners, compressors, etc. They are available up to 6 kW.

Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor

It has a cage rotor and stator. The stator has two windings – main and auxiliary winding. It
has only one capacitor in series with starting winding. It has no starting switch.

Advantages of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor

No centrifugal switch is needed. It has higher efficiency and pull-out torque.

Applications of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor

It finds applications in fans and blowers in heaters and air conditioners. It is also used to drive
office machinery.

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• split-phase motors

1. A split-phase induction motor has two windings, a run winding and a secondary
start winding, and usually operate up to 1/3 horsepower to drive blades on a ceiling
fan, washing machines tubs, blower motors for oil furnaces, and small pumps.
2. The higher power start winding gets the motor moving up to 75 to 80% of its speed,
and then a centrifugal switch is used to switch over to the less powerful run coil to
save energy.

Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor

3. Split phase induction motors have low starting current and moderate starting
torque.
4. These motors are used in fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing machines,
grinders, lathes, air conditioning fans, etc. These motors are available in size ranging
from 1/20 to 1/2 KW.

• shaded-pole motors

1. A shaded-pole motor uses a squirrel cage rotor and usually range from 1/20th to
1/6th of a horsepower for small motors. This has additional windings in each corner
of the stator, called shade windings. These are not connected but generate a current
from the induced field. This inhibits the field, creating a low torque to get the motor
moving.

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