Core Java Mr.

Ashok

Core Java
Material

By Mr. Ashok

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Core Java Mr. Ashok

Chapter – 1
• Java Introduction
• Java Features
• Java Installation
• Java Program Execution Flow
• Java Programming Elements
• Java Programs Development
• Compilation
• Execution
• Translators
• JVM Architecture

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What is Java
-> Java is a programming language
-> Java developed by James Gosling & his team in 1991 at Sun Microsystem Company
-> Initially they named it as ‘OAK’ programming language
-> In 1995, OAK language renamed to JAVA
Note: Oracle Corporation acquired Sun Microsystem in 2010. Now java is under license of
Oracle corporation
-> Java is a free & open-source software
-> 3 billion devices run on Java language
-> Java is one of the most popular languages in the world
-> Java can run on any platform (It is platform independent)

Java is divided into 3 parts

1) J2SE / JSE (Java Standard Edition) → For stand-alone applications development
2) J2EE / JEE (Java Enterprise Edition) → For Web applications development
3) J2ME / JME (Java Micro / Mobile Edition) → For Mobile applications development

What we can develop using Java

-> Using Java, we can develop several kinds of applications like
1) Stand-alone applications
2) Web applications
3) Mobile Applications
4) Games
5) Servers
6) Databases and much more
Java Features
1) Simple: Java is easy to learn and its syntax is quite simple, clean and easy to understand.
The confusing and ambiguous concepts of C++ are either left out in Java or they have been
re-implemented in a cleaner way.
Eg: Pointers and Operator Overloading are not there in java

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2) Platform Independent: Unlike other programming languages such as C, C++ etc which
are compiled into platform specific machines. Java is guaranteed to be write-once, run-
anywhere language.
When we compile java code it will generate bytecode. This bytecode is platform
independent and can be run on any machine, plus this bytecode format also provide
security. Any machine with Java Runtime Environment can run Java Programs.

4) OOP Language: Java is an object-oriented programming language. Everything in Java is an

object. Object-oriented means we organize our software as a combination of different types
of objects that incorporate both data and behaviour.
Object-oriented programming (OOPs) is a methodology that simplifies software
development and maintenance by providing some rules.
OOPs Principles are:
➔ Object
➔ Class
➔ Inheritance
➔ Polymorphism
➔ Abstraction
➔ Encapsulation
3) Secure: When it comes to security, Java is always the first choice. With java secure
features it enables us to develop virus free, temper free system. Java program always runs
in Java runtime environment with almost null interaction with system OS, hence it is more
secure.
4) Multi-Threading: Java multithreading feature makes it possible to write program that can
do many tasks simultaneously. Benefit of multithreading is that it utilizes same memory and
other resources to execute multiple threads at the same time, like While typing,
grammatical errors are checked along.

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5) Architectural Neutral: Compiler generates bytecodes, which have nothing to do with a

particular computer architecture, hence a Java program is easy to interpret on any machine.
6) Portable: Java Byte code can be carried to any platform. No implementation dependent
features. Everything related to storage is predefined, example: size of primitive data types
7) High Performance: Java is an interpreted language, so it will never be as fast as a
compiled language like C or C++. But Java enables high performance with the use of just-in-
time compiler.
8) Distributed: Java is also a distributed language. Programs can be designed to run on
computer networks. Java has a special class library for communicating using TCP/IP
protocols. Creating network connections is very much easy in Java as compared to C/C++.
Java Slogan: WORA (Write Once Run Anywhere)

Environment Setup (Java Installation)

Step- 1) Download and Install Java Software

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➔ After installing java, we can see below two folders (JDK & JRE)

Note: After installing java software, we need to set PATH for java software to use it.
Step-2) Set Path for Java
-> Go To Environment Variables
-> Go To System Environment Variables
-> Edit Path
-> Add path up to JDK bin directory

Path = C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.8.0_202\bin

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Step-3) Verify PATH Setup (Open command prompt and execute below command)

Note: If you are getting message like above that means, java installation and PATH setup is
success.

Q) What is the difference between JDK, JRE & JVM?

- JDK contains set of tools to develop java programs
- JRE providing a platform to run our java programs
- JVM will take care of program execution, memory allocation & de-allocation

Java Program Execution Flow

Step-1: We will write source code and we will save that code in a file using .java extension
Step-2: We will compile source code using java compiler (it will generate byte code)
Step-3: We will execute .class file ( JVM will convert byte code into machine code & gives
output)

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Java Program Structure

-> Package statement is used to group our classes. At most we can write only one package
statement in one java program and package statement should be the first statement in the
program.
-> Import statements are used to import one program into another program. We can write
multiple import statements in one program (It depends on requirement). We should write
import statements after package statement only.
-> Class is the most import part in java program. Class is a plan to define program elements.
Inside class we will write variables and methods.
-> Variables are used to store the data. We can write any no. of variables inside a class.
-> Methods are used to perform action. Application business logic we will write inside
methods. A can class can have any no. of methods.
Developing First Java Program
Step-1: Open any text editor (notepad / notepad ++ / edit plus)
Step-2: Write below java program

Step-3: Save the program with .java extension (Filename: Welcome.java)

Step-4: Open Command prompt and change directory location to the place where our java
program is available.

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Step-5: Compile the Java program

Syntax:
➢ javac filename.java

➔ We are able to see .class file that means our program compilation is successful.

Step-6: Run the java program

➢ Java filename

-> We are able to see “Welcome To Ashok IT” as output of our program that means our
program executed successfully.
Note: In Realtime, we will use IDE to develop java programs/ project.

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Translators
-> Translators are used to convert from one format to another format
-> We have 3 types of translators
1) Interpreter
2) Compiler
3) Assembler
-> Interpreter will convert the program line by line (performance is slow)
-> Compiler will convert all the lines of program at a time (performance is fast)
-> Assembler is used to convert assembler programming languages into machine language

JVM
-> JVM stands for Java Virtual Machine (We can't see with our eyes)
-> JVM will be part of JRE software
-> JVM is responsible for executing java programs
-> JVM will allocate memory required for program execution & de-allocate memory when it
is not used
-> JVM will convert byte code into machine understandable format

JVM Architecture

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Class loader: It will load .class file into JVM

Method Area: Class code will be stored here
Heap area: Objects will be stored into heap area
Java Stack: Method execution information will be stored here
PC Register: It will maintain next line information to execute
Native Stack: It will maintain non-java code execution information
Native Interface: It will load native libraries into JVM
Native Libraries: Non-java libraries which are required for native code execution
Execution Engine: It is responsible to execute the program and provide output/result. It will
use Interpreter and JIT for execution.

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Chapter - 2
• Variables
• Data Types
• Identifiers & Rules
• Reserved Words
• Java Coding Standards
• Java comments
• Reading Data From keyboard

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Variables
-> variables are used to store the data during program execution
-> We need to specify type of the variable to store the data
-> To specify type of data we will use 'data types'
-> To declare the variable in Java, we can use following syntax

Data types
-> Data types are used to specify type of the data
-> Data types are divided into 2 categories
1) Primitive Data Types
2) Non-Primitive Data Types

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Primitive Data Types

Primitive data types are divided into eight types

Once a primitive data type has been declared its type can never change, although in most
cases its value can change. These eight primitive types can be put into four groups.

Floating Data Types

This group includes float and double

Character data type

-> Character data type is used to store single character
-> Any single character (alphabet / digit / special character) we can store using 'char' data
type
-> char datatype will occupy 2 bytes of memory
-> When we are storing data into 'char' data type single quote is mandatory

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Boolean data type

-> It is used to store true or false values only
-> It will occupy 1 bit memory
Note: 8 bits = 1 byte
-> default value for boolean is false
Ex: boolean flag = false
Variables
-> Variables are used to store the data / value
-> To store the data into variable we need to specify data type
-> To store data into variables we need to perform 2 steps
1) Variable Declaration (defining variable with data type)
Ex: byte age ;
2) Variable Initialization (storing value into variable)
Ex: age = abc;
-> We can complete declaration and initialization in single line
byte age = 20;

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Identifiers in Java
All Java components require names. Name used for classes, methods, interfaces and
variables are called Identifier.
Identifier must follow some rules. Here are the rules:
Rule-1 : The only allowed characters in java identifiers are:
➔ a to z
➔ A to Z
➔ 0 to 9
➔ $
➔ _ (underscore)
name -----> valid
name@ -----> invalid
age# ------> invalid
age ---→ valid
Rule-2 : Identifier should not start with digit (First letter shouldn’t be digit)
1age --------> invalid
age2 ------> valid
name3 -----> valid
_name -----> valid
$name ------> valid
@name ------> invalid
$_amt --------> valid
_1bill -----------> valid
Rule-3: Java reserved keywords cannot be used as an identifier (53 reserved words available
in java)
int byte = 20; -------> invalid bcz byte is a reserved word
byte for = 25; -------> invalid bcz for is a reserved word
int try = 30; ------> invalid bcz try is a reserved word
long phno = 797979799 -----> valid

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Rule-4 : Spaces are not allowed in identifiers

int mobile bill = 400; // invalid
int mobile_bill = 400 ; // valid

Rule - 5: Identifiers in Java are case sensitive; foo and Foo are two different identifiers.

Java Keywords
-> In Java we have total 53 reserved words, those are classified like below

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Java coding/naming conventions

-> Java language followed some standards/conventions for pre-defined packages, classes
and methods....
-> Java language suggested java programmers also to follow same standards / conventions
-> Following these standards/conventions is not mandatory but highly recommended.
Following are different java coding conventions
1. coding convention for a class
-> Class name can contain any no.of words without spaces
-> Recommended to write every word first character as uppercase in class name

2. coding convention for interfaces

-> Class & Interface Naming conventions are same

3. coding convention for a variables

-> Variable name can have any no. of words without spaces
-> Recommended to start variable name with lowercase letter
-> If variable name contains multiple words, then recommended to write first word all
characters in lowercase and from second word onwards every word first character in
Uppercase

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4. coding convention for methods

-> Method name can have any no. of words without spaces
-> Recommended to start method name with lowercase letter
-> If method name contains multiple words, then recommended to write first word all
characters in lowercase and from second word onwards every word first character in
Uppercase

Note: Variables & Methods naming conventions are same. But methods will have
parenthesis ( ( ) ) variables will not have parenthesis.

5. coding convention for constants

-> Constant means fixed value (value will not change, it is fixed)
-> Recommended to write constant variable all characters in uppercase
-> If constant variable contains multiple words recommended to use _ (underscore) with all
uppercase characters

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6. coding convention for packages

-> Package name can have any no.of characters & any of words
-> Recommended to use only lowercase letters in package names
-> If package name contains multiple words then we will use . (dot) to separate words

Java Comments
-> In java we have 3 types of comments
-> Commented code will not participate in compilation & execution
Note: Java compiler will skip commented lines of code
1) single line comments
Syntax:
// this is single line comment
2) multi line comments (when we don't want to compile multiple lines of code)
/*
commented code
*/
3) documentation comments (Used to generate API documentation)
/**
*
* @author ashok
*
*/

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String data type

-> String is a predefined class available in java.lang package
-> String can be used as a data type also
-> String is used to store group of characters
Note: Every java class can be used as a data type (referenced data type)
String name = "ashok";
String email = "[email protected]"
String country = "India";
String pwd = "ashoK@123";
-> To store data in String variable double quotes are mandatory
Reading Data from Keyboard
-> We can pass input for java program to perform some operation. Based on given input we
can execute some logic and we can send output.
Ex -1: Take 2 numbers as input and provide sum of those numbers
Ex- 2: Take first name & last name and provide full name

-> In java we have 2 classes to read data from Keyboard

1) java.io.BufferedReader
2) java.util.Scanner

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// write a java program to perform sum of two numbers Using Scanner

// Write a java program to take two strings as input

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Knowledge Check
1) What is full stack development?
2) Explain software project architecture
3) What are the roles & responsibilities of full stack developer
4) What is database and why we need it?
5) What is programming language & why we need programming language?
6) What is JAVA?
7) What are the features of java?
8) What is the difference between C and Java?
9) What type of applications we can develop using java & brief them
10) What is the difference between JDK, JRE and JVM?
11) What is the execution flow of java program?
12) What is the difference between interpreter and compiler?
13) Write JVM architecture & explain JVM components
14) What is JIT?
15) Write Java data types with size, range and default values
16) What is variable and how to create variables
17) Explain Java program elements
18) Write a java program to print welcome message
19) Write a java program on variables declaration, initialization
20) How many types of comments available in java
21) What is identifier and what are rules available for identifier
22) What are the reserved words in java
23) Write Java Naming Conventions for packages, classes, variables and methods

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Chapter – 3
• Operators
- Arithmetic

- Relational

- Logical

- Assignment

- New

- Dot (.) Operator

• Control Statements
- Conditional Statements

- Looping Statements

- Transfer Statements

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Operators
-> Operator is a symbol which tells to the compiler to perform some operation.
-> Java provides a rich set of operators do deal with various types of operations.
-> Sometimes we need to perform arithmetic operations then we use plus (+) operator for
addition, multiply (*) for multiplication etc.
-> Operators are always essential part of any programming language.
-> Java operators can be divided into following categories:

• Arithmetic operators
• Relation operators
• Logical operators
• Assignment operators
• Conditional operators
• Misc. operators
Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations like: addition, subtraction
etc and helpful to solve mathematical expressions.
The below table contains Arithmetic operators.

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// Write a java program on Athematic Operators

Increment & Decrement Operators

In programming (Java, C, C++, JavaScript etc.), the increment operator ++ increases the
value of a variable by 1. Similarly, the decrement operator -- decreases the value of a
variable by 1.

Post-Increment (Ex: a ++): Value is first used for computing the result and then
incremented.

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Pre-Increment (Ex: ++ a): Value is incremented first and then the result is computed.

Post-decrement (Ex: a--): Value is first used for computing the result and then
decremented.

Pre-decrement (Ex: --a): Value is decremented first and then the result is computed.

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Facts about Increment and Decrement operators

• Can only be applied to variables only

• Nesting of both operators is not allowed
• They are not operated over final variables
• Increment and Decrement Operators cannot be applied to boolean.
Relational operators
Relational operators are used to test comparison between operands or values. It can be
used to test whether two values are equal or not equal or less than or greater than etc.
The following table shows all relation operators supported by Java.

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Logical operators
Logical Operators are used to check conditional expression. For example, we can use logical
operators in if statement to evaluate conditional based expression. We can use them into
loop as well to evaluate a condition.
Java supports following 3 logical operators. Suppose we have two variables whose values
are: a=true and b=false.

Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign a value to a variable. It can also be used combine
with arithmetic operators to perform arithmetic operations and then assign the result to the
variable. Assignment operator supported by Java are as follows:

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Conditional operator
It is also known as ternary operator because it works with three operands. It is short
alternate of if-else statement. It can be used to evaluate Boolean expression and return
either true or false value
Syntax : epr1 ? expr2 : expr3
In ternary operator, if epr1 is true then expression evaluates after question mark (?) else
evaluates after colon (:). See the below example.

instanceOf operator
It is a java keyword and used to test whether the given reference belongs to provided type
or not. Type can be a class or interface. It returns either true or false.
Example:
Here, we created a string reference variable that stores “Ashok IT”. Since it stores string
value so we test it using instance operator to check whether it belongs to string class or not.
See the below example.

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new operator

• new is java keyword or operator which is used to create the object

• we can create an object for both user defined classes and predefine classes
• creating an object nothing but allocating the memory so that we can use in the
application.
• once an object created that will be located inside the Heap memory of JVM.

. (Dot) operator
-> This operator used to access the members of the class using reference or column like
follows
Eg:
reference.variable
reference.method()
ClassName.variable
ClassName.method()
-> This operator can also be used to refer or identify the class from a package
Eg:
java.lang.NoSuchMethodError
java.lang.String
......

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Control statements (flow control)

-> In java we can write any number of statements which are executed in sequence order by
default
-> But if we want to execute java statements according to our requirement then we have to
use control statements
-> These statements decide whether a specific part of the code will be executed or not.
Types of Control Flow Statements
-> There are different types of control statements available in Java for different situations or
conditions.
-> In java, we can majorly divide control statements into three major types:
1. Selection / Conditional statements
2. Loop statements
3. Jump / Branching / Transfer statements

Conditional / Selection Statements

-> Conditional statements are used to execute group of statements based on condition
-> Conditional statements will evaluate boolean expression to make the decision
Simple ‘if’ statement in java
-> In java, we use if statement to test a condition and decide the execution of a block of
statements based on that condition result.
-> If the condition is True, then the block of statements is executed and if it is false, then the
block of statements will be ignored.

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The syntax and execution flow of if the statement is as follows.

Java Program on ‘Simple if condition’

if-else statement in java

-> In java, we use the if-else statement to test a condition and pick the execution of a block
of statements out of two blocks based on that condition result.
-> The if-else statement checks the given condition then decides which block of statements
to be executed based on the condition result.
-> If the condition is True, then the true block of statements is executed and if it is False,
then the false block of statements is executed.
-> The syntax and execution flow of if-else statement is as follows.

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Java Program on If – else statements

Nested if statement in java

Writing an if statement inside another if-statement is called nested if statement.
The general syntax of the nested if-statement is as follows.

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Java Program on Nested-If statement

if...else if…else statement

if…else if statements will be used when we need to compare the value with more than 2
conditions.
They are executed from top to bottom approach. As soon as the code finds the matching
condition, that block will be executed. But if no condition is matching then the last else
statement will be executed.

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Java Program on if-else-if – else statements

Assignment
1) Write a java program to check given number is even number or odd number
2) Write a java program to check given number is prime number or not
3) Write a java program to check given number is divisible by 5 or not
4) Write a java program to check given character is alphabet or digit

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Switch statement
-> Java switch statement compares the value and executes one of the case blocks based on
the condition.
-> It is same as if…else if ladder. Below are some points to consider while working with
switch statements:

• There can be one or N number of cases

• The values in the case must be unique
• case value must be of the same type as expression used in switch statement
• each case statement can have break statement (it is optional)

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Write a java program on ‘Switch’ case

Looping Statements in Java

-> Loop is an important concept of a programming that allows to iterate over the sequence
of statements.
-> Loop is designed to execute particular code block till the specified condition is true or all
the elements of a collection (array, list etc) are completely traversed.
-> The most common use of loop is to perform repetitive tasks. For example, if we want to
print table of a number then we need to write print statement 10 times. However, we can
do the same with a single print statement by using loop.
-> Loop is designed to execute its block till the specified condition is true.
Java provides mainly three loops based on the loop structure.
1. for loop
2. while loop
3. do while loop

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while statement in java

The while loop is used to execute a single statement or block of statements repeatedly as
long as the given condition is TRUE. The while statement is also known as Entry control
looping statement. The syntax and execution flow of while statement is as follows.

Write a java program on ‘while’ loop

do-while statement in java

The do-while loop is used to execute a single statement or block of statements repeatedly
as long as given the condition is TRUE. The do-while statement is also known as the Exit
control looping statement. The do-while statement has the following syntax.

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Write a java program on do-while loop

for loop in java

The for loop is used to execute a single statement or a block of statements repeatedly as
long as the given condition is TRUE.
To create a for loop, we need to set the following parameters.
1) Initialization: It is the initial part, where we set initial value for the loop. It is executed
only once at the starting of loop. It is optional, if we don’t want to set initial value.
2) Condition: It is used to test a condition each time while executing. The execution
continues until the condition is false. It is optional and if we don’t specify, loop will be
infinite.
3) Statement: It is loop body and executed every time until the condition is false.
4) Increment/Decrement: It is used for set increment or decrement value for the loop.

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Nested For Loop

➔ Writing a loop inside another loop is called as Nested For Loop

Write a java program on ‘Nested For Loop’

for-each loop in java

-> The Java for-each statement was introduced since Java 5.0 version.
-> It provides an approach to traverse through an array or collection in Java.
-> The for-each statement also known as enhanced for statement.
-> The for-each statement executes the block of statements for each element of the given
array or collection.

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Branching / Transfer Statements

-> Transferring statements are the control statements which are used to transfer the control
position from 1 location to another location
-> In Java we have following 3 types of transfer statements
1) break
2) continue
3) return
Break statement
-> In Java, break is a statement that is used to break current execution flow of the program.
-> We can use break statement inside loop, switch case etc.
-> If break is used inside loop then it will terminate the loop.
-> If break is used inside the innermost loop then break will terminate the innermost loop
only and execution will start from the outer loop.
-> If break is used in switch case then it will terminate the execution after the matched case.

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Continue Statement
-> In Java, the continue statement is used to skip the current iteration of the loop. It jumps
to the next iteration of the loop immediately.
-> We can use continue statement with for loop, while loop and do-while loop as well.

Return statement
-> return is a transferring statement which is used to stop the continuity of method
execution.

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Logical Programs - Assignment

Q-1) Write a java program to read shoes brand name from keyboard, based on brand
name print brand slogan like below
Nike -> Just do it
Adidas -> Impossible is nothing
Puma -> Forever Faster
Reebok -> I Am What I Am
Q-2) Write a java program to read person basic salary and calculate Provident Fund
amount from the basic salary
Formula: Provident Fund is 12 % of Basic Salary
Q-3) Write a java program to read person age and person salary and print his eligibility for
marriage
Condition: If person age less than 30 and salary greater than 1 lakh then eligible for
marriage
Q-4) Write a java program to find factorial of given number
Q-5) Write a java program to print mathematical table of given number
Q-6) Write a java program to print numbers from 100 to 1
Q-7) Write a java program to find sum of 1 - 100 numbers
Q-8) Write a java program to find sum of digits of given number
Q-9) Write a java program to check given number is Armstrong number or not
Q-10) Write a java program to print first 100 prime numbers
Q-11) Write java programs to print below patterns

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Q-12 ) Write a java program to print Descending order Pattern

5
54
543
5432
54321

Knowledge Check
1) What is Operator and why we need operators?
2) List down all the operators available in Java?
3) What is the difference between Relational & Logical Operators?
4) What is the purpose of 'new' operator?
5) What is the purpose of 'dot(.)' operator?
6) What is the purpose of instance of operator?
7) What is the difference between "=" and "==" operators?
8) What is the purpose of Control Statements & List down all the control statements
available in java?
9) Write a java program on if - else if - else ladder
10) Write a java program on 'switch' case
11) What is the difference between while & do-while loops
12) Write a java program on 'while' loop
13) What is the difference between 'while' loop & 'for' loop
14) Write a java program on 'for' loop
15) Write a java program on 'nested for loop'
16) What is the difference between 'break' and 'continue' & 'return' keywords
17) Write a java program using 'break' keyword
18) Write a java program using 'continue' keyword

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Chapter – 4
• Arrays
• String
• StringBuffer
• StringBuffer
• Command Line Args

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Arrays
-> Array is an object which contains elements of similar data type
-> Array is a container object that hold values of homogeneous type.
-> Array is also known as static data structure because size of an array must be specified at
the time of its declaration.
-> Array starts from zero index and goes to n-1 where n is length of the array.
-> Array in Java is index-based, the first element of the array is stored at the 0th index, 2nd
element is stored on 1st index and so on.
-> In Java, array is treated as an object and stores into heap memory. It allows to store
primitive values or reference values.

Types of Arrays in java

There are two types of arrays in java
1) Single Dimensional Array
2) Multidimensional Array
Single Dimensional Array in Java

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-> Instantiation is a process of allocating memory to an array. At the time of instantiation,

we specify the size of array to reserve memory area.

-> In the above example, we created an array arr of int type and can store 5 elements. We
iterate the array to access its elements and it prints five times zero to the console. It prints
zero because we did not set values to array, so all the elements of the array initialized to 0
by default.

Set Array Elements

We can set array elements either at the time of initialization or by assigning direct to its
index.

-> Here, we are assigning values at the time of array creation. It is useful when we want to
store static data into the array.
-> We can set value based on index position also

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Accessing array element

We can access array elements by its index value. Either by using loop or direct index value.
We can use loop like: for, for-each or while to traverse the array elements.

Length Of Array In Java

The length of an array indicates the number of elements present in the array. Unlike C/C++,
where we use ‘sizeof’ operator to get the length of the array, Java array has ‘length’
property. We will explore more on this property later.

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Multi-Dimensional Array
A multi-dimensional array is very much similar to a single dimensional array. It can have
multiple rows and multiple columns unlike single dimensional array, which can have only
one row index.
It represents data into tabular form in which data is stored into row and columns.

Logical Programs On Arrays

1) Write a java program to print array elements
2) Write a java program to calculate sum of array
3) Write a java program to reverse array elements
4) Write a java program to print min and max elements in array
5) Write a java program to print second min and second max elements in array

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Strings
-> String is an object that represents sequence of characters.
Ex: "hello”, "ashokit"
-> In Java, String is represented by String class which is available java.lang package
-> One important thing to notice about string object is that string objects are immutable
that means once a string object is created it cannot be changed.
How to create String object in Java?
-> To handle string data in Java, we need an object of string class. Basically, there are three
ways to create a String object in Java.
1) By string literal.
2) By new keyword.
3) By converting character arrays into strings
Working with String literal
-> String literal in Java is created by using double quotes.
String str = "hello";
-> The string literal is always created in the string constant pool.

-> In Java, String constant pool is a special area that is used for storing string objects.
-> Whenever we create a string literal in Java, JVM checks string constant pool first. If the
string already exists in string constant pool, no new string object will be created in the string
pool by JVM.
-> JVM uses the same string object by pointing a reference to it to save memory. But if string
does not exist in the string pool, JVM creates a new string object and placed it in the pool.

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For example:
String s1 = "Hello";
String s2 = "Hello";

Creating String Object by using new Keyword

-> The second way of creating an object to string class is by using new operator.
-> It is just like creating an object of any class. It can be declared as follows:
String s = new String("Hello");
-> Whenever we will create an object of string class using the new operator, JVM will create
two objects. First, it will create an object in the heap area and store string “Hello” into the
object.
-> After storing data into memory, JVM will point a reference variable s to that object in the
heap. Allocating memory for string objects is shown in the below figure.

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-> Now JVM will create the second object as a copy for literal “Hello” in string constant pool
for future purposes. There is no explicit reference variable pointing to the copy object in the
pool but internally, JVM maintains the reference variable implicitly.
-> Remember that the object created in the SCP area is not eligible for garbage collection
because implicitly, the reference variable will be maintained by JVM itself.
By converting Character Arrays into String
-> The third way to create strings is by converting the character arrays into string. Let’s take
a character type array: arr[ ] with some characters as given below:
char arr[ ] = {'j','a','v','a'};
-> Now create a string object by passing array name to string constructor like this:
String s = new String(arr);
-> Now string object ‘s’ contains string “java”. It means that all the characters of the array
are copied into string.
-> If you do not want all the characters of the array into string then you can also mention
which character you need, like this:
String s = new String(arr, 1,3);
-> From the above statement, total of three characters will be copied into string s. Since the
original characters are j-a-v-a. So, the counting will start from 0 i.e 0th character in the array
is ‘j’ and the first character is ‘a’. Starting from ‘a’, total of three characters ‘aja’ will copy
into string s.

How many total objects will be created in memory for following string objects?
String s1 = new String("ashokit");
String s2 = new String("ashokit");
String s3 = "ashokit";
String s4 = "ashokit";

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1. During the execution of first statement using new operator, JVM will create two objects,
one with content in heap area and another as a copy for literal “ashokit” in the SCP area for
future purposes as shown in the figure.
The reference variable s1 is pointing to the first object in the heap area.

2. When the second statement will be executed, for every new operation, JVM will create
again one new object with content “ashokit” in the heap area.
But in the SCP area, no new object for literal will be created by JVM because it is already
available in the SCP area. The s2 is pointing to the object in the heap area as shown in the
figure.
3. During the execution of third and fourth statements, JVM will not create a new object
with content “ashokit” in the SCP area because it is already available in string constant pool.
It simply points the reference variables s3 and s4 to the same object in the SCP. They are
shown in the above figure.
Thus, three objects are created, two in the heap area and one in string constant pool.

Why String Objects are given as immutable objects

An object can be referred by multiple reference variables in this case if string objects are
mutable objects, then we change the content of object automatically other references get
also modified so that string objects are given as immutable objects it means whenever any
operation is done on strings it will create new object.

String Manipulations
String class provided several methods to perform operations on Strings
#1) Length
The length is the number of characters that a given string contains. String class has a
length() method that gives the number of characters in a String.

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#2) concatenation
Although Java uses a ‘+’ operator for concatenating two or more strings. A concat() is an
inbuilt method for String concatenation in Java.

#3) String to CharArray()

This method is used to convert all the characters of a string into a Character Array. This is
widely used in the String manipulation programs.

#4) String charAt()

This method is used to retrieve a single character from a given String.
The syntax is given as:
char charAt(int i);
The value of ‘i’ should not be negative and it should specify the location of a given String i.e.
if a String length is 5, then the value of ‘i’ should be less than 5.

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#5) Java String compareTo()

This method is used to compare two Strings. The comparison is based on alphabetical order.
In general terms, a String is less than the other if it comes before the other in the dictionary.

#6) String contains()

This method is used to determine whether a substring is a part of the main String or not.
The return type is Boolean.
For E.g. In the below program, we will check whether “it” is a part of “ashokit” or not and
we will also check whether “blog” is a part of “ashokit”.

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#7) Java String split()

As the name suggests, a split() method is used to split or separate the given String into
multiple substrings separated by the delimiters (“”, “ ”, \\, etc).
In the below example, we will split the String (Thexyzwebsitexyzisxyzashokitxyzhelp) using a
chunk of String(xyz) already present in the main String.

#8) Java String indexOf()

This method is used to perform a search operation for a specific character or a substring on
the main String. There is one more method known as lastIndexOf() which is also commonly
used.

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indexOf() is used to search for the first occurrence of the character.

lastIndexOf() is used to search for the last occurrence of the character.

#9) Java String toString()

This method returns the String equivalent of the object that invokes it. This method does
not have any parameters. Given below is the program where we will try to get the String
representation of the object.

#10) String replace ()

The replace() method is used to replace the character with the new characters in a String.

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#12) Substring Method ()

The Substring() method is used to return the substring of the main String by specifying the
starting index and the last index of the substring.
For Example, in the given String “ashokitjavaclasses”, we will try to fetch the substring by
specifying the starting index and the last index.

StringBuffer Class
-> StringBuffer class is used to create a mutable string object. It means, it can be changed
after it is created.
-> It is similar to String class in Java both are used to create string, but stringbuffer object
can be changed.
-> StringBuffer class is used when we have to make lot of modifications to our string.
-> It is also thread safe i.e multiple threads cannot access it simultaneously.
StringBuffer defines 4 constructors.
StringBuffer(): It creates an empty string buffer and reserves space for 16 characters.
StringBuffer(int size): It creates an empty string and takes an integer argument to set
capacity of the buffer.
StringBuffer(String str): It creates a stringbuffer object from the specified string.
StringBuffer(charSequence []ch): It creates a stringbuffer object from the charsequence
array.

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Creating StringBuffer Object

Difference Between String & StringBuffer

Note: In the above program Output is such because String objects are immutable objects.
Hence, if we concatenate on the same String object, it won't be altered But StringBuffer
creates mutable objects. Hence, it can be altered.

StringBuffer class methods

#1) append()
This method will concatenate the string representation of any type of data to the end of the
StringBuffer object

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#2) insert() :
This method inserts one string into another. Here are few forms of insert() method

#3) reverse()
This method reverses the characters within a StringBuffer object.

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#4) replace()
This method replaces the string from specified start index to the end index.

#5) capacity()
This method returns the current capacity of StringBuffer object.

Java StringBuilder class

-> StringBuilder is identical to StringBuffer except for one important difference that it is not
synchronized, which means it is not thread safe.
-> StringBuilder also used for creating string object that is mutable and non synchronized.
-> The StringBuilder class provides no guarantee of synchronization.
-> StringBuffer and StringBuilder both are mutable but if synchronization is not required
then it is recommended to use StringBuilder class.
-> This class is located into java.lang package and signature of the class is as:
StringBuilder Constructors
StringBuilder (): creates an empty StringBuilder and reserves room for 16 characters.
StringBuilder (int size): create an empty string and takes an integer argument to set
capacity of the buffer.

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StringBuilder (String str): create a StringBuilder object and initialize it with string str.
StringBuilder (CharSequence seq): It creates stringbuilder object by using CharSequence
object.

Working with StringBuilder class

-> When we want a mutable String without thread-safety then StringBuilder should be used
-> When we want a mutable String with thread-safety then StringBuffer should be used
-> When we want an Immutable object then String should be used.

Logical Programs on Strings

1) Write a java program to combine two strings
2) Write a java program to reverse a String
3) Write a java program to check given String is a palindrome or not
4) Write a java program remove all occurrences of a given character from String
5) Write a program to count number of words in a String
6) Write a java program to compare two strings
7) Write a java program to check first string present in second string
8) Write a java program to find first non-repeated character in given String

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Command Line Arguments

-> Command-line arguments in Java are used to pass arguments to the main program.
-> If you look at the Java main method syntax, it accepts String array as an argument.

-> When we pass command-line arguments, they are treated as strings and passed to the
main method in the string array argument.
-> The arguments have to be passed as space-separated values.
-> We can pass strings and primitive data types as command-line arguments.
-> The arguments will be converted to strings and passed into the main method string array
argument.
Java Program with Command Line Arguments

Passing Command Line Arguments to Above Program

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Chapter- 5: OOPS (Part – 1)

• OOPS Introduction
• Classes
• Objects
• Variables
o Instance
o Static
o Local
• Methods
• Constructor

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OOPS
-> Programming languages are divided into 2 types
1) Procedure Oriented Languages
Ex: C, Cobol, Pascal etc.....
2) Object Oriented Languages
Ex: Java, C#, Python etc.....
-> In Procedure Oriented programming language, we will develop functions & procedures
-> If we want to add more functionalities then we need to develop more functions
-> Maintaining & Managing more functions is difficult task
-> In PoP, data is exposed globally
-> In Pop, there is no security
-> If we want to develop a project using OOP lanaguage then we have to use Classes &
Objects
-> Any language which follows OOPS Principles is called as OOP Language
-> Object Oriented languages provides security for our data
-> The main advantage of OOPS is code re-usability
OOPS Principles
1) Encapsulation
2) Abstraction
3) Polymorphism
4) Inheritance
Encapsulation
-> Encapsulation is used to combine our variables & methods as single entity / unit
-> Encapsulation provides data hiding
-> We can achieve encapsulation using Classes
class Demo {
//variables
// methods
}

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Abstraction
-> Abstraction means hiding un-necessary data and providing only required data
-> We can achieve Abstraction using interfaces & abstract classes
Ex : we will not bother about how laptop working internally
We will not bother about how car engine starting internally

Polymorphism
-> Exhibiting multiple behaviours based on situation is called as Polymorphism
Ex:-1 : in below scenario + symbol having 2 different behaviours
10 + 20 ===> 30 (Here + is adding)
"hi" + "hello" ==> hihello (here + is concatinating)

Ex:-2:
When i come to class i will behave like a trainer
When i go to ofc i will behave like a employee
When i go to home i will behave like a family member

Inheritance
-> Extending the properties from one class to another class is called as Inheritance
Ex: child will inherit the properties from parent
-> The main aim of inheritance is code re-usability
Note: In java, one child can't inherit properties from two parents at a time
Class
-> Class is a plan or model or template
-> Class is a blue print of object
-> Class is used to declare variables & methods
-> Project means collection of classes
-> Once class is created then we can create any no.of objects for a class
-> 'class' keyword is used to create Classes in java

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-> Classes will not exist physically

Object
-> Any real-world entity is called as Object
-> Objects exist physically
-> Objects will be created based on the Classes
-> Without having the class, we can' create object (class is mandatory to create objects)
-> Object creation means allocating memory in JVM
-> 'new' keyword is used to create the objects

Note: Here ‘User’ is a class name

-> Objects will be created by JVM in the runtime
-> Objects will be created in heap area.
-> If object is not using then garbage Collector will remove that object from heap
-> Garbage Collector is responsible for memory clean-up activities in JVM heap area.
-> Garbage Collector will remove un-used objects from heap.
-> Garbage Collector will be managed & controlled by JVM only.
Note: Programmer don't have control on Garbage Collector.

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What is Hash Code

-> When we create Object for class, then JVM will assign unique hashcode for every object
-> No two objects will have same hashcode
-> We can get hashcode of the object by calling java.lang.Object class hashCode () method.
u1.hashCode ( );
Note: java.lang.Object class is by default parent class for all java classes.

Variables
-> Variables are used to store the data
int a = 10 ;
User u1 = new User ( );
Student s1 = new Student ( );
-> Variables are divided into 3 types
a) Global Variables / instance variables / non-static variables
b) static variables
c) local variables
Instance variables
-> Variables which are declared inside the class and outside the method are called as
instance variables
-> instance variables can be accessed by all the methods available in the class thats why the
are called as Global Variables.
-> Initialization is optional for instance variables

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-> Instance variables are called as Object variables

-> When we create the object, then only memory will be allocated for instance variables
Note: If we create 2 objects, then 2 times memory will be allocated for instance variables
-> If we don't initialize instance variable, it will be initialized with default value based on
datatype when the object is created
-> Every Object will maintain its own copy of the instance variable

Static Variables
-> The variables which are declared inside the class and outside the method with 'static'
keyword are called as static variables
-> Static variables are class level variables
-> When class is loaded into JVM then immediately memory will be allocated for static
variables
-> Memory will be allocated for static variables only once when the class is loaded into JVM
-> All objects of the class will maintain same copy of the static variables
-> Static variables we will access using class name

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When to declare variable as static or non-static?

-> If we want to store different value based on object then use instance variable
-> If we want to store same value for all objects then use static variable

Local Variables
-> The variables which are declared inside the method or constructor or block are called as
Local Variables
-> If we declare a variable with in the method, then that variable can be used / accessed
only with in that method
-> Before using local variables, we have to initialize them
-> If we create a variable with in the method, memory will be allocated for that variable
when that method is executing. After that method execution completed, local variable will
be deleted from memory

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Methods
-> Methods are used to perform some operation / action
-> In a class we can write any no. of methods including main method
-> Every method contains 2 parts
1) Method Declaration
2) Method Body
What is Method Declaration?
Method declaration means we are going to decide what is the name of the method, what
are the parameters it will take and what kind of value is return by the method.

What is return type?

-> return type is data type that indicates what type of value is return by the particular
method.
-> return type can be any primitive type or array type or reference type
-> if method does not return any value, then return type must be specified using a java
keyword called " void ".
-> specifying return type is mandatory
What is method name?
-> To identify and access the method we should give a suitable name for a method which is
called as method name.
-> a method name can be any valid java identifier.
-> specifying method name is mandatory
What are method parameters?
-> parameters are the variables that will receive the values that are passed into the.
particular method on which data method will perform the operations.
-> we can write 0 or more number of parameters of any primitive type or array type or
reference type
-> specifying parameters is optional.

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method body/method definition/method implementation

-> method definition means we are going to write the group of statements that are
executed by the method.
-> a method definition can be written in between a pair of curry braces syntax:

-> here we can write 0 or more number of statements in between the pair of curly braces.
-> when we write 0 statements then it is called as null implementation
-> if the return type is specified as other than void then we must return a value from our
method using java keyword called " return ".
-> The datatype of the value we return must be match with the datatype that we specify as
return type.
-> But if return type specified as void, then we must not write any return value statement.
-> In java we can create any number of methods which are in any of the following 4
combinations of methods
1. method without return type, without parameters
2. method without return type, with parameters
3. method with return type, without parameters
4. method with return type, with parameters

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Scenario-1: Method without parameters & without return type

Scenario-2: Method with parameters & without return type

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Scenario-3: Method with return type & without parameters

Scenario-4 Method with return type & with parameters

Method with String return type & String parameters

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Method with array as parameter & without return type

Method with int as parameter & boolean return type

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Method with Object as parameter & without return type

Method with Object as return type & without parameter

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Types of Methods
-> Methods are divided into 2 types
1) instance / non – static methods ---> Object level methods
2) static methods ----> Class level methods
In a class, we can write any no. of instance and static methods
Not: To create static method we will use ‘static’ keyword.
-> When we write methods in java class, by default JVM will not execute them. To execute
our methods, we have to call them.
-> instance method will be called by using Object
objReference.methodName( .. ) ;
-> static method will be called by using Class Name
ClassName.methodName( .. );
Instance & Static methods Example

Note: When we have static method in same class then we can invoke/call it directly without
using classname.
In above program Line : 17, we are calling static method with classname, as the method is
available in same class we can call directly like below.
greet ( ) ;

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Explain about main ( ) method

-> Java program execution will be begin from main() method
-> JVM always expect main() method like follows
public static void main(String args [] ){
//statements;
}

1. public:
public is keyword/ modifier / access specifier which indicates the particular entity can be
accessed from any location. main() method should be declared as public so that JVM can
execute the main() method from any location.
2. static:
static is keyword/ modifier which indicates the particular method can access directly by
using class name.
main() method should be declared as static so that JVM can access the main() method
directly by using class name.
3. void:
void is keyword/ return type which indicates the particular method does not return any
value. JVM is not expecting any value to be return from main() method so that main()
method should have the return type as void.
4. main():
main is the name of the method(identifier) which is fixed according to sun micro system's
JVM implementation.
5. parameters of main () method (String args[])
parameters of main () method are mainly used to accept the command line arguments to
resolve the problem of hard coding.
Explain about System.out.println()
System.out.println() is statement used to display messages on the monitor.
System: System is a predefined class available in java. lang package
Out: out is reference variable of PrintStream class which is holding an object of PrintStream
class and declared in
System class as static variable. so that we can access this out variable directly with the help
of class name.

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Println () : println() is the instance method of PrintStream class. If we want to access this
method, we must create an object for PrintStream class but we don’t need to create any
object for PrintStream class because the object for PrintStream class is already created in
System class
Note: System.out is by default connected to monitor. System.in is by default connected to
keyboard.

Method Recursion
In Java, a method that calls itself is known as a recursive method. And, this process is known
as recursion.
Recursion Syntax
Any method that implements Recursion has two basic parts:
a) Method call which can call itself i.e. recursive
b) A precondition that will stop the recursion.
Note that a precondition is necessary for any recursive method as, if we do not break the
recursion then it will keep on running infinitely and result in a stack overflow error

Write a java program to find Factorial of a given number

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Assignment On Recursion
1) Check If a Number is a Palindrome Using Recursion
2) Reverse a String using Recursion in Java
3) Find Minimum Value in Array Using Recursion

Constructors
-> When we declare instance variables and not initialized with any value, then they
automatically initialized with default values.
-> but if we want to initialize instance variables with our own values then we can initialize
instance variables in following 2 locations,
1. At the time of declaration
2. Using Constructor
-> A constructor is a special method that is used to initialize an object / instance variables.
-> If we don't declare a constructor in the class then JVM builds a default constructor for
that class. This is known as default constructor.
Rules of the constructor

• Constructor name must be same as Class Name

• Constructor cannot take any return type but if we write any return type then the
code is valid but it is considered as normal method
• We cannot return any value from the constructor
• Constructors can take one or parameters

Default Constructor
-> In Java, a constructor is said to be default constructor if it does not have any parameter.
Default constructor can be either user defined or provided by JVM.
-> If a class does not contain any constructor, then during runtime JVM generates a default
constructor which is known as system define default constructor.
-> If a class contain a constructor with no parameter, then it is known as default constructor
defined by user. In this case JVM does not create default constructor.

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Based on the number of parameters, constructors are classified into following 2 types,
1) 0 Parameterized Constructor
2) Parameterized Constructor
0 parametrized constructor
-> If we declare any constructor without any parameters then it is called as 0 parametrized
constructor.

-> When we create object for the class then Constructor will be called.

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Parametrized constructor
If we declare any constructor with parameters then it is called as parameterized
constructor.

Note: When the constructor is having parameters, at the time of creating object we have to
pass those parameters.
// Program on Parameterized Constructor

When the default constructor will be added by JVM ?

-> When our class doesn’t have any constructor then only JVM will add constructor
-> If our class having any constructor, then JVM will not add any constructor

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Constructor Overloading
-> Java Constructor overloading is a technique in which a class can have any number of
constructors that differ in parameter list.
In other words, defining two or more constructors with the same name but with different
signatures is called constructor overloading in java. It is used to perform different tasks.
-> The compiler differentiates these constructors by taking into account the number of
parameters in the list and their data type.

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// Program on Constructor Overloading

This keyword
In Java, this is a keyword which is used to refer current object of a class. we can it to refer
any member of the class. It means we can access any instance variable and method by using
this keyword.
The main purpose of using this keyword is to solve the confusion when we have same
variable name for instance and local variables.
We can use this keyword for the following purpose.

• this keyword is used to refer to current object.

• this is always a reference to the object on which method was invoked.
• this can be used to invoke current class constructor.
• this can be passed as an argument to another method.
Let’s first understand the most general use of this keyword. As we said, it can be used to
differentiate local and instance variables in the class.
Example:
In this example, we have three instance variables and a constructor that have three
parameters with same name as instance variables. Now, we will use this to assign values of
parameters to instance variables.

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Knowledge – Check
1) What is Class ?
2) What is Object ?
3) Why we need to Create Object ?
4) What is instance variable and why we need them ?
5) When memory will be allocated for instance variables ?
6) How many times memory will be allocated for instance variables ?
7) What is static variable and why we need them ?
8) When memory will be allocated for static variables ?
9) How many times memory will be allocated for static variables ?
10) What is Local Variable & Why we need Local Variable ?
11) When Memory will be allocated for local variable ?
12) What is Constructor why we need Constructor ?
13) What are the rules to write Constructor ?
14) What is Constructor Overloading & Why we need it ?
15) What is Method and Why we need methods ?
16) When to take method parameter and method return type ?
17) When to use primitive type for method parameters & return types ?
18) When to use Object as method parameter & return type?
19) What is Object Oriented Language ?
20) What are OOPS principles?

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Chapter – 6 : OOPS (Part – 2)

• Access Modifiers
• Encapsulation
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Abstraction
• Interfaces
• Abstract Classes
• Java.lang. Object class

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Access Modifiers in Java

-> Access modifiers are keywords in Java that are used to set accessibility.
-> An access modifier restricts the access of a class, constructor, data member and method
in another class.
Java language has four access modifiers to control access level for classes and its members.

• Default: Default has scope only inside the same package

• Public: Public has scope that is visible everywhere
• Protected: Protected has scope within the package and all sub classes
• Private: Private has scope only within the classes
Java also supports many non-access modifiers, such as static, abstract, synchronized, native,
volatile, transient etc.
Inheritance
-> inheritance is the one of most important concepts of OOPS
-> inheritance means taking the properties of on class into another class
-> in inheritance the class which is giving properties is called as parent class or super class or
base class
-> in inheritance the class which is taking properties is called as child class or sub class or
derived class
-> The main advantage of inheritance is re usability
-> To achieve inheritance we will use ‘extends’ keyword

Now based on above example. In OOPs term we can say that,

• Vehicle is super class of Car.

• Car is sub class of Vehicle.
• Car IS-A Vehicle.
// Inheritance Example – Accessing parent class method in child class

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Note:
1. If we create an object for parent class then we can access only the members of Parent
class
2. but if we create an object for child class then we can access the members of Both Parent
class and Child class
-> In the code above, we have a class Parent which has a method p1(). We then create a
new class Child which inherits the class Parent using the extends keyword and defines its
own method c1(). Now by virtue of inheritance the class Child can also access the public
method p1() of the class Parent.
// Inheritance Example – Accessing parent class variable in child class

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Types of Inheritances
Based on the no. of parent classes & child classes we can divide inheritance into below
types.

• Single Inheritance
• Multilevel Inheritance
• Hierarchical Inheritance
• Multiple Inheritance

Why java does not support multiple inheritance

In multiple inheritance child class is taking properties from multiple parent classes in this
case if we have same property in all the parent classes then it is a confusion to child class to
decide to take the particular property from which parent class, hence multiple inheritance is
not supported in Java.
Inheritance Rules
-> In java we can create a class that extends only one class and we cannot create a class that
extends more than one class because java does not support multiple inheritance.

-> In java cyclic inheritance is not supported.

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-> In java every predefined class or user defined class are child classes of Object class either
directly or indirectly so that all members of the Object class we can directly use in any class.
-> When we declare a class and we are not extending from any class then compiler will
create the class by extending from Object class automatically.
but we declare a class by extending from any one class then compiler won’t extend from
Object class, hence we call Object class as java's super most class

super keyword
In Java, super keyword is used to refer to immediate parent class of a child class. In other
words super keyword is used by a subclass whenever it need to refer to its immediate super
class.

// Example on Super keyword – variable & method invocation

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// Example of Child class calling Parent class constructor using super keyword

Note: When calling the parent class constructor from the child class using super keyword,
super keyword should always be the first line in the method/constructor of the child class.
Q. Can we use both this () and super () in a Constructor?
NO, because both super () and this () must be first statement inside a constructor. Hence,
we cannot use them together.

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Types of Relationships in Java

-> We have below 2 types of relationships
1) Is-A relationship
2) Has-A relationship

IS-A relationship
-> If class is extending from another class then it is called as Is-A relation.
-> Here we can access class1 information inside the class2 directly without creating an
object for class1.

Has-A relation
-> If a class contains other class object, then it is called as Has-A relation.
-> Here we can access class1 information inside the class2 only by using object of class1.

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Polymorphism
-> Polymorphism means defining one entity with multiple behaviours
-> In java we have following 2 types of poly morphisms.
1. Compile time polymorphism
2. Runtime Polymorphism

Compile time Polymorphism: If polymorphism is decided at the time of compilation by java

compiler, then it is called as compile time polymorphism
Note: By using the concept of method overloading we can achieve this compile time poly
morphism.
Runtime poly morphism: If polymorphism is decided at the time of execution time by JVM
then it is called as run time polymorphism.
Note: By using the concept of method overriding we can achieve this runtime poly
morphism.

Method overloading
Method overloading means declaring multiple methods with same method name but having
different method signature.
In method overloading while writing the method signature we have to follow following 3
Rules

• Method name must be same for all methods

• List of parameters must be different like different type of parameters, different
number of parameters, different order of parameters.
• Return type is not considered in method overloading; it means we never decide
method overloading with return type

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// method overloading example

why should we go for method overloading?

When we want to maintain the flexibility in our application like using one method
performing several operations then we can use this method overloading.

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Method overriding
-> If we want to achieve the run time polymorphism then we have to use method
overriding.
-> Method overriding means declaring 2 methods with same method signature in 2 different
classes which are having IS-A relation.
-> While Method overriding and writing the method signature, we must follow following
rules.

• Method name must be same

• List of parameters must be same
• Return type must be same
• Private, final and static methods cannot be overridden.
• There must be an IS-A relationship between classes (inheritance).

// Method Overriding Example

As you can see here Dog class gives it own implementation of eat() method. For method
overriding, the method must have same name and same type signature in both parent and
child class.
NOTE: Static methods cannot be overridden because, a static method is bounded with class
whereas instance method is bounded with object.

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Why should we go for Method overriding?

Whenever child class don't want to use definition written by the Parent class and want to
use its own logic then we have to use method overriding it means we have to override the
same method with new definition inside the child class.

Final keyword
-> final is a keyword or modifier which can be used at variables, methods & classes.
-> If we declare a variable as final then we can’t modify value of the variable. The variable
acts like a constant. Final field must be initialized when it is declared.
-> If we declare a method as final then we can't override that method
-> If we declare a class as final then we can't extend from that class. We cannot inherit final
class in Java.
// Program on final keyword

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Type casting
-> Type casting is the process of converting value from one type to another type.
-> We always do typecast between 2 different data types which are compatible.
Note: In between 2 same data types typecasting is not required.
-> In java we have following 2 types of type castings
1.type casting w.r.t primitive data types
2.type casting w.r.t reference types
Type casting wrt primitive data types
-> Type casting wrt primitive data types means converting value from one primitive data
type to other primitive data type
-> Type casting can be done only between compatible data types
-> Compatible data types are byte, short, int, long, float, double, char
-> we have following 2 types of Type casting w.r.t primitive data types
1) Widening
2) Narrowing

Widening
-> Widening means converting the value from lower data type into higher data type.
syntax:
higher datatype = (higher datatype) lower datatype ;
-> Here data type specified in between the pair of parentheses is called type casting.
-> In widening writing the type casting is optional
-> If we don’t write any type casting then compiler will write the type casting automatically
hence it is called as implicit type casting.

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Narrowing
-> narrowing means converting the higher data type value into smaller data type.
syntax:
lowerdatatype = (lowerdatatype) higherdatatype;
-> In narrowing writing the type casting is mandatory
-> In narrowing if we don’t write any type casting then compiler wont write any typecasting
because there is a chance of loss of some data so that user has to write the typecasting
explicitly hence it is called as explicit type casting.

Type casting w.r.t reference types

-> Type casting w.r.t reference types means converting the object from one reference type
to another reference type
-> But Type casting w.r.t references can be done only between compatible types
-> The two references said to be compatible if and only if its corresponding classes having Is-
>A relation
-> Type casting w.r.t references is also classified into following 2 types

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1) Up Casting
2) Down Casting

Up casting
-> Up casting means storing the child class object into the parent class reference.
syntax:
parentreferencetype = (parentreferencetype) childreferencetype
Note: In up casting writing typecasting is optional

Down casting
-> Down casting means storing the Parent class object into the child class reference.
syntax: childreferencetype = (childreferencetype) parentreferencetype
Note: In down casting writing typecasting is mandatory
// Type Casting Example w.r.t to reference types

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Java Abstract class and methods

-> A class which is declared using abstract keyword known as abstract class.
-> An abstract class may or may not have abstract methods.
-> We cannot create object of abstract class.
-> It is used to achieve abstraction but it does not provide 100% abstraction because it can
have concrete methods.

• An abstract class must be declared with an abstract keyword.

• It can have abstract and non-abstract methods.
• It cannot be instantiated.
• It is used for abstraction.
Syntax :
abstract class class_name { }
Abstract method
Method that are declared without any body within an abstract class are called abstract
method.
The method body will be defined by its subclass.
Abstract method can never be final and static.
Any class that extends an abstract class must implement all the abstract methods.
Syntax:
abstract return_type function_name (); //No definition
// Program on abstract class & abstract method

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When to use Abstract Methods & Abstract Class?

Abstract methods are usually declared where two or more subclasses are expected to do a
similar thing in different ways through different implementations. These subclasses extend
the same Abstract class and provide different implementations for the abstract methods.
Abstract classes are used to define generic types of behaviours at the top of an object-
oriented programming class hierarchy, and use its subclasses to provide implementation
details of the abstract class.
Interfaces in Java
-> An interface is a fully abstract class. It includes a group of abstract methods (methods
without a body).
-> We use the interface keyword to create an interface in Java.

Here, Language is an interface.

It contains abstract methods: getType() and getVersion().

Note:
-> All the variables declared in interface are public static final by default whether we specify
or not
-> All the methods declared in interface are public abstract by default whether we specify or
not
public: all the variables and methods declared in interface are public so that they can be
accessible from any where.
static: variables declared in interface are by default static so that they can be accessible
directly by using the interface name.
final: the variables declared in interface are by default final it means they are constant
whose value cannot be changed.
abstract: all the methods declared in interface are abstract because they don’t contain any
method body

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Implementing an Interface
-> Like abstract classes, we cannot create objects of interfaces.
-> To use an interface, other classes must implement it. We use the implements keyword to
implement an interface.

In the above example, we have created an interface named Language. The interface
includes an abstract method getName().
Here, the ProgrammingLanguage class implements the interface and provides the
implementation for the method.

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Interface Rules

• For an interface we cannot create any object directly but we can create reference
variable
• Once an interface is implemented by any class then that class must provide the
implementation for all the abstract methods available in the particular interface. This
class is also called as implementation class or child class.
• For example, if our class is not providing implementation for at least 1 method then
our class must be declared as abstract
• We cannot create an object for abstract class or interface but we can create an
object only for implementation class.
• Once an interface is created then any number of classes can implement that
interface
-> In Java, a class can implement multiple interfaces. For example,

-> Similar to classes, interfaces can extend other interfaces. The extends keyword is used for
extending interfaces. For example,

Here, the Polygon interface extends the Line interface. Now, if any class implements
Polygon, it should provide implementations for all the abstract methods of both Line and
Polygon.

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-> An interface can extend multiple interfaces also

Why do we use an Interface?

• It is used to achieve total abstraction.

• Since java does not support multiple inheritances in the case of class, by using an
interface it can achieve multiple inheritances.
• It is also used to achieve loose coupling.
• Interfaces are used to implement abstraction. So the question arises why use
interfaces when we have abstract classes?

Default Methods in interfaces

Before Java 8, we could only declare abstract methods in an interface. However, Java 8
introduced the concept of default methods. Default methods are methods that can have a
body. The most important use of default methods in interfaces is to provide additional
functionality to a given type without breaking down the implementing classes.
Before Java 8, if a new method was introduced in an interface then all the implementing
classes used to break. We would need to provide the implementation of that method in all
the implementing classes.
However, sometimes methods have only single implementation and there is no need to
provide their implementation in each class. In that case, we can declare that method as a
default in the interface and provide its implementation in the interface itself.

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What are static methods in interfaces?

The static methods in interfaces are similar to default methods but the only difference is
that you can’t override them.
Now, why do we need static methods in interfaces if we already have default methods?
Suppose you want to provide some implementation in your interface and you don’t want
this implementation to be overridden in the implementing class, then you can declare the
method as static.

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Marked interface or tagged interface

-> We can also declare an interface without any abstract methods which is called Marked
interface or tagged interface
-> the main advantage of Marked interfaces is giving an instruction to JVM to perform a
special task.
Eg: Cloneable, Serializable, EventListener, ...
Functional interfaces
Functional interfaces are new additions in Java 8. As a rule, a functional interface can
contain exactly one abstract method. These functional interfaces are also called Single
Abstract Method interfaces (SAM Interfaces).
Apart from one abstract method, a functional interface can also have the following methods
that do not count for defining it as a functional interface.

• Default methods
• Static methods
• Public methods inherited from the Object class

// Functional interface example

Note: Functional Interfaces are introduced to invoke Lambda Expressions

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Variable Arguments In Java

-> In Java version 1.5, Java has included a feature that simplifies the creation of methods
that need to take a variable number of arguments.
-> A method that takes a variable number of arguments is a var-args method.
Rules for var args
There are some rules for var args that we must follow, otherwise, the code can't compile,
They are:
1) There can be only one variable argument in the method
2) Variable arguments (var args) must be the last argument
3) Variable argument should have only three ellipses (...)

// how we will write method before java - 5

Note: If we observe above program, we are writing sum ( ) method different arguments. If
we want to add 5 numbers or 6 numbers or 7 numbers then writing multiple methods will
become difficult.

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// Writing method with var args from Java 1.5 v

Java.lang. Object class in Java

-> Object class is present in java.lang package.
-> Every class in Java is directly or indirectly derived from the Object class.
-> If a class does not extend any other class, then it is a direct child class of Object and if
extends another class then it is indirectly derived.
-> Object class methods are available to all Java classes. Hence Object class acts as a root of
inheritance hierarchy in any Java Program.
-> Below are the methods available in java.lang.Object class
1. String toString()
This method used to represent the object in the form of string. when we display any object
it will call toString() method automatically whether we specify or not

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// Example on Object class toString ( ) method

// output of Object class toString ( ) method

// Predefined code of toString() method in Object class

when we display the object of the class it will call Object class toString( ) method, if we want
to display object data then we have to override the toString() method inside the particular
class.

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// Example on toString ( ) method - overriding in our class to get object data

// Output after overriding toString ( ) method

Note: String, StringBuffer,Wrapper classes are already overriding toString() method

2. Class getClass()
-> This method returns the object in the form of Class using which we can get the
information of particular class like class name, belongs what package,.....
-> When ever we want to know what it is underlying class name of the particular object we
have to use getClass() method of Object class.

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3. int hashCode()
-> This method returns hashcode of the particular object .
-> Hashcode is a unique identification number which holds address of the corresponding
object.

Note: We can also provide our own hashcode then we have to override the hashcode()
method inside corresponding class

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4. boolean equals(Object o)
this method compares the 2 references whether they contain same object or not bydefault.
but if we want to compare the equality of the content of 2 objects then we have to override
equals() method with in the particular class.

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Note:
In String class already equals() method is overridden in such a way that it will compare the
equality of the content of 2 Strings.

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Note: StringBuffer class is not overriding equals() method so that in the above program
when we compare 2 StringBuffer objects using equals() method it will check reference of 2
objects but not equality of the content.

5. Object clone():
This method used to clone or copy the object so that we can take the backup for the object,
but in java every object is created in a way that, it can not be copied directly, if we want to
perform this special operations we must follow following rules.
1. the cloned object must be type casted to corresponding object
2. we must handle an exception called CloneNotSupportedException
3. corresponding class must implement a marked interface called Cloneable interface

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//program without cloning (references are copied)

// program with cloning

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6. finalize() in Java
The finalize() method is called by the Garbage Collector when there are no more references
to the object in question. Thus, finalize() is called just before an object is garbage collected.

7. wait () in Java
The wait () method causes a current thread to wait until another thread invokes the notify ()
or the notifyAll () method for the object in question.
Syntax:
public final void wait () throws InterruptedException
public final void wait (long timeout) throws InterruptedException
public final void wait (long timeout, int nanos) throws InterruptedException
8. notify()
The notify() method releases the wait on the waiting thread on the invoking object’s
monitor so that it can continue execution.
Syntax : public final void notify()
9. notifyAll()
The notifyAll() method releases the wait on all the waiting threads on the invoking object’s
monitor so that they can continue execution.
Syntax : public final void notifyAll()

Note: The notify() can be used to wake up only one thread that is waiting for a particular
object whereas notifyAll() can be used to wake up all the threads of a specific object.

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Knowledge – Check
1) What are Access Modifiers in Java?
2) When to use public, private, protected?
3) What is Inheritance?
4) What is Single Level and Multi-Level Inheritance?
5) Why Java Doesn’t support Multiple Inheritance?
6) What is Encapsulation?
7) Why to declare variables as private?
8) What is the need of setter and getter methods?
9) What is Polymorphism?
10) What is Method Overloading and why we need it?
11) What is Method Overriding and why we need it?
12) What is Abstract Method?
13) What is Interface and why we need interfaces?
14) What is Abstract Class and Why we need them?
15) Difference between Interface and Abstract Classes
16) What is Marker Interface and why we need them?
17) What is difference between this keyword and super keyword?
18) What is final keyword and when to use it?
19) What is the use of var args?
20) What is Object class?
21) What is Cloning?
22) Can you explain all methods of Object class?
23) When to override equals ( ) method ?
24) What is the difference between String class equals ( ) method and Object class
equals ( ) method ?
25) What is hashcode ?
26) How to create Object for a class without using new keyword?

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Chapter – 7
• Packages
• Wrapper Classes
• Exception Handling

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Packages in Java
-> In small projects, all the java files have unique names. So, it is not difficult to put them in
a single folder.
-> But, in the case of huge projects where the number of java files is large, it is very difficult
to put files in a single folder because the manner of storing files would be disorganized.
-> Moreover, if different java files in various modules of the project have the same name, it
is not possible to store two java files with the same name in the same folder because it may
occur naming conflict.
This problem of naming conflict can be overcome by using the concept of packages.
A package is nothing but group of related classes, interfaces, and sub-packages according
to their functionality.
Types of Packages in Java
There are two different types of packages in Java. They are:
1. Predefined Packages in Java (Built-in Packages)
2. User-defined Package

-> Built-in packages are existing java packages that come along with the JDK. For example,
java.lang, java.util, java.io, etc.

The package which is defined by the user is called a User-defined package. It is used to
create user-defined classes and interfaces.

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Creating package in Java

Java supports a keyword called “package” which is used to create user-defined packages in
java programming.

How to compile Java programs inside packages?

This is just like compiling a normal java program. If you are not using any IDE, you need to
follow the steps given below to successfully compile your packages:
➢ javac -d . Demo.java
How to run Java package program?
To run the compiled class that we compiled using above command, we need to specify
package name too. Use the below command to run the class file.
➢ java ashokit.FirstProgram
How to import Java Package
To import java package into a class, we need to use java import keyword which is used to
access package and its classes into the java program.
Use import to access built-in and user-defined packages into your java source file so that
your class can refer to a class that is in another package by directly using its name.
There are 3 different ways to refer to any class that is present in a different package:

• without import the package

• import package with specified class
• import package with all classes

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// Example on Packages importing

Static imports
static imports are special kind of import statements given in java 1.5 version which are used
to import the static members of any class into the program so that we can access those
static members directly without any class name or object.

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Java Wrapper Classes

-> In Java, Wrapper Class is used for converting primitive data type into object and object
into a primitive data type.
-> For each primitive data type, a pre-defined class is present which is known as Wrapper
class.
-> From J2SE 5.0 version the feature of autoboxing and unboxing is used for converting
primitive data type into object and object into a primitive data type automatically.
-> All wrapper classes available in java.lang package

Constructors of Wrapper classes

-> to create an object for any Wrapper class we have to use constructors of Wrapper
classes.
-> In all most all wrapper classes we have following 2 constructors
-> first one will take primitive value directly
-> and second one will take primitive value in the form of String
Byte b = new Byte(byte);
Byte b = new Byte(String);

Short s = new Short(short);

Short s = new Short(String);

Integer i = new Integer(int);

Integer i = new Integer(String);

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Long l = new Long(long);

Long l = new Long(String);

Float f = new Float(float);

Float f = new Float(double);

Float f = new Float(String);

Double d = new Double(double);
Double d = new Double(String);

Character c = new Character(char);

Character c = new Character(String); // Not available

Boolean b = new Boolean(boolean);

Boolean b = new Boolean(String);

// example on Wrapper classes

-> While creating an object for Boolean Wrapper class if constructor takes primitive boolean
value as true it stores true otherwise if it takes primitive boolean value as false it stores
false.

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-> While creating an object for Boolean Wrapper class if constructor takes primitive boolean
value in the form of string then if string value is true in any case (true, True,TRUE,...) then it
stores true otherwise if string value is other than true it stores false.
Eg:
Boolean b1 = new Boolean(); //CTE
Boolean b2 = new Boolean(true); //true
Boolean b3 = new Boolean(false); //false
Boolean b4 = new Boolean(True); //CTE
Boolean b5 = new Boolean("TRUE"); //true
Boolean b6 = new Boolean("false"); //false
Boolean b7 = new Boolean("suresh"); //false
Boolean b8 = new Boolean(null); //false
Boolean b9 = new Boolean(1); //CTE

Methods of Wrapper classes

1. valueOf() : : This methd is also used to convert the primitive value into object(boxing)
syntax1: public static WrapperClass valueOf(primitive)
-> This method is available in all the 8 wrapper classes.
syntax2: public static WrapperClass valueOf(String)
-> This method is available in all the wrapper classes except Character class.
2. primitivetype xxxValue() :: This method return the primitive value available in the
respective object, it means we are converting object into primitive value this procedure is
called as unboxing.
3. static primitiveType parseXXX(String) : This method converts the primitive value
available in the form of String into required primitive type.
-> This procedure is called as parsing.(kind of unboxing)
-> This method is available in all wrapper classes except Character class.

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// Example on valueOf ( ) method

// example on static valueOf ( ) method

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Typecasting: typecasting is a process of converting one primitive type to another primitive

type or one reference to another reference type
Parsing: parsing is a process of converting String into corresponding primitive type
Boxing: converting a primitive value into object is called boxing. from java 1.5 onwards this
procedure is done automatically by compiler hence it is called auto boxing.
Unboxing: converting an object value into primitive type is called un boxing. from java 1.5
onwards this procedure is automatically done by compiler hence it is called auto un boxing

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Exception Handling
Whenever we develop any application there is a chance of getting some errors in the
application. When exception occurs in the program then our program will be terminated
abnormally.
Exception handling is a mechanism to catch and throw Java exceptions so that the execution
of the program will not get disturbed.
What is an Exception?
Exception is an unwanted or unexpected event, which occurs during the execution of a
program, i.e. at run time, that disrupts the normal flow of the program’s instructions.
Exceptions can be caught and handled by the program. When an exception occurs within a
method, it creates an object. This object is called the exception object. It contains
information about the exception, such as the name and description of the exception and the
state of the program when the exception occurred.
An exception can occur for many reasons. Some of them are:

• Invalid user input

• Device failure
• Loss of network connection
• Physical limitations (out of disk memory)
• Code errors
• Opening an unavailable file
• resource exhaustion

What is Error?
Errors represent irrecoverable conditions such as Java virtual machine (JVM) running out of
memory, memory leaks, stack overflow errors, library incompatibility, infinite recursion, etc.
Errors are usually beyond the control of the programmer, and we should not try to handle
errors.
What is the difference between Exception and Error?
Error: An Error indicates a serious problem that a reasonable application should not try to
catch.
Exception: Exception indicates conditions that a reasonable application might try to catch.

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Exception Hierarchy
All exception types are subclasses of class Throwable, which is at the top of exception class
hierarchy.

Checked Exceptions
These are the exceptions that are checked at compile time. If some code within a method
throws a checked exception, then the method must either handle the exception or it must
specify the exception using the throws keyword.
Note: Checked exceptions are checked by the Java compiler so they are called compile time
exceptions.
Note that all checked exceptions are subclasses of Exception class. For example,

• ClassNotFoundException
• IOException
• SQLException etc..
// Example on Checked Exception

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Un Checked Exceptions
Unchecked exceptions are not checked by the compiler. When the buggy code is executed
then we will get exception at runtime, these are called runtime exceptions.
//example on Unchecked exception

Exception Handling Keywords

In java, we can handle exceptions using below 5 keywords
1. try
2. catch
3. finally
4. throw
5. throws

try: The try block is used to enclose the suspected code. Suspected code is a code that may
raise an exception during program execution.
For example, if a code raise arithmetic exception due to divide by zero then we can wrap
that code into the try block.

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catch : The catch block also known as handler is used to handle the exception. It handles the
exception thrown by the code enclosed into the try block. Try block must provide a catch
handler or a finally block.
The catch block must be used after the try block only. We can also use multiple catch block
with a single try block.

Note: Exception handling is done by transferring the execution of a program to an

appropriate exception handler (catch block) when exception occurs.

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// write a java program on try-catch blocks

Exception handling is done by transferring the execution of a program to an appropriate

exception handler (catch block) when exception occurs.

An exception will throw by this program as we are trying to divide a number by zero inside
try block. The program control is transferred outside try block. Thus, the line "This line will
not be executed" is never parsed by the compiler. The exception thrown is handled in catch
block. Once the exception is handled, the program control is continued with the next line in
the program i.e., after catch block. Thus, the line "After exception is handled" is printed.
Java try with Resource Statement
-> try with resource is a new feature of Java that was introduced in Java 7 and further
improved in Java 9. This feature add another way to exception handling with resources
management. It is also referred as automatic resource management. It close resources
automatically by using AutoCloseable interface..
-> Resource can be any like: file, connection etc and we don't need to explicitly close these,
JVM will do this automatically.
-> Suppose, we run a JDBC program to connect to the database then we have to create a
connection and close it at the end of task as well. But in case of try-with-resource we don’t
need to close the connection, JVM will do this automatically by using AutoCloseable
interface.

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-> This try statement contains a parenthesis in which one or more resources is declared. Any
object that implements java.lang.AutoCloseable or java.io.Closeable, can be passed as a
parameter to try statement. A resource is an object that is used in program and must be
closed after the program is finished. The try-with-resources statement ensures that each
resource is closed at the end of the statement of the try block. We do not have to explicitly
close the resources.

Points to Remember
-> A resource is an object in a program that must be closed after the program has finished.
-> Any object that implements java.lang.AutoCloseable or java.io.Closeable can be passed as
a parameter to try statement.
-> All the resources declared in the try-with-resources statement will be closed
automatically when the try block exits. There is no need to close it explicitly.
-> We can write more than one resources in the try statement.
-> In a try-with-resources statement, any catch or finally block is run after the resources
declared have been closed.

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finally block :
-> A finally keyword is used to create a block of code that follows a try block.
-> A finally block of code is always executed whether an exception has occurred or not.
-> Using a finally block, it lets you run any clean up type statements that you want to
execute, no matter what happens in the protected code.
-> A finally block appears at the end of catch block.

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Rules for writing try-catch-finally

1.try must followed by either catch block or finally block or both
2.catch must be followed by either catch block or finally block
3.catch must be preceded by either catch block or try block
4.finally must preceded by either catch block or try block
5. we can write only one finally statement and one try block and many catch blocks in try-
catch-finally chain.
6. nesting try-catch-finally is also possible
7. when we write multiple catch blocks if Exceptions are not having any Is-A relation then
we can write catch block in any order otherwise we must write catch blocks in a order like
first child class and followed by parent class.
8. we can not write 2 catch blocks which are going to catch same exceptions.

How JVM execute try-catch-finally

-> First it will execute the statements written before try-catch blocks next JVM Will enter
into try block and if no exception occurred then it will execute all the statements of try block
and it will skip all the catch block and control will be given after try-catch blocks
-> JVM Will enter into try block and if exception occurred then it will skip remaining
statements of try block and control will be given any one of the matching catch blocks and
executes the statements available in the catch block and next control will be given after try-
catch blocks
Note:
1.when Exception occurred then control will be given any of the matching catch blocks and
the remaining catch blocks will be skipped. and control will be given after try-catch blocks
2. If no catch block is matching then JVM will call or invoke " DefaultExceptionHandler" and
which always cause for abnormal termination.
3. If Exception Occurred or not in both the cases finally block will be executed. `
Working with Multiple Catch Blocks
-> For single try block we can write multiple catch blocks
=> When we are writing multiple catch blocks, the hierarchy should be child to parent.

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// invalid code because second catch block is un-reachable

try{
int a = 10 / 0;
} cath (Exception e) {
s.o.p("catch-1");
} catch (ArithematicException e) {
s.o.p("catch-2");
}
// valid code
try{
int a = 10 / 0;
} cath (ArithematicException e) {
s.o.p("catch-1");
} catch (Exception e) {
s.o.p("catch-2");
}

=> We can handle multiple Exceptions in Single Catch block also like below

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Throw :
-> The throw keyword is used to throw an exception explicitly.
-> By default all predefined exceptions are created and thrown implicitly and identified by
JVM
-> If we want to throw the exceptions explicitly then we have to use throw keyword.

Java throws Keyword:

The throws keyword is used to declare the list of exception that a method may throw during
execution of program. Any method that is capable of causing exceptions must list all the
exceptions possible during its execution, so that anyone calling that method gets a prior
knowledge about which exceptions are to be handled. A method can do so by using the
throws keyword.

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User defined Exceptions

Java provides rich set of built-in exception classes like: ArithmeticException, IOException,
NullPointerException etc. all are available in the java.lang package and used in exception
handling. These exceptions are already set to trigger on pre-defined conditions such as
when you divide a number by zero it triggers ArithmeticException.
Apart from these classes, Java allows us to create our own exception class to provide own
exception implementation. These type of exceptions are called as user-defined exceptions
or custom exceptions.
-> To create the user defined exceptions, we have to follow the following procedure
procedure:

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1. All exception classes are extending from Exception class. So that to create user defined
exception we should create a class that extends any one of the following 2 classes
a) Exception (Checked Exceptions)
b) RuntimeException (Unchecked Exceptions)
2. Create a parameterized constructor which calls super class parameterized constructor to
set the Exception Message.
3. JVM don’t know when to generate the user defined exception and how to create and
throw the object for User defined exception so that we should explicitly create the object
for User defined exception and throw manually using throw keyword.

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Knowledge – Check
1) What is package and why we need packages?
2) What is Import in java?
3) What is static import?
4) What is Wrapper class?
5) When we have primitive types why to go for Wrapper Classes?
6) What is Auto Boxing and Auto Unboxing?
7) What is Exception Hierarchy in Java?
8) Checked Exceptions Vs Un-Checked Exceptions?
9) How to handle Exceptions?
10) What is try-catch-finally?
11) What is the difference between throws and throw?
12) What is try with resources?
13) Why to write Multiple Catch blocks & do you any alternate?
14) How to create and throw User Defined Exception?
15) What is JVM’s behaviour when Runtime Exception occurred?
16) What is Exception re-throw ?
17) Can you explain few checked exceptions?
18) Can you explain few Un-Checked exceptions?
19) Can you write a program which gives Stack Overflow Error?
20) What is the difference between final, finalize ( ) and finally block ?

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Chapter - 8
Collections Framework

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COLLECTIONS
-> Array is an collection of fixed number of homogeneous data elements
OR
-> An array represents a group of elements of same data type.
-> The main advantage of array is we can represent huge number of elements by using
single variable. So, the readability of the code is improved.
Limitations of array:
-> Arrays are fixed in size that is once we create an array there is no chance of increasing or
decreasing the size of array based on our requirement. Hence to use array concept we must
know the size in advance which may not possible every time.
-> Arrays can hold only homogeneous data elements.
Example:
Car c = new Car [100];
c[0] = new Car(); // Valid
c[1] = new Bus(); //Invalid(Compile time Error)
-> We can resolve this problem by using Object type Array (Object [ ] )
Example:
Object[] o=new Object[100];
o[0]=new Car();
o[1]=new Bus();
-> Arrays concept is not implemented based on some data structure hence we cannot
expect ready-made method support. For every requirement we have to write the code
explicitly. To overcome the above limitations, we should go for collection concept.
-> Collections are growable in nature that is based on our requirement we can increase or
decrease the size hence memory point of view collections concept is recommended to use.
-> Collections can hold both homogeneous and heterogeneous objects.
-> Every Collection class is implemented based on some standard data structure hence for
every requirement ready-made method support is available. As a programmer we can use
these methods directly without writing the functionality on our own.

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Collection: If we want to represent a group of objects as single entity then we should go for
Collections.
Collection framework: It defines several classes and interfaces to represent a group of
Objects as single entity.
Q) What is the difference between Collection and Collections?
Ans) Collection is an interface which can be used to represent a group of Objects as a single
entity whereas Collections is an utility class present in java.util package to define several
utility methods for Collection Objects.

• Collection is an interface
• Collections is a Class
-> All the collection classes are available in “java.util” (utility) package.
-> All the collection interfaces and collection class and together as collection frame work.
-> All the collection classes are classified into three categories
1) List
2) Set
3) Queue
4) Map
1. List:
- This category is used to store group of individual elements where the elements can be
duplicated.
- List is an Interface whose object can not be created directly.
- To work with this category we have to use following implementations class of list interface
Ex: ArrayList, Linked list, Vector, Stack

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2.Set:
- This category is used to store a group of individual elements. But they elements can’t be
duplicated.
- Set is an interface whose object cannot be created directly.
- To work with this category, we have to use following implementations class of Set
interface
Ex: HashSet, LinkedHashSet and TreeSet
3. Queue
-> This category is used to hold the elements about to be processed in FIFO(First In First Out)
order.
-> It is an ordered list of objects with its use limited to inserting elements at the end of the
list and deleting elements from the start of the list, (i.e.), it follows the FIFO or the First-In-
First-Out principle
Ex: PriorityQueue, BlockingQueue
4. Map:
- This category is used to store the element in the form key value pairs where the keys can’t
be duplicated, values can be duplicated.
- Map is an interface whose object cannot be created directly.
- To work with this category, we have to use following implementation classes of Map
interface
Ex: HashMap, LinkedHashMap, TreeMap, Hashtable

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Collections Hierarchy

List interface
-> It is the child interface of Collection
-> If we want to represent a group of individual objects where duplicates are allowed and
insertion order is preserved. Then we should go for List.
-> We can differentiate duplicate Objects and we can maintain insertion order by means of
index hence "index plays important role in List"
List interface defines the following specific methods.
1)boolean add(int index,Object o);
2)boolean addAll(int index,Collection c);
3)Object get(int index);
4)Object remove(int index);
5)Object Set(int index,Object o);//to replace

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6)int indexOf(Object o); //Returns index of first occurance of o

7)int lastIndexOf(Object o);
8)ListIterator listIterator();
ArrayList:
-> ArrayList is an implementation class of Collection interface
->The underlying data structure is resizable (Internally it will use Array to store data)
-> Duplicate Objects are allowed
-> Insertion order is preserved
-> Heterogeneous Objects are allowed
-> Null insertion is possible
ArrayList Constructors:
1) ArrayList al=new ArrayList();
-> It creates an empty ArrayList Object with default initial capacity 10
-> If ArrayList reaches its maximum capacity then a new ArrayList Object will be created with
NewCapacity=(Current Capacity*3/2)+1
2) ArrayList al=new ArrayList(int initialCapacity);
-> Creates an empty ArrayList Object with the specified initial capacity.
3) ArrayList al=new ArrayList(Collection c);
-> Creates an equivalent ArrayList Object for the given Collection that is this constructor
meant for inter conversation between Collection Objects.

-> ArrayList and Vector classes implements RandomAccess interface so that any random
element we can access with the same speed.
-> RandomAccess interface present in util package and doesn't contain any methods. It is a
marker interface.

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LinkedList
-> LinkedList is one of the implementation classes of Collection interface
-> The underlying data structure is double LinkedList
-> If our frequent operation is insertion or deletion in the middle then LinkedList is the best
choice
-> If our frequent operation is retrieval then LinkedList is not best option
-> Duplicate Objects are allowed
-> Insertion order is preserved
-> Heterogeneous Objects are allowed
-> NULL insertion is possible
-> Implements Serializable and Cloneable interfaces but not RandomAccess
Note: Usually we can use linked list to implement Stacks and Queues to provide support for
this requirement LinkedList class defines the following 6 specific methods.
1) void addFirst(Object o);
2) void addLast(Object o);
3) Object getFirst();
4) Object getLast();

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5) Object removeFirst();
6) Object removeLast();

LinkedList Constructors:
1) LinkedList l=new LinkedList();
It creates an empty LinkedList Object.
2) LinkedList l=new LinkedList(Collection c);
To create an equivalent LinkedList Object for the given Collection.

IQ: what is the diff b/w ArrayList and LinkedList

-> ArrayList is slower in insertion and deletion of elements because it internally requires
shifting operations, But faster in accessing the elements because ArrayList use index
position for every element.
-> LinkedList is faster in insertion and deletion of elements because it just require modifying
the links of nodes instead of shifting operations, But slower in accessing the elements
because LinkedList does not use any index position.

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Vector
-> Vector is the implementation class of List interface which is also used to store group of
individual objects where duplicate values are allowed
-> Vector is exactly similar to ArrayList but ArrayList is not a synchronized class where Vector
is a synchronized class
-> Vector is also called legacy class because it is available from java 1.0 version.
Vector Class Constructors
1) Vector<E> v = new Vector<E>();
2) Vector<E> v = new Vector<E>(int capacity);
3) Vector<E> v = new Vector<E>(Collection obj);

Stack
-> Stack is a child class of Vector and implements List interface
-> Stack stores a group of objects b using a mechanism called LIFO
-> LIFO stands for Last in first out , it means last inserted element deleted first.

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Stack Class Constructor:

Stack<E> s = new Stack<E>( );
Methods:
-> We can use all collection Methods
-> We can also use legacy methods of Vector class like addElement(), removeElement(),
setElementAt(),.....
-> But if we want to follow the LIFO mechanism, we should use Stack methods like follows
1. E push(E obj) : this method will add new element into the Stack
2. E pop() : this method deletes the top element available on Stack
3. E peek() : this method just returns the top element available on Stack

Cursors of Collection Framework

-> cursors are mainly used to access the elements of any collection
-> we have following 3 types of cursors in Collection Framework
1.Iterator
2.ListIterator
3.Enumeration

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Iterator
-> this cursor is used to access the elements in forward direction only
-> this cursor can be applied Any Collection (List, Set)
-> while accessing the methods we can also delete the elements
-> Iterator is interface and we cannot create an object directly.
-> if we want to create an object for Iterator, we have to use iterator () method
Creation of Iterator:
Iterator it = c.iterator();
here iterator() method internally creates and returns an object of a class which implements
Iterator interface.
Methods
1. boolean hasNext()
2. Object next()
3. void remove()

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2. ListIterator
-> This cursor is used to access the elements of Collection in both forward and backward
directions
-> This cursor can be applied only for List category Collections
-> While accessing the methods we can also add,set,delete elements
-> ListIterator is interface and we can not create object directly.
-> If we want to create an object for ListIterator we have to use listIterator() method
creation of ListIterator:
ListIterator<E> it = l.listIterator();
here listIterator() method internally creates and returns an object of a class which
implements ListIterator interface.
Methods
1. boolean hasNext();
2. Object next();
3. boolean hasPrevious();
4. Object previous();
5. int nextIndex();
6. int previousIndex();
7. void remove();
8. void set(Object obj);
9. void add(Object obj);

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3. Enumeration
-> this cursor is used to access the elements of Collection only in forward direction
-> this is legacy cursor can be applied only for legacy classes like Vector,Stack,Hashtable.
-> Enumeration is also an interface and we can not create object directly.
-> If we want to create an object for Enumeration we have to use a legacy method called
elements() method
Creation of Enumeration:
Enumeration e = v.elements();
here elements() method internally creates and returns an object of a class which
implements Enumeration interface.
Methods
1. boolean hasMoreElements()
2. Object nextElement();

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Set category
HashSet
-> HashSet is the implementation class of Set interface which is also used to store group of
individual objects but duplicate values are not allowed
-> HashSet internally follows hashtable structure where all the elements are stored using
hashing technique which will improve the performance by reducing the waiting time.

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-> HashSet is not a synchronized class

-> HashSet supports only one null value.
-> HashSet is called unordered Collection because it is not guarantee for insertion order of
elements.
creation of HashSet:
HashSet<E> hs = new HashSet<E>();
HashSet<E> hs = new HashSet<E>(int capacity);
HashSet<E> hs = new HashSet<E>(int capacity,float loadfactor);
HashSet<E> hs = new HashSet<E>(Collection obj);
Methods
1. boolean add(E obj)
2. boolean remove(E obj)
3. int size()
4. void clear()
5. boolean contains(E obj)
6. boolean isEmpty()

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LinkedHashSet
-> LinkedHashSet is the implementation class of Set interface which is also used to store
group of individual objects but duplicate values are not allowed
-> LinkedHashSet internally follows hashtable + doubly linked list structures
-> LinkedHashSet is not a synchronized class
-> LinkedHashSet supports only one null value.
-> LinkedHashSet is called as ordered Collection because it is guarantee for insertion order
of elements.
Creation of LinkedHashSet:
LinkedHashSet<E> hs = new LinkedHashSet<E>();
LinkedHashSet<E> hs = new LinkedHashSet<E>(int capacity);
LinkedHashSet<E> hs = new LinkedHashSet<E>(int capacity,float loadfactor);
LinkedHashSet<E> hs = new LinkedHashSet<E>(Collection obj);

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SortedSet:
1) It is child interface of Set
2) If we want to represent a group of "unique Objects" according to some sorting order
then we should go for SortedSet interface.
3) That sorting order can be either default natural sorting order OR customized sorting
order.
SortedSet interface defines the following 6 specific methods
1) Object first();
2) Object last();
3) SortedSet headSet(Object o);
It returns the elements whose elements are < o
4) SortedSet tailSet(Object o);
It returns the elements whose elements are >= o
5) SortedSet subSet(Object o1,Object o2);
It returns the elements whose elements are >=o1 and < o2
6) Comparator comparator();
Returns the comparator Object that describes under lying sorting technique. If we follow
default natural sorting order then this method returns null.

import java.util.SortedSet;
import java.util.TreeSet;
public class SortedSetDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
SortedSet ss=new TreeSet();
for(int i=10;i<=20;i++)
ss.add(i);
System.out.println(ss.first());//10
System.out.println(ss.last());//20
System.out.println(ss.headSet(16));//[10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]
System.out.println(ss.tailSet(18));//[18, 19, 20]

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System.out.println(ss.subSet(12,17));//[12, 13, 14, 15, 16]

System.out.println(ss.comparator());//null
}
}
TreeSet
-> TreeSet is the implementation class of Set interface which is also used to store group of
individual objects but duplicate values are not allowed
-> TreeSet internally follows tree structure
-> TreeSet is not a synchronized class
-> TreeSet is called as unordered Collection because it is not guarantee for insertion order of
elements but all elements are stored in sorted order(bydefault ascending order)
-> TreeSet supports only one null value if TreeSet is Empty otherwise TreeSet does not
support null values because it internally perform comparision operations but we never
compare a null value. with any object and it will throw a RuntimeException saying
NullPointerException
-> TreeSet does not allow to store different types of objects because it internally perform
comparison.operations but we never compare a 2 different types of it will throw a
RuntimeException saying ClassCastException
Creation of TreeSet
TreeSet<E> ts = new TreeSet<E>();
TreeSet<E> ts = new TreeSet<E>(SortedSet);
TreeSet<E> ts = new TreeSet<E>(Comparator);
TreeSet<E> ts = new TreeSet<E>(Collection obj)

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NULL acceptance:
For the empty TreeSet as the first element "null" insertion is possible but after inserting that
null if we try to insert any other value then we will get NullPointerException.
For the non-empty TreeSet if we try to insert null then we will get NullPointerException.

String class and all wrapper classes implements Comparable interface but StringBuffer class
does not implement Comparable interface hence in the above program we will get
ClassCastException.

Comparable interface:

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Comparable interface present in java.lang package and contains only one method
compareTo() method.
public int compareTo(Object obj);

Example: obj1.compareTo(obj2);
It returns -ve if obj1 comes before obj2
It returns +ve if obj2 comes before obj1
It returns 0 if obj1 and obj2 are equal

If we depend on default natural sorting order then internally JVM will use compareTo()
method to arrange Objects in sorting order.

We can define our own customized sorting by Comparator Object.

Comparable meant for default natural sorting order.

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Comparator meant for customized sorting order.

Comparator interface:
Comparator interface present in java.util package. It defines the
following two methods.
1) public int compare(Object o1,Object o2);
It returns -ve if o1 comes before o2
It returns +ve if o1 comes after o2
It returns 0 if o1 and o2 are equal
2) public boolen equals(Object o);
Whenever we are implementing comparator interface we have to provide implementation
only for compare() method.
Implementing equals() method is optional because it is already available from Object class
through inheritance.

Requirement:- Write a program to insert integer Objects into the TreeSet where the
sorting order is descending order.
Example:
import java.util.Comparator;
import java.util.TreeSet;
public class TreeSetComparator {
public static void main(String[] args) {
TreeSet ts=new TreeSet(new MyComparator());//---->1
ts.add(10);
ts.add(0);
ts.add(15);
ts.add(5);
ts.add(20);
System.out.println(ts);//[20, 15, 10, 5, 0]
}

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}
class MyComparator implements Comparator {
public int compare(Object o1,Object o2) {
Integer i1=(Integer)o1;
Integer i2=(Integer)o2;
if(i1<i2)
return 1;
else if(i1>i2)
return -1;
else
return 0;
}
}

Comparable vs Comparator
For predefined Comparable classes default natural sorting order is already available, if we
are not satisfied with default natural sorting order then we can define our own customized
sorting order by Comparator.
For predefined non Comparable classes (Like StringBuffer) default natural sorting order is
not available, we have to define our own sorting order by using Comparator Object.
For our own classes(Like Customer,Student and Employee) we can define default natural
sorting order by using Comparable interface. The person who is using our class, if he is not
satisfied with default natural sorting order then he can define his own sorting order by
using Comparator Object.

Example:
import java.util.Comparator;
import java.util.TreeSet;
class Employee implements Comparable {
String name;
int eid;

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Employee(String name,int eid) {

this.name=name;
this.eid=eid;
}
public String toString(){
return name+"-"+eid;
}
public int compareTo(Object o) {
int eid1=this.eid;
int eid2=((Employee)o).eid;
if(eid1 < eid2)
return -1;
else if(eid1>eid2)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
}
public class Comp {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Employee e1=new Employee("Raju",100);
Employee e2=new Employee("Rani",101);
Employee e3=new Employee("John",102);
Employee e4=new Employee("Smith",103);
Employee e5=new Employee("Ashok",104);
TreeSet t=new TreeSet();
t.add(e1);
t.add(e2);
t.add(e3);

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t.add(e4);
t.add(e5);

System.out.println(t);
TreeSet t2=new TreeSet(new MyComparator());
t2.add(e1);
t2.add(e2);
t2.add(e3);
t2.add(e4);
t2.add(e5);
System.out.println(t2);
}
}

class MyComparator implements Comparator {

public int compare(Object o1,Object o2) {
Employee e1=(Employee)o1;
Employee e2=(Employee)o2;
String s1=e1.name;
String s2=e2.name;
return s1.compareTo(s2);
}
}

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Map category
Map interface is not child interface of Collection and hence we cannot apply Collection
interface methods. Map interface defines the following specific methods.
1) Object put(Obect key,Object value);
2) void putAll(Map m);
3) Object get(Object key);
4) Object remove(Object key);
5) boolean containsKey(Object key);
6) boolean containsValue(Object value);
7) boolean isEmpty();
8) int size();
9) void clear();
10) Set keySet(); //We will get the set of keys
11) Collection values(); //We will get the set of values
12) Set entrySet(); //We will get the set of entryset

HashMap
-> HashMap is the implementation class of Map interface which is used to store group of
objects in the form of Key-Value pairs where but Keys cannot be duplicated but values can
be duplicated

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-> HashMap internally follows hashtable data structure

-> HashMap is not a synchronized class
-> HashMap supports only one null value for Key Objects but we can store multiple null
values for Value Object
-> HashMap is called unordered Map because it is not guarantee for insertion order of
elements.
creation of HashMap:
HashMap<K,V> hm = new HashMap<K,V>();
HashMap<K,V> hm = new HashMap<K,V>(int capacity);
HashMap<K,V> hm = new HashMap<K,V>(int capacity, float loadfactor);
HashMap<K,V> hm = new HashMap<K,V>(Map obj);

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LinkedHashMap
-> LinkedHashMap is the implementation class of Map interface which is also used to store
group of3 objects in the form of Key-Value pairs where Keys can't be duplicated but values
can be duplicated
-> LinkedHashMap internally follows Hashtable + doubly linked list structures
-> LinkedHashMap is not a synchronized class
-> LinkedHashMap supports only one null value for Key Objects but we can store multiple
null values for Value Object
-> LinkedHashMap is called as ordered Map because it is guarantee for insertion order of
elements.
SortedMap:
-> It is the child interface of Map.
-> If we want to represent a group of key-value pairs according to some sorting order of
keys then we should go for SortedMap.
-> Sorting is possible only based on the keys but not based on values.
-> SortedMap interface defines the following 6 specific methods.
1) Object firstKey();
2) Object lastKey();
3) SortedMap headMap(Object key);
4) SortedMap tailMap(Object key);
5) SortedMap subMap(Object key1,Object key2);
6) Comparator comparator();

TreeMap
-> TreeMap is the implementation class of Map interface which is also used to store group
of objects in the form of Key-Value pairs where Keys can't be duplicated but values can be
duplicated.
-> TreeMap internally follows tree structure
-> TreeMap is not a synchronized class
-> TreeMap is called as unordered Map because it is not guarantee for insertion order of
elements, but. all elements are

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Hashtable
-> Hashtable is the implementation class of Map interface which is also used to store group
of objects in the form of Key-Value pairs where Keys can't be duplicated but values can be
duplicated
-> Hashtable is exactly similar to HasMap but Hashtable is a synchronized class where
HashMap is not a synchronized class
-> Hashtable does not support null values for both Keys and Values
Constructors:
1) Hashtable ht=new Hashtable();
It creates an empty Hashtable Object with default initial capacity 11 and default fill ratio
0.75
2) Hashtable ht=new Hashtable(int initialCapacity);
3) Hashtable ht=new Hashtable(int initialCapacity,float fillRatio);
4) Hashtable ht=new Hashtable(Map m);

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IdentityHashMap
It is exactly same as HashMap except the following differences.
1) In the case of HashMap JVM will always use equals() method to identify duplicate keys.
2) But inn the case of IdentityHashMap JVM will use == (double equal to operator) to
identify duplicate keys.
Example:
import java.util.HashMap;
public class HashMapExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
HashMap hm=new HashMap();
Integer i1=new Integer(10);
Integer i2=new Integer(10);
hm.put(i1,"John");
hm.put(i2,"Smith");
System.out.println(hm);//{10=Smith}
}
}

In the above program i1 and i2 are duplicate keys because i1.equals(i2) returns true.
In the above proggram if we replace HashMap with IdentityHashMap then i1 and i2 are not
duplicate keys because i1==i2 returns false. In this case the output is as below.
Here 10==i1 is false
Here 10==i2 is false
WeakHashMap:
-> It is exactly same as HashMap except the following differences.
-> In the case of normal HashMap, an Object is not eligible for Garbage Collection even
though it does not have any references if it is associated with HashMap. That means
HashMap dominates Garbage Collector.
-> But in the case of WeakHashap if an Object does not have any references, then it is
always eligible GC even though if it is associated with WeakHashMap that means GC
dominates WeakHashMap.

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In the above program if we replace WeakHashMap with normal HashMap then Object won't
be destroyed by the garbage collector.

Properties:
1) Properties class is the child class of Hashtable.
2) If anything changes frequently such type of values not recommended to hardcode in java
application because for every change we have to recompile, rebuild and redeploy the
application and even server restart also required. Sometimes it creates big business impact
to the client.
3) Such type of variables we have to hardcode in property files and we have to read the
values from the property files.
4) The main advantage in this approach is if there is any change in property files
automatically those changes will be available to java application just redeployment is
enough.
5) By using Properties Object, we can read and hold properties from property files into java
application.

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Constructor:
Properties p=new Properties ();
In Properties both key and value should be String type only.
Methods:
1) String getProperty (String propertyName);
2) String setProperty(String propertyName,String propertyValue);
3) Enumeration propertyNames();
4) void load(InputStream is);
5) void store(OutputStream os,String comment);

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Collections
-> Collections class is one of the utility classes in Java Collections Framework.
-> The java.util package contains the Collections class.
-> Collections class is basically used with the static methods that operate on the collections
or return the collection.
-> All the methods of this class throw the NullPointerException if the collection or object
passed to the methods is null.
Methods

Java String tokenizer

-> StringTokenizer is a class present in the java.util package and it is used to break a String
into tokens based on provided delimiter.
-> Delimiter can be specified either at the time of object creation or on a per-token basis.
Following are the constructors in StringTokenizer class

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Following are the methods in StringTokenizer class

// Java program to split a String using space as delimiter

// java program to split a String using colon as delimiter

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Knowledge – Check
1) What is Collection and why we need it?
2) What is Collection framework?
3) What is List and when to use it?
4) How ArrayList works internally?
5) How LinkedList works internally?
6) When to use ArrayList and When to Use LinkedList?
7) What is Cursor and How many cursors available?
8) What is Set?
9) How HashSet works internally?
10) What is TreeSet and when to use it?
11) What is Comparable?
12) What is Comparator?
13) How to sort Objects?
14) What is Map and when to use it?
15) What is Hash Map?
16) How HashMap works internally?
17) How to iterate a Map?
18) What is Weak HashMap?
19) What is Identity HashMap?
20) What is Collections?
21) What is Properties Class?
22) What are Fail-fast collection and Fail-Safe Collection?

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Chapter – 9
Multi - Threading

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Single tasking:
Single tasking means executing 1 task at a time. Here much of the processor time will be
wasted
because waiting time very high and processor gives response late.
Eg: DOS OS
Multi-tasking:
Multi-tasking means executing multiple tasks at the same time simultaneously. Here
processor time utilized in a proper manner and performance of the application by reducing
waiting time and processor gives response faster.
Eg: Windows OS, Student can listen and can write at a time
We can achieve multitasking in following 2 ways
1. Processor based multi-tasking
-> Processor based multi-tasking means executing multiple tasks at the same time
simultaneously where each task is independent of other tasks having separate memory and
resources
-> Processor based multi-tasking is an operating system approach
Eg:
java program,
listen to music,
download songs,
copy softwares,
chating,
....
2. Thread Based multi tasking
-> Thread based multi tasking means executing different parts of the same program at the
same time simultaneously where each task is independent sometimes or dependent
sometimes of other tasks which are having common memory and resources.
-> Thread based multi tasking is programming approach
-> Each different of the program is called Trheads
Eg: games, web based apps,....

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Thread vs Process :
Process : a program execution is often referred as process.
Thread : a Thread is subset(part) or sub process of the process.
(or)
A thread is flow of execution and for every thread separate independent job(task).
NOTE: weather it is process based or thread based the main objective multitasking is reduce
responsive time of the system and improve the performance.
Advantage of Multithreading
Multithreading reduces the CPU idle time that increase overall performance of the system.
Since thread is lightweight process then it takes less memory and perform context switching
as well that helps to share the memory and reduce time of switching between threads.
Main Thread
-> For every java program there will be a default thread by JVM which is called as Main
Thread.
-> The entry point for Main Thread is main() method
// wap to display the info of currently Running Thread

Life cycle of a Thread

Like process, thread have its life cycle that includes various phases like: new, running,
terminated etc. we have described it using the below image.

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New: A thread begins its life cycle in the new state. It remains in this state until the start()
method is called on it.
Runnable: After invocation of start () method on new thread, the thread becomes runnable.
Running: A thread is in running state if the thread scheduler has selected it.
Waiting: A thread is in waiting state if it waits for another thread to perform a task. In this
stage the thread is still alive.
Terminated: A thread enter the terminated state when it completes its task.

What is Thread Priority?

-> When we create a thread, we can assign its priority. We can set different priorities to
different Threads but it doesn’t guarantee that a higher priority thread will execute first
than a lower priority thread.
-> The thread scheduler is the part of Operating System implementation and when a Thread
is started, its execution is controlled by Thread Scheduler and JVM doesn’t have any control
over its execution.
-> Thread priorities are integer numbers.
-> Using thread priority, we can decide when we should switch from one thread in running
state to another. This is the context switching process wherein we switch contexts of the
threads.
Anytime a thread can voluntarily release its control over CPU. Then the thread with the
highest priority can take over.
-> Similarly, a higher priority thread can preempt any other thread with lower priority.
-> Thread class provides a setPriority () method that is used to set the priority for the thread.

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-> We can also use constants MIN_PRIORITY, MAX_PRIORITY, or NORM_PRIORITY in the

place of integers.
User defined threads
-> In java we can also create user defined Threads by using any one of the following 2
approaches.
1. By extending the Thread class
2. By implementing Runnable interface
Creating the user defined Thread by extending the Thread class
if we want to create the user defined Threads using this approach we have to follow
following 5 steps

Step-1: creating a class that extends a Thread class

class MyThread extends Thread{
}
Step-2: overriding the run() method
public void run(){
//statements;
}
Note: Here run() method is called entry-point for the user defined thread and all the job
done by the user defined thread will be written here itself.
Step-3: creating an object for user defined Thread class
MyThread mt = new MyThread();
Step-4: attaching user defined thread with main ThreadGroup
Thread t = new Thread(mt);
Step-5: starting the execution of the Thread by calling start()
t.start();
-> When we call start() method the thread will be registered with ThreadScheduler and next
will invoke the run() method.

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Creating user defined Thread by implementing Runnable interface

-> if we want to create the user defined Threads using this approach, we have to follow
following 5 steps
Step1: creating a class that implements Runnable interface
class MyThread implements Runnable {
}
Step2: overriding the run() method
public void run(){
//statements;
}
Step3: creating an object for user defined Thread class
MyThread mt = new MyThread();
Step4: attaching user defined Thread with main ThreadGroup
Thread t = new Thread(mt);
Step5: starting user defined Thread by calling start() method
t.start();

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Q ) What is the difference between extending Thread class and implementing Runnable
interface
-> If we create any thread by extending Thread class then we have no chance for extending
from any other class.
-> But if we create any thread by implementing Runnable interface then we have a chance
for extending from any one class.
-> It is always recommended to create the user defined threads by implementing Runnable
interface only.

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What is the difference between calling t.run() and t.start() ?

-> We can call run() method directly but no thread will be created / registered with Thread
scheduler but run()method executes like a normal method by Main Thread.
-> But if we call start() method thread will be registered with thread scheduler and it calls
run() method.

Note: When we call start ( ) method it is creating thread and printing output like below
Thread-0 Thread Value:1
Thread-0 Thread Value:2
Thread-0 Thread Value:3
Thread-0 Thread Value:4
Thread-0 Thread Value:5

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Note: When we call run ( ) method it is not creating thread and printing output like below
with main thread
main Thread Value:1
main Thread Value:2
main Thread Value:3
main Thread Value:4
main Thread Value:5

Creating Multiple Threads

When we execute multiple threads at the same time simultaneously then we never get
same output for every execution because Thread Scheduler will decide which thread should
execute in next step.

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Data in consistency problem

-> When we execute multiple Threads which are acting on same object at the same time
simultaneously then there is chance of occurring data inconsistency problem in the
application
-> Data inconsistency problem will occur because one thread is updating the value at the
same time other thread is using old value.
-> To resolve this data inconsistency problem, we have to synchronize the object on which
multiple Threads are acting.
Thread synchronization
-> Thread synchronization is a process of allowing only one thread to use the object when
multiple
Threads are trying to use the particular object at the same time.
-> To achieve this Thread synchronization, we have to use a java keyword or modifier called
“synchronized ".
-> We can achieve Thread synchronization in following 2 ways

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1. synchronized blocks
If we want to synchronize a group of statements then we have to go for synchronized blocks
syntax:
synchronized(object) {
//statements
}
2. synchronized methods
If we want to synchronize all the statements of the particular method then we have to go
for synchronized methods.
syntax:
synchronized returntype methodname(parameters){
//statements;
}
Note: Thread synchronization concept is recommended to use only when we run multiple
threads which are acting on same object otherwise this concept is not required.

Q) Which is more preferred - Synchronized method or Synchronized block

-> In Java, synchronized keyword causes a performance cost.
-> A synchronized method in Java is very slow and can degrade performance. So we must
use synchronization keyword in java when it is necessary else, we should use Java
synchronized block that is used for synchronizing critical section only.
Deadlock
-> When we execute multiple Threads which are acting on same object that is synchronized
at the same time simultaneously then there is another problem may occur called deadlock
-> Dead lock may occur if one thread holding resource1 and waiting for resource2 release by
the Thread2, at the same time Thread2 is holding on resource2 and waiting for the
resource1 released by the Thread1 in this case 2 Threads are continuously waiting and no
thread will execute this situation is called as deadlock.
-> To resolve this deadlock situation there is no any concept in java, programmer only
responsible for writing the proper logic to resolve the problem of deadlock.

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// below is the java program which gives dead lock

package in.ashokit;
class MyThread {
public static void main(String[] args) {
final String resource1 = "Ashok IT";
final String resource2 = "Java Training";
// t1 tries to lock resource1 then resource2
Thread t1 = new Thread() {
public void run() {
synchronized (resource1) {
System.out.println("Thread 1: locked resource 1");
try {
Thread.sleep(100);
} catch (Exception e) {
}
synchronized (resource2) {
System.out.println("Thread 1: locked resource
2");
}
}
}
};
// t2 tries to lock resource2 then resource1
Thread t2 = new Thread() {
public void run() {
synchronized (resource2) {
System.out.println("Thread 2: locked resource 2");
try {
Thread.sleep(100);
} catch (Exception e) {

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}
synchronized (resource1) {
System.out.println("Thread 2: locked resource
1");
}
}
}
};
t1.start();
t2.start();
}
}
Daemon Thread
-> Daemon threads is a low priority thread that provide supports to user threads. These
threads can be user defined and system defined as well.
-> Garbage collection thread is one of the systems generated daemon thread that runs in
background.
-> When a JVM founds daemon threads it terminates the thread and then shutdown itself, it
does not care Daemon thread whether it is running or not.

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Methods of Object class which are related to threads

1. wait(): : This method used to make the particular Thread wait until it gets a notification.
2. notify(): This method used to send the notification to one of the waiting thread so that
thread enter into running state and execute the remaining task.
3. notifyAll(): This method used to send the notification to all the waiting threads so that all
thread enter into running state and execute simultaneously.
-> All these 3 methods are available in Object class which is super most class so that we can
access all these 3 methods in any class directly without any reference.
-> These methods are mainly used to perform Inner thread communication
-> By using these methods we can resolve the problems like Producer-Consumer problem,
Reader-Writer problem, ...

Note: We must call wait(), notify(), notifyAll() methods in side the synchronized blocks or
synchronized methods otherwise it will throw a runtime exception called
IllegalMonitorStateException.

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// Write a java program on Produce – Consumer

package in.ashokit;

public class Store {

int value;
boolean pro_thread = true;

synchronized void produce(int i) {

if (pro_thread == true) {
value = i;
System.out.println("Procuder Has Produced Product " + value);
pro_thread = false;
notify();
}
try {
wait();
} catch (InterruptedException ie) {
}
}

synchronized int consume() {

if (pro_thread == true) {
try {
wait();
} catch (InterruptedException ie) {
}
}
pro_thread = true;
notify();
return value;
}

class Producer implements Runnable {

Store sr;

Producer(Store sr) {
this.sr = sr;
}

public void run() {

int i = 1;
while (true) {
sr.produce(i);

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try {
Thread.sleep(1000);
} catch (InterruptedException ie) {
}
i++;
}
}
}

class Consumer implements Runnable {

Store sr;

Consumer(Store sr) {
this.sr = sr;
}

public void run() {

while (true) {
int res = sr.consume();
System.out.println("Consumer Has Taken Product " + res);
try {
Thread.sleep(1000);
} catch (InterruptedException ie) {
}
}
}
}

class ProducerConsumer {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Store sr = new Store();
Producer p = new Producer(sr);
Consumer c = new Consumer(sr);
Thread t1 = new Thread(p);
Thread t2 = new Thread(c);
t1.start();
t2.start();
}
}

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Knowledge – Check
1) What is Multi - Threading?
2) Why we need multi-Threading?
3) What is Thread Schedular?
4) What is Thread Priority?
5) What is Thread Life Cycle?
6) How to create Thread?
7) Difference between start () method and run ( ) method ?
8) Thread vs Runnable
9) Runnable Vs Callable
10) What is Synchronization
11) Synchronized Method Vs Synchronized Block
12) What is Dead Lock
13) Write a java program which gives Dead Lock
14) What is Inter - Thread Communication
15) What is Producer – Consumer problem
16) What is Executor Framework

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Chapter – 10
▪ File Handling Introduction
▪ File
▪ FineReader
▪ FileWriter
▪ Serialization
▪ De-Serialization

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File Handling
-> File handling is a crucial part of any programming language.
-> File handling means performing various operations on a file, like reading, writing, editing,
etc.
Common file handling operations

• Creating a new file.

• Writing data in aa file.
• Reading an existing file data.
• Deleting a file.
-> Java provides us library classes and various methods to perform file handling easily.
-> All these methods are present in the File Class of the java.io package.
So, first of all, before starting these programs, we need to import this package and the file
class.

-> Java uses i/o stream to perform file-related operations. Let us understand the concept of
stream first.

Stream in Java

-> Stream is a concept of java that pipelines a sequence of objects to obtain the desired
result.
-> A stream cannot be called to be a data structure, rather it just takes input from the
collection of I/O.
-> A stream can be classified into two types: Byte Stream and Character Stream.

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Byte Stream:

The byte stream deals with mainly byte data. We know that one byte is equal to eight-bit.
Thus, this stream mainly deals with 8bit of data. This stream performs an Input-output
operation per 8bit of data.
The byte stream contains two stream classes, Input Stream classes and Output Stream
Classes.
1. Input Stream Classes: This stream helps take input(Read Data) from the collection in I/O
File.

2. Output Stream Classes: This stream helps to give output(Write Data) into the collection in
I/O File.

The most commonly used Input and Output Stream Classes are FileInputStream and
FileOutputStream.

Character Stream:

There is also Character Stream which allows I/O operation on 16bit of Unicode data at a
time. Character Stream takes 2 bytes of data at a time. It is faster as it can take double the
intake as compared to a byte stream. Character streams usually use Byte Stream classes to
implement operations.
The two main classes used in Character Stream are FileReader and FileWriter.

File and Directory

-> A file is a named location that can be used to store related information. For example,

-> main.java is a Java file that contains information about the Java program.

-> A directory is a collection of files and subdirectories. A directory inside a directory is

known as subdirectory.

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Note: Using java program we can create both files and directories

-> The File class has many useful methods for creating and getting information about files.
For example:

// java program to create and write data to a file

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// java program to read data from file

// java program to delete file

Java BufferedReader Class

-> Java BufferedReader class is used to read the text from a character-based input stream.
-> It can be used to read data line by line by readLine( ) method. It makes the performance
fast.
-> It inherits Reader class.

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Scanner Class
-> Scanner class is mostly used to scan the input and read the input of primitive (built-in)
data types like int, decimal, double, etc.
-> Scanner class basically returns the tokenized input based on some delimiter pattern.
-> A Scanner class implements Iterator (string), Closeable, and AutoCloseable interfaces.

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Serialization and De-Serialization

-> Serialization is a process of converting an object into a sequence of bytes which can be
persisted to a disk or database or can be sent through streams.
-> The reverse process of creating object from sequence of bytes is called deserialization.
-> A class must implement Serializable interface present in java.io package in order to
serialize its object successfully. Serializable is a marker interface that adds serializable
behaviour to the class implementing it.
-> Java provides Serializable API encapsulated under java.io package for serializing and
deserializing objects which include

• java.io.serializable
• java.io.Externalizable
• ObjectInputStream
• ObjectOutputStream
Java Marker interface
Marker Interface is a special interface in Java without any field and method.
Marker interface is used to inform compiler that the class implementing it has some special
behaviour or meaning. Some examples of Marker interface are,

• java.io.serializable
• java.lang.Cloneable
• java.rmi.Remote
• java.util.RandomAccess
All these interfaces does not have any method and field. They only add special behaviour to
the classes implementing them.
To implement serialization and deserialization, Java provides two classes
ObjectOutputStream and ObjectInputStream.
ObjectOutputStream class
It is used to write object states to the file. An object that implements java.io.Serializable
interface can be written to strams. It provides various methods to perform serialization.

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ObjectInputStream class
An ObjectInputStream deserializes objects and primitive data written using an
ObjectOutputStream.

// Serialization Example

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// De-Serialization Java Program

Java Transient Keyword

-> Let's consider a case where you are serializing an object and want that a certain field of
the object doesn't get serialized.
Ex: I don't want to serialize sensitive or secret data like my password, atm pin, ssn etc..
-> To achieve this, we can take the help of the transient keyword. So, the Java transient
keyword helps to prevent a particular field from being serialized.

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What is the serialVersionUID?

-> The serialization runtime associates with each serializable class a version number, called a
serialVersionUID, which is used during deserialization to verify that the sender and receiver
of a serialized object have loaded classes for that object that are compatible with respect to
serialization.
-> If the receiver has loaded a class for the object that has a different serialVersionUID than
that of the corresponding sender's class, then deserialization will result in an
InvalidClassException.
-> A serializable class can declare its own serialVersionUID explicitly by declaring a field
named serialVersionUID that must be static, final, and of type long
Note: If we don't specify serialVersionUID then JVM will assign one randome
serialVersionUID. Its always better to mention our serialVersionUID.

Points to Remember while Implementing the Serializable Interface in Java

-> Serializable Interface must be implemented by all the associated objects.
-> If the parent class has already implemented the Serializable interface, in that case, a child
class doesn't have to implement it.
-> During the serialization process, only non-static data members are saved.
-> While converting the byte stream back to the original object, the constructor of the
object is not called.
-> Serializable Interface has no methods or fields of its own.

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Knowledge – Check
1) What is File Handling
2) What is File class
3) What are the methods available in File class
4) What is FileReader and FileWriter
5) How to read data from a File
6) How to write data into File
7) BufferedReader class vs FileReader class
8) Copy data from One file into another file
9) Read data from two files and write into another file
10) Write a java program to count no.of words in a file
11) What is Scanner class
12) What is Serializable interface ?
13) What is Serialization ?
14) What is De-Serialization ?
15) What is serialVersionUID
16) What is transient keyword

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Chapter – 11
• Generics
• Garbage Collection
• Reflection API
• Inner Classes

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Java Generics
-> Generics was first introduced in Java 1.5. Now it is one of the most profound features of
java programming language.
-> Generic programming enables the programmer to create classes, interfaces and methods
in which type of data is specified as a parameter.
-> Generics provide type safety. Type safety means ensuring that an operation is being
performed on the right type of data.
Note: Before Generics was introduced, generalized classes, interfaces or methods were
created using references of type Object because Object is the super class of all classes in
Java, but this way of programming did not ensure type safety.

Note: This is also known as Diamond Notation of creating an object of Generic type.
Generic class
Generic class is a class which can hold any kind of objects, to create Generic class we have to
specify generic type <T> after the class name.
syntax:

-> We can take multiple Generic Types also for class like below

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Generic interfaces
We can also create a generic interface by specifying the <T> after the interface name.
syntax:

// Java program with Generics

In the above program, we first passed an Integer type parameter to the Generic class. Then,
we passed a String type parameter to the same Generic class. Hence, we reused the same
class for two different data types. Thus, Generics helps in code reusability with ease.

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Java Reflection API

-> Reflection means ability of a software to analyse itself. In Java, Reflection API provides
facility to analyse and change runtime behaviour of a class at runtime.
-> For example, using reflection at the runtime you can determine what method, field,
constructor or modifiers a class supports.
-> The java.lang.Class class provides methods that are used to get metadata and manipulate
the run time behaviour of a class.
-> The java.lang and java.lang.reflect packages provide many classes for reflection and get
metadata of a particular class.
-> One of the advantages of reflection API is, we can manipulate private members of the
class too.
What is reflect package?
java.lang.reflect package encapsulates several important interfaces and classes. These
classes and interface define methods which are used for reflection.
Some Important Classes of java.lang.reflect package

Uses of Reflection

• Developing IDE
• Debugging and Test tools
• Loading drivers and providing dynamic information
Disadvantages of Reflection

• Low performance
• Security risk
• Violation of Oops concept

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// java program to get Class object

Class.forName ( )
-> Class is a predefined class available in java.lang package.
-> Inside Class we have a static method which is Class.forName(String cls). This method is
used to load classes into JVM using fully qualified name.

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// Java program to access private variable outside the class using Reflection
-> By default private variables can’t be accessed outside of the class. By using Reflection api
we can access them outside of the class like below

// Java program to get Variables of class using Reflection

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// java program to get methods metadata using Reflection

Note: Like fields and methods we can get Constructors info also using Reflection API.

Garbage Collection in Java

-> The garbage collector in Java is solely responsible for deleting un-used / un-referenced
objects.
-> In other languages, such as C or C++, the programmer is solely responsible for creating
and deleting objects. This may result in memory depletion if the programmer forgets to
dereference the objects.
-> In Java, programmers do not have to work on this. The JVM automatically destroys
objects which have lost their reference.
Now, what do we mean when we say “lost their reference”?
Let us find out through a simple example.
Let us say we have a class called human which has a constructor Human (String name). This
constructor initializes the current value of the string to the class variable name.
Now if we create an object of the class Human as follows.
Human object = new Human(“Ashok”);
The JVM creates a reference of the name “object” and points it to the data Ashok.
Now if I write
object=null;
The pointer to the value “Ashok” is now nullified. I cannot access the value anymore as
there was only one reference pointing to it. This is unreachability of objects in memory.

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This object of human named “Ashok” is now eligible for garbage collection.
An object is eligible for garbage collection if there are no references to it in the heap
memory.

There are a few ways to make an object eligible for garbage collection. They are:

• You can nullify the reference variable.

• You can assign the same pointer to a different object.
• All objects created inside a method lose their reference outside the method and are
thus eligible for garbage collection.
• Using Island of Isolation.

What is Island Isolation

When two objects ‘a’, and ‘b’ reference each other, and they are not referenced by any
other object, it is known as island of isolation.

Finalization in Java
-> As soon as the garbage collector clears the object, the compiler executes the finalize()
method.
-> This method generally contains actions which the JVM performs just before the object
gets deleted.
-> The Object class contains the finalize() method. Remember to override the finalize
method in the class whose objects will be garbage collected.
-> The finalize method throws a checked exception called “Throwable”.

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Methods for calling the Garbage Collector in Java

There are 2 ways to call the garbage collector in java
-> We can use the Runtime.getRuntime().gc() method- This class allows the program to
interface with the Java Virtual machine. The “gc()” method allows us to call the garbage
collector method.
-> We can also use the System.gc() method which is common.
Note: However, you cannot guarantee that these statements would run the garbage
collector. This is because the Java Virtual Machine performs clean-up.

How Garbage Collection works internally

-> In java, Garbage Collection works in 3 phases
Phase-1 : Mark objects as alive
-> In this step, the GC identifies all the live objects in memory by traversing the object graph.
-> When GC visits an object, it marks it as accessible and thus alive. Every object the garbage
collector visits is marked as alive. All the objects which are not reachable from GC Roots are
garbage and considered as candidates for garbage collection.
Phase-2 : Sweep dead objects
-> After marking phase, we have the memory space which is occupied by live (visited) and
dead (unvisited) objects. The sweep phase releases the memory fragments which contain
these dead objects.
Phase-3 : Compact remaining objects in memory
-> The dead objects that were removed during the sweep phase may not necessarily be next
to each other. Thus, you can end up having fragmented memory space.

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-> Memory can be compacted after the garbage collector deletes the dead objects, so that
the remaining objects are in a contiguous block at the start of the heap.

The compaction process makes it easier to allocate memory to new objects sequentially.

Types of Garbage Collectors Java

Serial – This collector primarily relies on a single thread and continues to serially collect
unreferenced objects.
Parallel – This collector uses multiple threads for collecting unreferenced objects in Java.
There are two variants to it. The collector can use multiple threads for Minor garbage
collection and one thread for Major garbage collection or vice versa.
CMS – This collector stands for Concurrent Mark Sweep. This essentially means that this
collector uses multiple threads for major and Minor garbage collection, however, there is
one important advantage of this collector. This collector does not allow the garbage
collection to stop the application itself. This means that the collector is concurrent with the
application, i.e, runs alongside the application itself. However, if the collector needs to
update some objects from the young to the old generation but the collector itself is busy, a
race condition occurs. This collection also uses up a lot of processing power.
Garbage First(G1) – This is similar to the CMS in terms of concurrency and usage of
multithreading. This divides the memory into several parts based on the size. The collector
specifically clears the part of the memory which has the greatest number of unreferenced
objects at first.

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Java Inner classes

-> If a class is declared with in another class, then this concept is called as Inner classes or
nested classes
-> If a class contains other class, then it is called as outer class or top-level class
-> Class declared inside the outer class is called as inner class

Here
A - outer class or top-level class
B - inner class
-> Here outer class can be default or public only but not private or protected or static
-> But inner class can be default or public or private or protected or static
-> The main advantage of Inner classes is that we can access the members of (both instance
and static) Outer class inside the inner class directly without taking the help of any object.
-> inner classes can also be called as helper classes
-> inner classes are hidden from other class of same package or other package
Types of inner classes
We have following 2 types of inner classes
1. non-static Inner classes
2. static Inner classes
1. non-static inner classes
-> If any inner class is created without using any static keyword then it is called as non-static
Nested classes or Inner classes
-> Non-static Nested or Inner classes can contain only non-static members(instance
members)

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-> based on the place where we declare these inner classes are again classified into
following 3 types
1. Regular Inner class (member level)
2. Method local Inner class (statement level)
3. Anonymous Inner class(expression level
1. Regular Inner class
-> If an inner class is declared outside the methods of Outer class then it is called as Regular
Inner class.
-> Regular Inner class are always created at member level
-> Regular Inner class can be default or public or private or protected
syntax:

if we compile the above program compiler will generate .class for both outer class and inner
class
available in the program like follows,
1 Outer.class 2. Outer$Inner.class
// Creating an object for Regular Inner class inside the instance methods of Outer class

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2. Method local Inner class

-> If we declare an inner class inside the methods of Outer class then it is called as Method
Local Inner class.
-> Method Local Inner classes are always created in side the method at statements level.
-> A method local Inner class can not be created as private, public, protected or static
syntax:

-> if we compile the above program then compiler will create following 2 .class files
1. Outer.class 2.Outer$1Inner.class
3. Anonymous Inner class
-> If any inner class is declared with out any name then it is called as Anonymous Inner class
-> Anonymous inner classes are always created at expression level
-> If we want to create Anonymous Inner classes we have to take the help of any existing
class or interface
-> At the time of creating the object of Anonymous Inner classes only Anonymous Inner
classes will be created.
-> For anonymous classes we can create only 1 object because it does't contain any name so
that memory can be utilized properly.
// anonymous inner class using Interface

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// anonymous inner class using Class

2. static Nested classes

-> If we declare any nested class using static key word then it is called as static Nested
classes
->We can create static regular classes but we cannot create any method local static or
anonymous static nested classes
->static nested classes can have both static and non-static members

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Knowledge – Check
1) What is Generics and why we need Generics?
2) What is Reflection API ?
3) What is the use of Class.forName ( )
4) How many ways available to create Object for a class ?
5) Write a java program to print methods available in the class
6) Write a java program to print variables available in the class
7) How to set values to private variables outside of class
8) What is Garbage Collection?
9) How Garbage Collection works in Java?
10) Which algorithm used by Garbage Collector?
11) How many types of Garbage Collectors available in Java?
12) What is Inner class?
13) Why we need inner classes?
14) How many types of inner classes available in Java?
15) What is Anonymous implementation ?

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Chapter - 12
JAVA 8 – New Features

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Java 8 Features
-> Java 8 introduced lot of new features
-> Java 8 version changed coding style with those new features
Main aim of java - 8
-> To simplify programming
-> To enable functional programming
-> To write more readable & concise code
New Features in Java 8

• Interface changes (default & static methods)

• Lambda Expressions
• Functional Interfaces
o Consumer
o Supplier
o Predicate
o Function
• Stream API
• Date & Time API changes
• Optional class
• SplIterator
• Stringjoiner
• Method References
• Constructor References
• Collections Framework changes

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Interface Changes in Java 8

-> Prior to java 8, interface should have only abstract methods (methods without body)
-> Java 8 allows the interfaces to have default and static methods
Q) What is the advantage of having Default & Static methods in java 8?
-> Default & Static methods provides backward compatibility.
-> For example, if several classes such as A, B, C and D implements an interface Test then if
we add a new method to the Test, we have to change the code in all the classes (A, B, C and
D) that implements this interface.

-> In this example we have only four classes that implements the interface, but imagine if
there are hundreds of classes implementing an interface it will become very difficult to
change all the classes which are implementing that interface. This is why in java 8, we have a
new concept “default methods”.
-> Default methods can be added to any existing interface and we do not need to
implement these methods in the implementation classes (if required we can override them
in implementation classes)
// java program on Interface – Default Method

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Some key points about default methods are :

• A default method must have a body.

• The access modifier of default methods are implicitly public.
• The class implementing such interface are not required to implement default
methods. If needed, implementing class can override default methods.
Static Methods In Java
-> The static methods in interfaces are similar to default methods but the only difference is
that you can’t override them. Now, why do we need static methods in interfaces if we
already have default methods?
-> Suppose you want to provide some implementation in your interface and you don’t want
this implementation to be overridden in the implementing class, then you can declare the
method as static.
-> In the below example, we will defined a Vehicle interface with a static method called
cleanVehicle().

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Some key points about static methods are:

• A static method must have a body.

• The access modifier of static methods is implicitly public.
• This method must be called using interface name.
• Since these methods are static, we cannot override them in implementing class.
Functional Interfaces
-> If an interface contains only one abstract method, then it is called as Functional Interface.
-> Functional Interface is used to invoke lambda expressions
-> Runnable, Callable, Comparable and ActionListener are predefined functional interfaces.
Runnable ----> run ( )
Callable ----> call ( )
ActionListener ----> actionPerformed ( )
Comparable ----> compareTo ( )
Note: We can take default and static methods also in functional interface. Only one method
rule is applicable for only abstract methods.

-> To represent our interface as functional interface we will use @FunctionalInterface

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What is lambda expression

-> Java is an object-oriented language. By introducing lambdas in Java 8, the authors of Java
tried to add elements of functional programming in Java.
Q- Now you might be wondering what the difference between object-oriented
programming and functional programming is?
-> In object-oriented programming, objects and classes are the main entities. If we create a
function then it should exist within a class. A function has no meaning outside the scope of
the class object.
-> In functional programming, functions can exist outside the scope of an object. We can
assign them to a reference variable and we can also pass them to other methods as a
parameter.
-> A lambda expression is just an anonymous function, i.e., a function with no name and
that is not bound to an identifier. We can pass it to other methods as parameters, therefore,
using the power of functional programming in Java.
-> Lambda is an Anonymous function
- No Name
- No Modifier
- No Return Type
Why to use Lambda expressions?
-> To write functional programming in java
-> To write more readable, maintainable and concise code
-> To enable parallel processing

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// Java Program with Functional Interface and Lambda Expression

// Java Program with Functional Interface and Lambda Expression

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// Java Program with Lambda Expression to Sort ArrayList elements

Predefined Functional Interfaces

There are several predefined functional interfaces provided by java 8
1) Predicate
2) Function
3) Consumer
4) Supplier
-> These functional interfaces are provided in java.util.function package

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Predicate
-> It is used to perform some conditional check and returns true or false value
Ex: Check weather no is greater than 10 or not
Note: Predicate is boolean valued function in java 8
Syntax:
interface Predicate<T>{
boolean test(T k);
}

Predicate Joining
-> To combine multiple predicates, we will use predicate joining
-> In Predicate we have below methods
test () - > abstract method
p1.negate();
p1.and(p2);
p1.or(p2);
Note: negate(), and() , or() methods are default methods in Predicate interface

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BiPredicate interface
-> The Predicate<T> takes only one parameter and returns the result. Now suppose we have
a requirement where we need to send two parameters (i.e person object and min age to
vote) and then return the result. Here, we can use BiPredicate<T, T>.
-> The BiPredicate<T, T> has a functional method test(Object, Object) . It takes in two
parameters and returns a boolean value.

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Supplier
-> Supplier is an interface that does not take in any argument but produces a value when
the get() function is invoked. Suppliers are useful when we don’t need to supply any value
and obtain a result at the same time.
-> The Supplier<T> interface supplies a result of type T.
-> It is a predefined functional interface
-> It contains only one abstract method i.e get ( )
-> Supplier will only returns the value R

// Java program to generate OTP using Supplier interface

Consumer
-> It is a predefined functional interface
-> It contains one abstract method i.e accept (T t)
-> Consumer will accept values and will perform operation but it won't return any value
-> A consumer can be used in all contexts where an object needs to be consumed. taken as
input, and some operation is performed on the object without returning any result.

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BiConsumer<T,U>
This interface takes two parameters and returns nothing.
T - the type of the first argument to the operation
U - the type of the second argument to the operation.
This interface has the same methods as present in the Consumer<T> interface.

Function
-> Function is a category of functional interfaces that takes an object of type T and returns
an object of type R.
-> Until now, the functional interfaces that we’ve discussed have either not taken any
argument (Supplier), not returned any value (Consumer), or returned only a boolean
(Predicate).
-> Function interfaces are very useful as we can specify the type of input and output.
-> It is a predefined functional interface

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-> It is having one abstract method that is "apply ()"

-> Function can return any type of value whereas Predicate can return only boolean value

Function Chaining
-> To join one function with another function we will use Function Chaining
Assume that f1 & f2 are 2 functions
f1.andThen(f2) ----> First f1 will be applied and then followed by f2
f1.compose(f2) ----> First f2 will be applied and then followed by f1
compose(Function<? super V, ? extends T> before)
Returns a composed function that first applies the function provided as a parameter on the
input, and then applies the function on which it is called, to the result.
andThen(Function<? super R,? extends V> after)
This method returns a composed function that first applies the function on which it is called
on the input, and then applies the function provided as parameter, to the result.

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BiFunction<T,U,R>
The BiFunction<T, U, R> is similar to Function<T, R> interface; the only difference is that the
BiFunction interface takes in two parameters and returns an output.
In the below example, we will create a BiFunction that takes two numbers as input and
returns their sum.

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Method Reference :: Operator

-> Method references, as the name suggests are the references to a method. They are
similar to object references. As we can have reference to an object, we can have reference
to a method as well.
-> Similar to an object reference, we can now pass behaviour as parameters. But, you might
be wondering what the difference between a method reference and lambda expressions is.
There is no difference. Method references are shortened versions of lambda expressions
that call a specific method.

// Java program with static method reference

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// java program with instance method reference

// java program with Constructor Reference

Java forEach ( ) method

-> Java provides a new method forEach() to iterate the elements. It is defined in Iterable and
Stream interface.
-> It is a default method defined in the Iterable interface. Collection classes which extends
Iterable interface can use forEach loop to iterate elements.
-> This method takes a single parameter which is a functional interface. So, you can pass
lambda expression as an argument.

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// Java program to print list data with for-each loop

// Java program to print list data with foreach method

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Java 8 Optional Class

-> Every Java Programmer is familiar with NullPointerException. It can crash your code. And
it is very hard to avoid it without using too many null checks. So, to overcome this, Java 8
has introduced a new class Optional in java.util package.
-> Optional class help in writing a neat code without using too many null checks.
-> By using Optional, we can specify alternate values to return or alternate code to run. This
makes the code more readable.
// in below java program we will get NullPointerException

-> To avoid abnormal termination, we use the Optional class. In the following example, we
are using Optional. So, our program can execute without crashing.

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-> Optional is a container object which may or may not contain a non-null value. You must
import java.util package to use this class. If a value is present, isPresent() will return true
and get() will return the value.
Java 8 StringJoiner
-> In java 8, a new class StringJoiner is introduced in the java.util package.
-> Using this class we can join more than one strings with the specified delimiter, we can
also provide prefix and suffix to the final string while joining multiple strings.

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Stream API
-> Stream API introduced in java 8
-> Collections are used to Store the data
-> Stream is used to process the data
Note: Collections & Streams both are not same.
-> The addition of stream api was one of the major features added to java8.
-> A stream in java can be defined as a sequence of elements from a source that supports
aggregate operations on them.
-> The source here refers to collection or array that provide data to stream
Few Important points about Streams
1) Stream is not a data structure. It is a bunch of operations applied to a source. The source
can be a collection, array or i/o channels.
2) Streams don't change the original data structure
3) There can be zero or more intermediate operations that transforms a stream into another
stream. Each intermediate operation is lazily executed
5) Terminal operations produce the result of the stream.
Stream Creation
-> In java 8 we can create stream in 2 ways
1) Stream.of(v1, v2, v3...)
2) stream() method

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-> Stream API provided several methods to perform operations.

-> The methods which are provided by stream API can be categorized into 2 types
1) Intermediate Operational Methods
2) Terminal Operational Methods
-> Intermediate operational methods will not produce any results. They usually accept
functional interfaces as parameter and always returns new Stream.
Ex: filter() and map() etc...
-> Terminal Operational methods will take input and produce results.
Ex: count(), toArray() and collect()

Streams with Filtering

-> Stream interface having filter( ) method.
-> filter( ) method will take Predicate as input
-> Predicate is a functional interface which will take input and returns boolean value
-> Predicate interface contains test( ) as abstract method. This method is used to execute
lambda.

// Java program to filter the numbers which are > =20

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// Java program to filter the names which are starting with ”A”

// Java Program To Filter Person Objects

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Mapping Operations In Streams

-> Mapping operations are belonging to Intermediate operations
-> Mapping operations are those operations that transform the elements of a stream and
return a new stream with transformed elements.

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-> When we have Collection inside another collection then to flaten that stream we will use
flatMap( ) method.

Slicing Operations In Streams

-> distinct ( ) -> it is used to get unique elements from the Stream
-> limit (long maxSize) -> it is used to get number of elements from the stream based on
given size
-> skip (long n) -> it is used to skip elements from starting to given length and returns
remaining elements.

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Note: The above 3 methods are intermediate methods only. They perform operation and
returns new stream.

Matching Operations in the streams

-> Matching operations are terminal operations that are used to check if elements with
certain are present in the stream or not.
-> There are mainley three matching functions available in the Stream. these are
o anyMatch ( )
o allMatch( )
o noneMatch( )

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Finding Operations In Streams

-> In Matching operations we can check weather data present in the stream or not based on
given criteria. After checking the condition it returns true or false value.
-> By using Finding Operations we can check the condition and we can get the data based on
condition.

• findFirst()
• findAny( )

Collectors In Streams
-> Collectors operations are used to collect from Streams
-> We are having below methods to perform Collectors operations
Collectors.toList()
Collectors.toSet()
Collectors.toMap()
Collectors.toCollection() etc..

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// java program on Collectors with toList( )

// java program on Collectors with toMap( )

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Stream API Interview Questions

1) Getting Min salary emp from collection
2) Getting Max salary emp from Collection
3) Getting Avg Salary of the employee
4) Group By

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Group By Operation

Parallel Streams
-> Streams is one of the major change added in java 1.8 version
-> Generally Streams will execute in Sequential manner
-> We can use parallel streams also to execute program faster by utilizing system resources
efficiently.
-> Parallel Streams introduced to improve performance of the program.

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Java Spliterator
Like Iterator and ListIterator, Spliterator is a Java Iterator, which is used to iterate elements
one-by-one from a List implemented object. Some important points about Java Spliterator
are:

• Java Spliterator is an interface in Java Collection API.

• Spliterator is introduced in Java 8 release in java.util package.
• It supports Parallel Programming functionality.
• We can use it for both Collection API and Stream API classes.
• It provides characteristics about Collection or API objects.
• We can NOT use this Iterator for Map implemented classes.
• It uses tryAdvance() method to iterate elements individually in multiple Threads to
support Parallel Processing.
• It uses forEachRemaining() method to iterate elements sequentially in a single
Thread.
• It uses trySplit() method to divide itself into Sub-Spliterators to support Parallel
Processing.
• Spliterator supports both Sequential and Parallel processing of data.

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Date API changes in java 1.8 version

-> In java we have java.util.Date class to work with date related functionality in our
application.
Date date = new Date();
-> When we create object for Date class it will give both date and time (current date &
time).
-> If we want to get only date without time or only time without date then we have to write
our own logic using Date class object.
-> To overcome this problem, in java 1.8 v changes happened for Date API.
-> In Java 1.8v new classes provided to work with date related functionality
java.time.LocalDate (It will deal with only date)
java.time.LocalTime (It will deal with only time)
java.time.LocalDateTime (It will deal with both date & time)
-> The above classes got introduced in java.time package.

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// java program LocalDate class

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// java program on LocalTime class

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-> Period class is used to check difference between 2 dates

// java program on Period class

-> Duration class is used to check difference between 2 times.

// java program on Duration class

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Java – 8 Knowledge – Check

1) What are the new features added in Java 8?
2) What is Default method and why we need it?
3) What is static method and why we need it?
4) Default methods vs Static Methods in interfaces?
5) What is Functional Interface?
6) What is Lambda expression?
7) How to write Lambda expression?
8) How to invoke Lambda expressions?
9) What are predefined Functional Interfaces available in java 8?
10) What is Predicate?
11) What is Supplier?
12) What is Consumer?
13) What is Function?
14) What is Optional class and why we need it?
15) What is Stream API?
16) How to create Stream object in java?
17) How to filter data using Stream API?
18) What is map ( ) operation in java 8?
19) What is flatMap ( ) in java 8 ?
20) What is the difference between intermediate and terminal operations in Stream?
21) Write java a program to get names of the employees whose salary is greater than 1
lakh.
22) What are date changes implemented in Java 8?
23) What is forEach ( ) method in java ?
24) What are the new changes introduced in java 8 w.r.t Collection Framework?
25) What is SplIterator?

=== Ashok IT : Lean Here .. Lead Anywhere...!! ===

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