Engineering Mathematics

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 𝑏12

𝑎
A = [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] 𝑏
𝐵 = [ 21 𝑏22 ] 𝐴3×3 × 𝐵3×2
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 3×3 𝑏31 𝑏32 3×2
𝑎11 . 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 ⋅ 𝑏21 + 𝑎13 . 𝑏31 𝑎11 𝑏12 + 𝑎12 𝑏22 + 𝑎13 𝑏32
⇒ [ 𝑎21 . 𝑏11 + 𝑎22 . 𝑏21 + 𝑎23 . 𝑏31 𝑎21 𝑏12 + 𝑎22 𝑏22 + 𝑎23 𝑏32 ]
𝑎31. 𝑏11 + 𝑎32 ⋅ 𝑏21 + 𝑎33 ⋅ 𝑏31 𝑎31 𝑏12 + 𝑎32 𝑏22 + 𝑎33 𝑏32 3×2

4.1.4 Properties of Multiplication of Matrices:

(i) Matrix Multiplication Need not be commutative.
(ii) Matrix Multiplication is Associative (A(BC)) = ((AB)C)
(iii) Matrix Multiplication is distributive A(B + C) = (AB + AC)
(iv) The product of two Matrices 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 , 𝐵𝑛×𝑞 (i.e. 𝐴𝐵𝑚×𝑞 ) can be a zero matrix even if 𝐴 ≠ 𝑂&𝐵 ≠ 𝑂.
3 0 0 0 0 0
Example: 𝐴 = [ ];𝐵 = [ ] ⇒ 𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
0 0 0 4 0 0
• For the multiplication of two matrices 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 & 𝐵𝑛×𝑞

(i) The No. of Multiplications required = m n q

(ii) The number of Additions required = m (n –1) q

4.2 Types of Matrices:

(1) Upper triangular Matrix: A matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]; 1 ≤ 𝑖, 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 is said to be an upper triangular matrix if
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 > 𝑗
(2) Lower Triangular Matrix: A matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] ; 1 ≤ 𝑖, 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 is said to be a lower Triangular Matrix
𝑛×𝑛

if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 < 𝑗
(3) Diagonal Matrix: A matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], ∀ 1 ≤ 𝑖, 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 is said to be a diagonal matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑂 ∀ 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
𝑑1 0 0
Example: 𝐴 = [ 0 𝑑2 0 ]. The diagonal Matrix is also denoted as 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔 [𝑑1 , 𝑑2 , 𝑑3 ]
0 0 𝑑3
𝐾; 𝑖 = 𝑗
(4) Scalar Matrix: A Matrix 'A' = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] ; 1 ≤ 𝑖, 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 is said to be a scalar Matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = {
0; 1 ≠ 𝑗
If K = 1, then A → Identity Matrix,
If K = 0, then A → Null Matrix.
(5) Idempotent Matrix:
A Matrix '𝐴𝑛×𝑛 ' is said to be an idempotent matrix if 𝐴2 = 𝐴.
4 −1
Example: 𝐴 = [ ]
12 −3
4 −1 4 −1 4 −1
⇒𝐴⋅𝐴=[ ][ ]=[ ]=𝐴
12 −3 12 −3 12 −3

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(6) Nilpotent Matrix: A matrix A is said to be nilpotent of class x or index if Ax = 0 and Ax– 1  0 i.e. x is the smallest index
which makes Ax = 0.
1 1 3
Example: The matrix A =  5 2 6  is nilpotent class 3, since A  0 and A2  0, but A3 = 0.
 
−2 −1 −3

(7) Orthogonal Matrix: A matrix A is said to be orthogonal if A. AT = I

cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
Example: [ ]
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
(8) Involutory Matrix: A matrix A is said to be involutory if A2 = I
2 3
Example: [ ]
−1 −2
4.3 Transpose of a Matrix:
For a given matrix = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]; 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛, we can say that 'B' where 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ], 𝑖 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 𝑖 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑚 is the
transpose of the Matrix 'A' if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑗𝑖

4.3.1 Properties of Transpose of a Matrix:

(i) (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴
(ii) (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 ⋅ 𝐴𝑇
(iii) (𝐾𝐴)𝑇 = 𝐾𝐴𝑇 where 'K' is a scalar.

4.4 Conjugate of a matrix

The matrix obtained by replacing each element of matrix by its complex conjugate.
4.4.1 Properties of conjugate matrix

(a) (A) = A (b) ( A + B) = A + B

(c) (KA) = K A (d) ( AB) = AB

(e) A = A if A is real matrix

A = − A if A is purely imaginary matrix

4.5 Transposed Conjugate of a Matrix

The transpose of conjugate of a matrix is called transposed conjugate. It is represented by A.
 
(a) ( A ) = A (b) ( A + B) = A + B

(c) (KA) = KA (K : Complex number) (d) ( AB) = B A

4.6 Trace of a Matrix

Trace is simply sum of all diagonal elements of a matrix.

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4.6.1 Properties of Trace of a matrix

Let A and B be two square matrices of order  and  is scalar then
1. Tr (A) = Tr ( A)
2. Tr ( A + B) = Tr ( A) + Tr ( B)
3. Tr ( AB) = Tr ( BA) [If both AB and BA are defined]

4.7. Type of Real Matrix

(a) Symmetric matrix : (A)T = A
(b) Skew symmetric matrix : (AT) = –A
(c) Orthogonal matrix : (AT = A–1, AAT = I)
Note : (a) If A and B are symmetric, then (A + B) and (A – B) are also symmetric.
(b) For any matrix AAT is always symmetric.
 A + AT   A − AT 
(c) For any matrix,   is symmetric and   is skew symmetric.
 2
   2 
(d) For orthogonal matrices, |A| =  1

A + AT A − AT
(e) We can write any matrix A as a sum of symmetric and skew symmetric matrix A = +
2 2

4.8. Type of complex matrix

(a) Hermitian matrix : (A = A)
(b) Skew-Hermitian matrix: A = –A
(c) Unitary matrix : (A = A–1, AA = I)

A + A A − A
Note : (a) is Hermitian and is skew Hermitian matrix.
2 2
A + A A − A
(b) We can write any matrix as a sum of Hermitian and skew Hermitian matrix A = +
2 2

4.9. Determinant
The summation of the product of elements of a row(or) column of a matrix with their corresponding Co-factors.
𝐴 ⋅ 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = |𝐴| ⋅ I
Determinant can be calculated only if matrix is a square matrix.
Suppose, we need to calculate a 3 × 3 determinant,
3 3 3
 =  a1 j cof (a1 j ) =  a2 j cof (a2 j ) =  a3 j cof (a3 j )
j =1 j =1 j =1

We can calculate determinant along any row or column of the matrix.

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4.9.1 Properties of Determinants

(i) If 'A' is a Square Matrix of size ' 𝑛 × 𝑛 ' and 'k' is a Scalar then
|𝐾 ⋅ 𝐴𝑛×𝑛 | = 𝐾 𝑛 ⋅ |𝐴𝑛×𝑛 |

(ii) |𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)| = |𝐴|(𝑛−1)

2
(iii) |𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴))| = (|𝐴|)(𝑛−1)
(iv) |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴| ⋅ |𝐵|
(v) |(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 | = |𝐵𝑇 | ⋅ |𝐴𝑇 |
(vi) If two rows (or) two columns of a determinant are interchanged, then the determinant changes its sign.

(vii) The determinant of an upper triangular Matrix/a lower triangular Matrix/a diagonal Matrix is the product of the
principal diagonal elements of the Matrix.

(viii) The determinant of Every Skew-Symmetric Matrix of odd order (𝐴𝑛×𝑛 )(′𝑛′′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑) is zero.

(ix) The determinant of an orthogonal Matrix 𝐴𝑛×𝑛 is ±1

(x) The determinant of an Idempotent Matrix is either 0 (or) 1.

(xi) The determinant of an Involuntary Matrix is ±1

(xii) The determinant of a Nilpotent Matrix is always zero.

(xiii) If the product of two Non-zero Matrices 𝐴𝑛×𝑛 ≠ 0; 𝐵𝑛×𝑛 ≠ 0 is a zero Matrix ((𝐴𝐵)𝑛×𝑛 = 0), then both |𝐴| = 0 &
|𝐵| = 0.

(xiv) If two rows (or) two columns of a Matrix are either equal or Proportional, then the determinant of the Matrix is equal to
zero.

(xv) The number of terms in the general expansion of an 'n × n' determinant is 𝑛!

(xvi) Value of the determinant is invariant under row and column interchange i.e., AT = A

(xvii) If any row or column is completely zero, then |A| = 0.

(xviii) If any single row or column of the matrix is multiplied by k then the determinant the of new matrix = K|A|
(xix) In a determinant the sum of the product of the element of any row or column with its cofactor gives a determinant of
the matrix.
(xx) In determinant the sum of the product of the element of any row or column with a cofactor of another row or column
will give zero.
(xxi) |AB| = |A| × |B|
R =R +KR
Elementary operations don’t effect the determinant that is A ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → B then |A| = |B|
i i j
(xxii)
C =C +KC
A ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
i i j
→B then |A| = |B|

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