AIM

Generally the usage of vehicle tracking system has been increased rapidly. The major concern
of the proposed system is identifying the vehicle theft by implementing anti-system. Vehicle
tracking system is beneficial in many ways such as providing security to the personal
vehicles, taxis, cabs, school buses/cars and others. Vehicle tracking system is designed to
know the position of the vehicle

ABSTARCT

Vehicle tracking system is designed to know the position of the vehicle. Tracking system is
developed by using GPS and GSM modules to locate the user’s vehicle easily. GPS module is
used to track the location of the vehicle in the form of values such as latitude and longitude.
These values are transmitted to the user using GSM modem through mobile network.
Different sensors are used to detect alcohol consumption and to identify the accident. The
Sensor values can be monitored by anyone from anywhere in the world using IOT channel.

SYSTEM OBJECTIVES:

• Continuously monitoring and tracking the school vehicle at real time using web page in the
Smartphone and if the vehicle choose wrong path then system gives the alert message to the
owner’s Smartphone.

• Storing and updating the real time database of the vehicle like its Speed, Time, Location,
and Date which is useful in case of vehicle theft detection or in case of vehicle’s accident
INTRODUCTION

In last decade, we observe the drivers fatigue driving and vehicle theft activity which causes
social real time problem like accidents and many more hazards conditions. We daily see or
read such type of activities which are raising the question of our safety and security in both
public and private sectors. So there is a need of real time monitoring and tracking the vehicle
also storing and updating its database of certain situations. In the urban areas, human help is
somewhat difficult in providing the database of tracked vehicle. In the proposed system, the
system provides a fully automated tracking and monitoring of the vehicle which helpful for
school bus, their owners, children’s safety and also it provides accurate arrival time of the
vehicle at particular location or stop. And hence using accuracy in time, children can spend
more time in studying, sleeping, or relaxing rather than waiting for a delayed bus. Spending
less time waiting for a bus improves comfortable and effective time management of the
student as well [4]. In order to reduce man power and saving of money, here the system
provides easy tracking solution using Embedded Linux Board. The proposed system get
tracking information of the vehicle like vehicle number (Unique ID), location, speed, Date,
Time and store into the database of Raspberry Pi. The system also provides students safety
mechanism with the help of temperature sensor and gas leakage sensor. Hence in the case of
raising the temperature inside the vehicle due to some reason or leakage of the LPG gas
inside the vehicle, the alert message get send to the driver as well as vehicle owner. For
tracking the vehicle using GPS and maintain its database, MySQL database system is use
which advanced feature of Raspberry-Pi. In the database base monitoring and updating
mechanism, the GSM/GPRS module is used which transmit the updated vehicle database to
the server and user access the database using web page in Smartphone [3]. That shows the
real time vehicle location in the Smartphone. Thus, users will be able to continuously monitor
a moving vehicle on demand using the Smartphone and determine the estimated distance and
time for the vehicle to arrive at a given destination.
LITERATURE REVIEW

Many different technologies were used to control the vehicle when it is lost. Previously it was
very difficult to determine the position of the automobile but now by using GPS technology it
became very easy to track the position of the vehicle. A system is designed to note the
location of the vehicle and to identify the theft by passing the information to the automobile
owner. Such system includes GPS and GSM modules to determine the position of the vehicle
and to deliver the information to the owner. This system is designed for continuous
monitoring of the vehicle and to describe the status of the vehicle on request [3]. Face
recognisation system is used to identify theft. This face recognisation system will be placed
inside the vehicle. When a person switches ON the vehicle, it captures the image and
compares the new image with the stored image and verifies whether the image is already
there in the list or not. If the image is not found in the list, the message will be sent to the
automobile owner. Now the owner is allowed to see the image of the thief and location of the
vehicle Security systems and navigators have always been a necessity of human‟s life. The
developments of advanced electronics have brought revolutionary changes in these fields. In
this paper, we will present a vehicle tracking system that employs a GPS module and a GSM
modem to find the location of a vehicle and offers a range of control features. To complete
the design successfully, a GPS unit, two relays, a GSM Modem and two MCU units are used.
There are five features introduced in the project. The aim of this project is to remotely track a
vehicle‟s location, remotely switch ON and OFF the vehicle‟s ignition system and remotely
lock and unlock the doors of the vehicle. An SMS message is sent to the tracking system and
the system responds to the users request by performing appropriate actions. Short text
messages are assigned to each of these features. A webpage is specifically designed to view
the vehicle‟s location on Google maps. By using relay based control concept introduced in
this paper, number of control features such as turning heater on/off, radio on/off etc. can be
implemented in the same fashion. The vehicle tracking system is an electronic device that
tracks the vehicle‟s location. Most of the tracking systems use GPS module to locate the
vehicle‟s position [1].Many systems also combines communication components such as
satellite transmitters to communicate the vehicle‟s location to a remote user [2]. Google maps
are used to view the vehicle‟s location. The design of the tracking system is divided into
three parts; basic design, intermediate design and an advance Design. The basic design of the
vehicle tracking system consists of a GSM module, a GPS module, a MCU (ATMEL), a
Relay circuit and a LCD. The user sends SMS and the system responds to the user‟s request
by providing the coordinates of a location in accordance to the requirements of mobile phone
users through the GPRS network. The intermediate and advance design is an improvement of
the basic design. There are five features introduced in the project. SMS codes are specifically
assigned to each of these features. For example, if the user sends „555‟ to the tracking
system. The GSM modem will receive the SMS and transmit to the MCU unit, where the
SMS code will be compared against the codes stored in the library. In this project, the code
‟555‟ is assigned to find the location of a vehicle. So, the MCU will get the location from the
GPS module and reply back to the user with the location coordinates (i.e. Longitude and
Latitude). These coordinates can be used to view the location of a vehicle on Google maps.
The vehicle tracking system presented in this paper comprises of a cost effective and special
tracking technology. It offers an advanced tracking and a variety of control features that
facilitate the monitoring and clever control of the vehicle. The tracking systems are not only
bounded to shipping industry and fleet tracking but also used in cars as a theft prevention
tool. This paper provides an overview of the background research related to vehicle tracking
and control systems, component‟s choice and full development process of the tracking
system. The paper is divided in five main sections: related research, choice of components,
design of a system, simulation of designs and implementation process. In the related research
section, we will outline the research carried out so far. Then, we will discuss the components
used. The design section will focus the software and hardware design process. The assembly
of components will be discussed in the implementation section. Finally, the implementation
process section will include the software simulations and images of the hardware in working
condition. Number of papers has been published on the development of vehicle tracking
system using GPS and GSM Modem [3],[4],[5],[6],[7],[8],[9],[10],[11],[12],[13] and [14]. In
[15], differential GPS algorithm that is capable of providing real-time near PPP service is
presented. In [16], error sources in GPS measurement are calculated. In [17], vehicular
navigation application is presented. A web application and a mobile application related to
vehicle tracking are presented in [18]. In [19] safety challenges related to tracking system and
GPS are discussed in great detail. A novel method of vehicle tracking is presented in [20]
using wireless sensor technology, passive sensors [21], android based tracking [22], self-
power tracking system [23] and tracking system based on cloud computing infrastructure
[24]. A vehicle tracking system based on color histogram distance and binary information is
implemented [25]. In [26] development of real-time visual tracking system for vehicle safety
applications is discussed and the concept of focus of expansion (FOE) is introduced. A low
cost real time tracking system that provides accurate localizations of the tracked vehicle is
presented in [27].Vehicle tracking coupled with vehicle registration number recognition is
introduced in [28]. Following huge demand of accurate vehicle tracking systems, researchers
proposed number of novel methods [29], [30], [18] to improve the accuracy of tracking
systems.
 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Many embedded systems have substantially different design constraints than desktop
computing applications. No single characterization applies to the diverse spectrum of
embedded systems. However, some combination of cost pressure, long life-cycle, real-time
requirements, reliability requirements, and design culture dysfunction can make it difficult to
be successful applying traditional computer design methodologies and tools to embedded
applications. Embedded systems in many cases must be optimized for life-cycle and
business-driven factors rather than for maximum computing throughput. There is currently
little tool support for expanding embedded computer design to the scope of holistic
embedded system design. However, knowing the strengths and weaknesses of current
approaches can set expectations appropriately, identify risk areas to tool adopters, and
suggest ways in which tool builders can meet industrial needs. If we look around us, today we
see numerous appliances which we use daily, be it our refrigerator, the microwave oven, cars,
PDAs etc. Most appliances today are powered by something beneath the sheath that makes
them do what they do. These are tiny microprocessors, which respond to various keystrokes
or inputs. These tiny microprocessors, working on basic assembly languages, are the heart of
the appliances. We call them embedded systems. Of all the semiconductor industries, the
embedded systems market place is the most conservative, and engineering decisions here
usually lean towards established, low risk solutions. Welcome to the world of embedded
systems, of computers that will not look like computers and won’t function like anything we
are familiar with.

2.1 CLASSIFICATION

Embedded systems are divided into autonomous, realtime, networked & mobile
categories.
Autonomous systems

They function in standalone mode. Many embedded systems used for process control

in manufacturing units& automobiles fall under this category.

Real-time embedded systems

These are required to carry out specific tasks in a specified amount of time. These

systems are extensively used to carry out time critical tasks in process control.

Networked embedded systems

They monitor plant parameters such as temperature, pressure and humidity and send

the data over the network to a centralized system for on line monitoring.

Mobile gadgets

Mobile gadgets need to store databases locally in their memory. These gadgets imbibe

powerful computing & communication capabilities to perform realtime as well as

nonrealtime tasks and handle multimedia applications. The embedded system is a

combination of computer hardware, software, firmware and perhaps additional mechanical

parts, designed to perform a specific function. A good example is an automatic washing

machine or a microwave oven. Such a system is in direct contrast to a personal computer,

which is not designed to do only a specific task. But an embedded system is designed to do a

specific task with in a given timeframe, repeatedly, endlessly, with or without human

interaction.

Hardware

Good software design in embedded systems stems from a good understanding of the

hardware behind it. All embedded systems need a microprocessor, and the kinds of

microprocessors used in them are quite varied. A list of some of the common

microprocessors families are: ARM family, The Zilog Z8 family, Intel 8051/X86 family,

Motorola 68K family and the power PC family. For processing of information and execution

of programs, embedded system incorporates microprocessor or micro- controller. In an

embedded system the microprocessor is a part of final product and is not available for
reprogramming to the end user. An embedded system also needs memory for two purposes,

to store its program and to store its data. Unlike normal desktops in which data and programs

are stored at the same place, embedded systems store data and programs in different

memories. This is simply because the embedded system does not have a hard drive and the

program must be stored in memory even when the power is turned off. This type of memory

is called ROM. Embedded applications commonly employ a special type of ROM that can be

programmed or reprogrammed with the help of special devices.

2.2 OTHER COMMON PARTS FOUND ON MANY EMBEDDED

SYSTEMS
 UART& RS232
 PLD
 ASIC’s& FPGA’s
 Watch dog timer etc.

2.3 DESIGN PROCESS

Embedded system design is a quantitative job. The pillars of the system design
methodology are the separation between function and architecture, is an essential step from
conception to implementation. In recent past, the search and industrial community has paid
significant attention to the topic of hardware-software (HW/SW) codesign and has tackled the
problem of coordinating the design of the parts to be implemented as software and the parts
to be implemented as hardware avoiding the HW/SW integration problem marred the
electronics system industry so long. In any large scale embedded systems design
methodology, concurrency must be considered as a first class citizen at all levels of
abstraction and in both hardware and software. Formal models & transformations in system
design are used so that verification and synthesis can be applied to advantage in the design
methodology. Simulation tools are used for exploring the design space for validating the
functional and timing behaviors of embedded systems. Hardware can be simulated at
different levels such as electrical circuits, logic gates, RTL e.t.c. using VHDL description. In
some environments software development tools can be coupled with hardware simulators,
while in others the software is executed on the simulated hardware. The later approach is
feasible only for small parts of embedded systems. Design of an embedded system using
Intel’s 80C188EB chip is shown in the figure. Inorder to reduce complexity, the design
process is divided in four major steps: specification, system synthesis, implementation
synthesis and performance evaluation of the prototype.

2.3.1 SPECIFICATION
During this part of the design process, the informal requirements of the analysis are
transformed to formal specification using SDL.

2.3.2 SYSTEM-SYNTHESIS
For performing an automatic HW/SW partitioning, the system synthesis step
translates the SDL specification to an internal system model switch contains problem graph&
architecture graph. After system synthesis, the resulting system model is translated back to
SDL.

2.3.3 IMPLEMENTATION-SYNTHESIS
SDL specification is then translated into conventional implementation languages such
as VHDL for hardware modules and C for software parts of the system.

2.3.4 PROTOTYPING
On a prototyping platform, the implementation of the system under development is
executed with the software parts running on multiprocessor unit and the hardware part
running on a FPGA board known as phoenix, prototype hardware for Embedded Network
Interconnect Accelerators.

2.3.5 APPLICATIONS
Embedded systems are finding their way into robotic toys and electronic pets,
intelligent cars and remote controllable home appliances. All the major toy makers across the
world have been coming out with advanced interactive toys that can become our friends for
life. ‘Furby’ and ‘AIBO’ are good examples at this kind. Furbies have a distinct life cycle just
like human beings, starting from being a baby and growing to an adult one. In AIBO first two
letters stands for Artificial Intelligence. Next two letters represents robot. The AIBO is
robotic dog. Embedded systems in cars also known as Telematic Systems are used to provide
navigational security communication & entertinment services using GPS, satellite. Home
appliances are going the embedded way. LG electronics digital DIOS refrigerator can be
used for surfing the net, checking e-mail, making video phone calls and watching TV.IBM is
developing an air conditioner that we can control over the net. Embedded systems cover such
a broad range of products that generalization is difficult. Here are some broad categories.

Requirement
analysis

Specification

System
architecture

H/w design S/w design

H/w S/w
implementation implementation

H/w testing S/w testing

System integration

System validation

Operation
Maintenance
Evolution
 Fig 2.1: Embedded Development Life Cycle

 Aerospace and defence electronics: Fire control, radar, robotics/sensors, sonar.

 Automotive: Autobody electronics, auto power train, auto safety, car information
systems.
 Broadcast & entertainment: Analog and digital sound products, camaras, DVDs,
Set top boxes, virtual reality systems, graphic products.
 Consumer/internet appliances: Business handheld computers, business network
computers/terminals, electronic books, internet smart handheld devices, PDAs.
 Data communications: Analog modems, ATM switches, cable modems, XDSL
modems, Ethernet switches, concentrators.
 Digital imaging: Copiers, digital still cameras, Fax machines, printers, scanners.
 Industrial measurement and control: Hydro electric utility research & management
traffic management systems, train marine vessel management systems.
 Medical electronics: Diagnostic devices, real time medical imaging systems, surgical
devices, critical care systems.
 Server I/O: Embedded servers, enterprise PC servers, PCI LAN/NIC controllers,
RAID devices, SCSI devices.
 Telecommunications: ATM communication products, base stations, networking
switches, SONET/SDH cross connect, multiplexer.
 Mobile data infrastructures: Mobile data terminals, pagers, VSATs, Wireless
LANs, Wireless phones.
 CHAPTER 3

ARUDINO:
The Arduino is a family of microcontroller boards to simplify electronic design,
prototyping and experimenting for artists, hackers, hobbyists, but also many professionals.
People use it as brains for their robots, to build new digital music instruments, or to build a
system that lets your house plants tweet you when they’re dry. Arduinos (we use the standard
Arduino Uno) are built around an ATmega microcontroller — essentially a complete
computer with CPU, RAM, Flash memory, and input/output pins, all on a single chip. Unlike,
say, a Raspberry Pi, it’s designed to attach all kinds of sensors, LEDs, small motors and
speakers, servos, etc. directly to these pins, which can read in or output digital or analog
voltages between 0 and 5 volts. The Arduino connects to your computer via USB, where you
program it in a simple language (C/C++, similar to Java) from inside the free Arduino IDE by
uploading your compiled code to the board. Once programmed, the Arduino can run with the
USB link back to your computer, or stand-alone without it — no keyboard or screen needed,
just power.
 Figure 2.2 Structure of Arduino Board

Looking at the board from the top down, this is an outline of what you will see (parts
of the board you might interact with in the course of normal use are highlighted)

Figure 2.3 Arduino Board

Starting clockwise from the top center:
 Analog Reference pin (orange)
 Digital Ground (light green)
 Digital Pins 2-13 (green)
 Digital Pins 0-1/Serial In/Out - TX/RX (dark green) - These pins cannot be used for
digital i/o (Digital Read and Digital Write) if you are also using serial communication
(e.g. Serial.begin).
 Reset Button - S1 (dark blue)
 In-circuit Serial Programmer (blue-green)
 Analog In Pins 0-5 (light blue)
 Power and Ground Pins (power: orange, grounds: light orange)
 External Power Supply In (9-12VDC) - X1 (pink)
  Toggles External Power and USB Power (place jumper on two pins closest to desired
supply) - SV1 (purple)
 USB (used for uploading sketches to the board and for serial communication between
the board and the computer; can be used to power the board) (yellow)
DIGITAL PINS
In addition to the specific functions listed below, the digital pins on an Arduino board
can be used for general purpose input and output via the pin Mode(), Digital Read(), and
Digital Write() commands. Each pin has an internal pull-up resistor which can be turned on
and off using digital Write() (w/ a value of HIGH or LOW, respectively) when the pin is
configured as an input. The maximum current per pin is 40mA.
 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
On the Arduino Diecimila, these pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the
FTDI USB-to-TTL Serial chip. On the Arduino BT, they are connected to the
corresponding pins of the WT11 Bluetooth module. On the Arduino Mini and LilyPad
Arduino, they are intended for use with an external TTL serial module (e.g. the Mini-
USB Adapter).
 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on
a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach Interrupt()
function for details.
 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write()
function. On boards with an ATmega8, PWM output is available only on pins 9, 10,
and 11.
 BT Reset: 7. (Arduino BT-only) Connected to the reset line of the bluetooth module.
 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI
communication, which, although provided by the underlying hardware, is not
currently included in the Arduino language.
 LED: 13. On the Diecimila and LilyPad, there is a built-in LED connected to digital
pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
ANALOG PINS
In addition to the specific functions listed below, the analog input pins support 10-bit
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) using the analog Read() function. Most of the analog
inputs can also be used as digital pins: analog input 0 as digital pin 14 through analog input 5
as digital pin 19. Analog inputs 6 and 7 (present on the Mini and BT) cannot be used as
digital pins.
  I2C: 4 (SDA) and 5 (SCL). Support I2C (TWI) communication using the Wire library
(documentation on the Wiring website).
POWER PINS
 VIN (sometimes labeled "9V"): The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's
using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or
other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if
supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin. Also note that the
Lily Pad has no VIN pin and accepts only a regulated input.
 5V: The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other
components on the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator,
or be supplied by USB or another regulated 5V supply.
 3V3 (Diecimila-only) : A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board FTDI chip.
 GND: Ground pins.
OTHER PINS
 AREF: Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference().
 Reset: (Diecimila-only) Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically
used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.
ATMEGA328
Pin diagram

Figure 2.4 Pin Configuration of Atmega328

Pin Description

VCC:

Digital supply voltage.

GND:

Ground.

Port A (PA7-PA0):

Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter. Port A also serves as an 8-bit
bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins can provide internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7 are used as
inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal pull-up resistors
are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the
clock is not running.

Port B (PB7-PB0):

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high
sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port B also serves the functions of
various special features of the ATmega32.

Port C (PC7-PC0):

Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high
sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled,
the pull-up resistors on pins PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a
reset occurs. The TD0 pin is tri-stated unless TAP states that shift out data are entered. Port C
also serves the functions of the JTAG interface.

Port D (PD7-PD0):

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high
sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port D also serves the functions of
various special features of the ATmega32.

Reset (Reset Input):

A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a reset,
even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.

XTAL1:

Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2:

Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

AVCC:

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.

AREF:

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

FEATURES
 1.8-5.5V operating range
  Up to 20MHz
 Part: ATMEGA328P-AU
 32kB Flash program memory
 1kB EEPROM
 2kB Internal SRAM
 2 8-bit Timer/Counters
 16-bit Timer/Counter
 RTC with separate oscillator
 6 PWM Channels
 8 Channel 10-bit ADC
 Serial USART
 Master/Slave SPI interface
 2-wire (I2C) interface
 Watchdog timer
 Analog comparator
 23 IO lines
 Data retention: 20 years at 85C/ 100 years at 25C
 Digital I/O Pins are 14 (out of which 6 provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins are 6.
 DC Current per I/O is 40 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin is 50mA
AVR CPU CORE
The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working
registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one
clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up
to ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.
 Figure 2.5 Block Diagram
OVERVIEW
This section discusses the AVR core architecture in general. The main function of the
CPU core is to ensure correct program execution. The CPU must therefore be able to access
memories, perform calculations, control peripherals, and handle interrupts.

Figure AVR core architecture

 In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a Harvard
architecture – with separate memories and buses for program and data. Instructions in the
program memory are executed with a single level pipelining. While one instruction is being
executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched from the program memory. This concept enables
instructions to be executed in every clock cycle. The program memory is In-System
Reprogrammable Flash memory. The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-bit general
purpose working registers with a single clock cycle access time. This allows single-cycle
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operation. In a typical ALU operation, two operands are output
from the Register File, the operation is executed, and the result is stored back in the Register
File– in one clock cycle.
Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address register pointers for
Data Space addressing – enabling efficient address calculations. One of these address
pointers can also be used as an address pointer for look up tables in Flash program memory.
These added function registers are the 16-bit X-, Y-, and Z-register, described later in this
section. The ALU supports arithmetic and logic operations between registers or between a
constant and a register. Single register operations can also be executed in the ALU. After an
arithmetic operation, the Status Register is updated to reflect information about the result of
the operation. Program flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call
instructions, able to directly address the whole address space. Most AVR instructions have a
single 16-bit word format. Every program memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit
instruction. Program Flash memory space is divided in two sections, the Boot Program
section and the Application Program section. Both sections have dedicated Lock bits for write
and read/write protection. The SPM instruction that writes into the Application Flash memory
section must reside in the Boot Program section. During interrupts and subroutine calls, the
return address Program Counter (PC) is stored on the Stack. The Stack is effectively allocated
in the general data SRAM, and consequently the Stack size is only limited by the total SRAM
size and the usage of the SRAM. All user programs must initialize the SP in the Reset routine
(before subroutines or interrupts are executed). The Stack Pointer (SP) is read/write
accessible in the I/O space. The data SRAM can easily be accessed through the five different
addressing modes supported in the AVR architecture.
The memory spaces in the AVR architecture are all linear and regular memory maps.
A flexible interrupt module has its control registers in the I/O space with an additional Global
Interrupt Enable bit in the Status Register. All interrupts have a separate Interrupt Vector in
the Interrupt Vector table. The interrupts have priority in accordance with their Interrupt
Vector position. The lower the Interrupt Vector address, the higher the priority.
ALU – ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
The high-performance AVR ALU operates in direct connection with all the 32 general
purpose working registers. Within a single clock cycle, arithmetic operations between general
purpose registers or between a register and an immediate are executed. The ALU operations
are divided into three main categories – arithmetic, logical, and bit functions. Some
implementations of the architecture also provide a powerful multiplier supporting both
signed/unsigned multiplication and fractional format. See the “Instruction Set” section for a
detailed description.
STATUS REGISTER
The Status Register contains information about the result of the most recently
executed arithmetic instruction. This information can be used for altering program flow in
order to perform conditional operations. Note that the Status Register is updated after all
ALU operations, as specified in the Instruction Set Reference. This will in many cases
remove the need for using the dedicated compare instructions, resulting in faster and more
compact code. The Status Register is not automatically stored when entering an interrupt
routine and restored when returning from an interrupt. This must be handled by software.
The AVR Status Register – SREG is defined as:

Figure 2.7 AVR status register

Bit 7 – I: Global Interrupt Enable

The Global Interrupt Enable bit must be set for the interrupts to be enabled. The
individual interrupt enable control The Global Interrupt Enable bit must be set for the
interrupts to be enabled. The individual interrupt enable control is then performed in separate
control registers. If the Global Interrupt Enable Register is cleared, none of the interrupts are
enabled independent of the individual interrupt enable settings. The I-bit is cleared by
hardware after an interrupt has occurred, and is set by the RETI instruction to enable
subsequent interrupts. The I-bit can also be set and cleared by the application with the SEI
and CLI instructions, as described in the instruction set reference.
Bit 6 – T: Bit Copy Storage
The Bit Copy instructions BLD (Bit Load) and BST (Bit Store) use the T-bit as source
or destination for the operated bit. A bit from a register in the Register File can be copied into
T by the BST instruction, and a bit in T can be copied into a bit in a register in the Register
File by the BLD instruction.
Bit 5 – H: Half Carry Flag
The Half Carry Flag H indicates a Half Carry in some arithmetic operations The Half
Carry Flag H indicates a Half Carry in some arithmetic operations. Half Carry Is useful in
BCD arithmetic. See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
Bit 4 – S: Sign Bit, S = N V
The S-bit is always an exclusive or between the Negative Flag N and the Two’s
Complement Overflow Flag V. See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed
information.
Bit 3 – V: Two’s Complement Overflow Flag
The Two’s Complement Overflow Flag V supports two’s complement arithmetic.
Bit 2 – N: Negative Flag
The Negative Flag N indicates a negative result in an arithmetic or logic operation.
Bit 1 – Z: Zero Flag
The Zero Flag Z indicates a zero result in an arithmetic or logic operation.
Bit 0 – C: Carry Flag
The Carry Flag C indicates a carry in an arithmetic or logic operation.
STACK POINTER
The Stack is mainly used for storing temporary data, for storing local variables and
for storing return addresses after interrupts and subroutine calls. Note that the Stack is
implemented as growing from higher to lower memorylocations. The Stack Pointer Register
always points to the top of the Stack. The Stack Pointer points to the data SRAM Stack area
where the Subroutine and Interrupt Stacks are located. A Stack PUSH command will
decrease the Stack Pointer.
The Stack in the data SRAM must be defined by the program before any subroutine
calls are executed or interrupts are enabled. Initial Stack Pointer value equals the last address
of the internal SRAM and the Stack Pointer must be set to point above start of the SRAM
Table 2.1 Stack Pointer instructions
 The AVR ATmega128A Stack Pointer is implemented as two 8-bit registers in the I/O
space. The number of bits actually used is implementation dependent. Note that the data
space in some implementations of the AVR architecture is so small that only SPL is needed.
In this case, the SPH Register will not be present.SPH and SPL - Stack Pointer High and Low
Register.

Figure 2.10 SPH and SPL - Stack Pointer High and Low Register
INTERRUPT RESPONSE TIME
The interrupt execution response for all the enabled AVR interrupts is four clock
cycles minimum. After four clock cycles the program vector address for the actual interrupt
handling routine is executed. During this four clock cycle period, the Program Counter is
pushed onto the Stack. The vector is normally a jump to the interrupt routine, and this jump
takes three clock cycles. If an interrupt occurs during execution of a multi-cycle instruction,
this instruction is completed before the interrupt is served. If an interrupt occurs when the
MCU is in sleep mode, the interrupt execution response time is increased by four clock
cycles. This increase comes in addition to the start-up time from the selected sleep mode .
AVR Memories
This section describes the different memories in the ATmega328. The AVR
architecture has two main memory spaces, the Data Memory and the Program Memory space.
In addition, theATmega328 features an EEPROM Memory for data storage. All three
memory spaces are linear and regular.
In-System Reprogrammable Flash Program Memory:
The ATmega328 contains 4/8/16/32Kbytes On-chip In-System Reprogrammable
Flash memory for program storage. Since all AVR instructions are 16 or 32 bits wide, the
Flash is organized as 2/4/8/16K x 16. For software security, the Flash Program memory space
is divided into two sections, Boot Loader Section and Application Program Section. The
Flash memory has an endurance of at least 10,000 write/erase cycles. The ATmega328
Program Counter (PC) is 11/12/13/14 bits wide, thus addressing the 2/4/8/16K program
memory locations.
SRAM Data Memory:
ATmega328 is a complex microcontroller with more peripheral units than can be
supported within the 64 locations reserved in the Opcode for the IN and OUT instructions.
For the Extended I/O space from 0x60 - 0xFF in SRAM, only the ST/STS/STD and
LD/LDS/LDD instructions can be used.
The lower 768/1280/1280/2303 data memory locations address both the Register File,
the I/O memory, Extended I/O memory, and the internal data SRAM. The first 32 locations
address the Register File, the next 64 location the standard I/O memory, then 160 locations of
Extended I/O memory, and the next 512/1024/1024/2048 locations address the internal data
SRAM. The five different addressing modes for the data memory cover: Direct, Indirect with
Displacement, Indirect, Indirect with Pre-decrement, and Indirect with Post-increment. In The
Register File, Registers R26 to R31 Feature the indirect addressing pointer registers. The
direct addressing reaches the entire data space. The Indirect with Displacement mode reaches
63 address locations from the base address given by the Y- or Z register.
When using register indirect addressing modes with automatic pre-decrement and
post-increment, the address registers X, Y, and Z are decremented or incremented. The 32
general purpose working registers, 64 I/O Registers, 160 Extended I/O Registers, and the
512/1024/1024/2048 bytes of internal data SRAM in the ATmega328 are all accessible
through all these addressing modes.
 Figure 2.11 Data Memory Map

Interrupts
This section describes the specifics of the interrupt handling as performed in the
Atmega328. In Atmega328Each Interrupt Vector occupies two instruction words and the
Reset Vector is affected by the BOOTRST fuse, and the Interrupt Vector start address is
affected by the IVSEL bit in MCUCR.

Table 2.2 Reset and Interrupt Vectors in ATMEGA 328 and ATMEGA 328P
Vector Program Source Interrupt Definition
No. Address
1 0x0000 RESET External Pin, Power-on Reset,
Brown-out Reset and Watchdog
System Reset
2 0x0002 INT0 External Interrupt Request 0
3 0x0004 INT1 External Interrupt Request 0
4 0x0006 PCINTO Pin Change Interrupt Request 0
5 0x0008 PCINT1 Pin Change Interrupt Request 1
6 0x000A PCINT2 Pin Change Interrupt Request 2
7 0x000C WDT Watchdog Time-out Interrupt
8 0x000E TIMER2 COMPA Timer/Counter2 Compare Match A
9 0x0010 TIMER2 COMPB Timer/Counter2 Compare Match B
10 0x0012 TIMER2 OVF Timer/Counter 2 Overflow
11 0x0014 TIMER1 CAPT Timer/Counter 2 Capture Event
12 0x0016 TIMER1 COMPA Timer/Counter1 Compare Match A
13 0x0018 TIMER1 COMPB Timer/Counter1 Compare Match B
14 0x001A TIMER 1 OVF Timer/Counter1 Overflow
15 0x001C TIMER0 COMPA Timer/Counter0 Compare Match A
16 0x001E TIMER0 COMPB Timer/Counter0 Compare Match B
17 0x0020 TIME0 OVF Timer/Counter0 Overflow
18 0x0022 SPI, STC SPI Serial Transfer Complete
 19 0x0024 USART, RX USART RX Complete
20 0x0026 USART, UDRE USART, Data Register Empty
21 0x0028 USART, TX USART, TX Complete
22 0x002A ADC ADC Conversion Complete
23 0x002C EE READY EEPROM Ready
24 0x002E ANALOG COMP Analog Comparator
25 0x0030 TWI 2-wire Serial Interface
26 0x0032 SPM READY Store Program Memory Ready

When the IVSEL bit in MCUCR is set, Interrupt Vectors will be moved to the start of
the Boot Flash Section. The address of each Interrupt Vector will then be the address in this
table added to the start address of the Boot Flash Section.Table below shows reset and
Interrupt Vectors placement for the various combinations of BOOTRST and IVSEL settings.
If the program never enables an interrupt source, the Interrupt Vectors are not used, and
regular program code can be placed at these locations. This is also the case if the Reset
Vector is in the Application section while the Interrupt Vectors are in the Boot section or vice
versa.

Table 2.3 Reset and Interrupt Vectors Placement in ATmega328 and ATmega328P

Arduino with ATmega328

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It
has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset
button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a
computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
 The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-
serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to versionR2)
programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.
 Pin out: Added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new
pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the
voltage provided from the board. In future, shields will be compatible with both the
board that uses the AVR, which operates with 5V and with the Arduino. Due that
operates with 3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin that is reserved for future
purposes.
 Stronger RESET circuit.
 Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.
"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino
1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The
Uno is the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino
platform; for a comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.
Arduino Characteristics
Power
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come
either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by
plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can
be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector. The board can operate
on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may
supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage
regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
The power pins are as follows:
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source
(as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source).
You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack,
access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can
be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector
 (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw
is 50 mA.
 GND. Ground pins.
 IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin
voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the
outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.
Memory:
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the boot loader). It also has 2 KB
of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).
Serial Communication:
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V)
serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An
ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a
virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB
COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required.
The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to
and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is
being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for
serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital
pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus. For SPI communication, use
the SPI library.

CHAPTER 4
 HARDWARE COMPONENTS

LCD (Liquid Cristal Display)

Introduction:

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of
color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel
consists of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent
electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each
other. Without the liquid crystals between them, light passing through one would be blocked
by the other. The liquid crystal twists the polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to
pass through the other.

A program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices
that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to
an controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the contollers
are 16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters
per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual information.
LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it
is even possible to produce a readout using the 5X7 dots plus cursor of the display. They
have a standard ASCII set of characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the
display requires a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0). For
a 4-bit data bus it only requires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines(RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4).
available.
When the LCD display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not interfere withLine lengths of
the operation of the microcontroller. 8, 16,
20, 24,
Features:
32 and
(1) Interface with either 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor. 40

(2) Display data RAM charact

ers are
(3) 80x8 bits (80 characters).
all
standar
d, in
one,
two
 (4) Character generator ROM

(5). 160 different 5 7 dot-matrix character patterns.

(6). Character generator RAM

(7) 8 different user programmed 5 7 dot-matrix patterns.

(8).Display data RAM and character generator RAM may be

Accessed by the microprocessor.

(9) Numerous instructions

(10) .Clear Display, Cursor Home, Display ON/OFF, Cursor ON/OFF,

Blink Character, Cursor Shift, Display Shift.

(11). Built-in reset circuit is triggered at power ON.

(12). Built-in oscillator.

Data can be placed at any location on the LCD. For 16×1 LCD, the address locations
are:

Fig : Address locations for a 1x16 line LCD

Shapes and sizes:

 Even limited to character based modules,there is still a wide variety of shapes and sizes
available. Line lenghs of 8,16,20,24,32 and 40 charecters are all standard, in one, two and
four line versions.

Several different LC technologies exists. “supertwist” types, for example, offer Improved
contrast and viewing angle over the older “twisted nematic” types. Some modules are
available with back lighting, so so that they can be viewed in dimly-lit conditions. The back
lighting may be either “electro-luminescent”, requiring a high voltage inverter circuit, or
simple LED illumination.

Electrical blockdiagram:
Power supply for lcd driving:

PIN DESCRIPTION:

Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two
pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections).
 Fig: pin diagram of 1x16 lines lcd

CONTROL LINES:

EN:

Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending
it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then
set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are
completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by
the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

RS:
 Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a
command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high
(1), the data being sent is text data which sould be displayed on the screen. For example, to
display the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.

RW:

Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the
data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively
querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command.
All others are write commands, so RW will almost always be low.

Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation
selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1,
DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

Logic status on control lines:

• E - 0 Access to LCD disabled

- 1 Access to LCD enabled

• R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD

- 1 Reading data from LCD

• RS - 0 Instructions

- 1 Character

Writing data to the LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to low

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low

Read data from data lines (if it is reading)on LCD:

1) Set R/W bit to high

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low

Entering Text:

First, a little tip: it is manually a lot easier to enter characters and commands in
hexadecimal rather than binary (although, of course, you will need to translate commands
from binary couple of sub-miniature hexadecimal rotary switches is a simple matter, although
a little bit into hex so that you know which bits you are setting). Replacing the d.i.l. switch
pack with a of re-wiring is necessary.

The switches must be the type where On = 0, so that when they are turned to the zero
position, all four outputs are shorted to the common pin, and in position “F”, all four outputs
are open circuit.

All the available characters that are built into the module are shown in Table 3.
Studying the table, you will see that codes associated with the characters are quoted in binary
and hexadecimal, most significant bits (“left-hand” four bits) across the top, and least
significant bits (“right-hand” four bits) down the left.

Most of the characters conform to the ASCII standard, although the Japanese and
Greek characters (and a few other things) are obvious exceptions. Since these intelligent
modules were designed in the “Land of the Rising Sun,” it seems only fair that their Katakana
phonetic symbols should also be incorporated. The more extensive Kanji character set, which
the Japanese share with the Chinese, consisting of several thousand different characters, is not
included!
 Using the switches, of whatever type, and referring to Table 3, enter a few characters
onto the display, both letters and numbers. The RS switch (S10) must be “up” (logic 1) when
sending the characters, and switch E (S9) must be pressed for each of them. Thus the
operational order is: set RS high, enter character, trigger E, leave RS high, enter another
character, trigger E, and so on.

The first 16 codes in Table 3, 00000000 to 00001111, ($00 to $0F) refer to the
CGRAM. This is the Character Generator RAM (random access memory), which can be used
to hold user-defined graphics characters. This is where these modules really start to show their
potential, offering such capabilities as bar graphs, flashing symbols, even animated characters.
Before the user-defined characters are set up, these codes will just bring up strange looking
symbols.

Codes 00010000 to 00011111 ($10 to $1F) are not used and just display blank
characters. ASCII codes “proper” start at 00100000 ($20) and end with 01111111 ($7F).
Codes 10000000 to 10011111 ($80 to $9F) are not used, and 10100000 to 11011111 ($A0 to
$DF) are the Japanese characters.
Initialization by Instructions:
 If the power conditions for the normal operation of the internal reset
circuit are not satisfied, then executing a series of instructions must initialize
LCD unit. The procedure for this initialization process is as above show.
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

Introduction:

Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that

supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less
often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or

secondary sources of energy such as

 Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic
devices. Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with
the devices they supply, such as computers and household electronics.
 Batteries.
 Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.
 Solar power.
 Generators or alternators.

Block Diagram:
 Fig .Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led
connected as load is shown in fig:

Fig Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection

The components mainly used in above figure are

 230V AC MAINS
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
 CAPACITOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
 RESISTOR
  LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

Step 1: Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another
is called transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.

Transformers:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the

secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through
the transformer to the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape
as a bar magnet.

If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If
the current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.

If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or
in, the moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage
is induced in the second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a
second. This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the transformer.

The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.
 Fig 3.3.3: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.

For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary will
have half the primary voltage.

Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500
turns, then the turn’s ratio is 10:1.

If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10
smaller = 24 volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the primary must
equal the power taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected across a 24
volt secondary, then the primary must supply 24 watts.

To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are wound
on a metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into
this core, the core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets
insulated from each other. Transformers to work at higher frequencies have an iron dust core
or no core at all.

Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly changing
current and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady field and there
would be no induction.

Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and

secondary. This is to prevent some types of interference being fed from the equipment down
into the mains supply, or in the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for
IMPEDANCE MATCHING.

We can use the transformers as step up or step down.

Step Up transformer:

In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less compared to

secondary winding.

Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it
releases more voltage at the output side.

Step down transformer:

Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the
secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it
accepts less number of flux, and releases less amount of voltage.

Battery power supply:

A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional
line-operated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability. A battery consists of
multiple electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.4 shows Hi-
Watt 9V battery

Fig : Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell
battery. Dry-cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of electrolyte paste,
and a zinc plate alternately until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-
cell batteries have one of the following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the
discharge of a carbon-zinc battery, the zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte,
and magnesium dioxide is reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage
of approximately 1.5 V.

The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is rechargeable; it

consists of lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully
charged, this type of battery has a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in
series). During discharge, the lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is
converted to water. When the battery is charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead
and lead dioxide A nickel-cadmium battery has become more popular in recent years. This
battery cell is completely sealed and rechargeable. The electrolyte is not involved in the
electrode reaction, making the voltage constant over the span of the batteries long service life.
During the charging process, nickel oxide is oxidized to its higher oxidation state and
cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium batteries have many benefits. They can be
stored both charged and uncharged. They have a long service life, high current availabilities,
constant voltage, and the ability to be recharged. Fig: 3.3.5 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.

Fig : Pencil Battery of 1.5V

Step 2: Rectification

The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is

called as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.

Rectifiers:
 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to
direct current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of
solid-state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.

A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is

known as an inverter.

When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or
positive portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term
rectifier is merely one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to
convert AC to DC. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific
arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode.
Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper
(I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used.

Bridge full wave rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in figure, which converts an ac voltage to

dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown
in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is
applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected
between the other two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series
with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the current flows through R L in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
 Input Output

Fig : Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:

Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In

our project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier.

Features:

 Good for automation insertion

 Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak
 Ideal for printed circuit board
 Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded
 Glass passivated device
 Polarity symbols molded on body
 Mounting position: Any
 Weight: 1.0 gram

Fig : DB107
Step 3: Filtration

The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current

using filters is called as filtration.

Filters:

Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing

functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to
enhance wanted ones.

Introduction to Capacitors:

The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device,

and one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential
(static voltage) across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel
conductive plates that are not connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an
insulating material called the Dielectric. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current
flows charging up the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other
plate an equal and opposite negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as
the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the
capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully
charged and this is illustrated below.
Fig:Construction Of a Capacitor Fig :Electrolytic Capaticor

Units of Capacitance:

Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

Operation of Capacitor:

Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a

storage tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an
electronic capacitor works.
 First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is
used to connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct
current to flow.

If the current flow is alternating between zero and a

maximum, our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the
current waves to pass through.

However, if there is a steady current, only the initial

short burst will flow until the "floating ball valve" closes
and stops further flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to pass through because the ball
valve doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current
quickly fills the tank so that all flow stops.

A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge) it will
not pass d.c.

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the

effect is to "smooth out ripples". Any ripples, waves or
pulses of current are passed to ground while d.c. Flows
smoothly.

Step 4: Regulation
 The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is
called as regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator (also called a ‘regulator’) with only three terminals

appears to be a simple device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a
varying input voltage into a constant ‘regulated’ output voltage. Voltage Regulators are
available in a variety of outputs like 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of
voltage regulators are designed for positive input. For applications requiring negative input,
the LM79XX series is used. Using a pair of ‘voltage-divider’ resistors can increase the output
voltage of a regulator circuit.

It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot
use a 12V regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These
can withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the
regulator will cut off before any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to
apply reverse voltage to its input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly.
Fig: 3.3.10 shows voltage regulator.

Fig : Voltage Regulator

Resistors:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its

terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with
Ohm's law:
 V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and
films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient,
noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied
voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the
resistor.

Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage

dividers, to dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of
other components. Basic unit is ohms.

Theory of operation:

Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in

Ohm's law:

V = IR

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the
current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Power dissipation:

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor

network) is calculated using the following:
Fig : Resistor Fig : Color Bands In Resistor

LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used

as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a
practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness. The internal structure and parts of a led are shown below.
 Fig : Inside a LED Fig : Parts of a LED

Working:

The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light
bulb. Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting
semiconductor material is what determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the
semiconductor diode.

When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less
than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and
assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster
switching, and greater durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current
LED products for general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources
of comparable output. They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for
traditional light sources in automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals.
The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications
technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig:

Fig : Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

 High-levels of brightness and intensity

 High-efficiency
 Low-voltage and current requirements
 Low radiated heat
 High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)
 No UV Rays
 Long source life
 Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to
the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these
objects.
 Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the
human visual system.
IR SENSOR
An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measure only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called
a passive IR sensor. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of
thermal radiation. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by
an infrared sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector
is simply an IR photodiode that is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted
by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages
will change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

IR Sensor

IR Sensor Circuit Diagram and Working Principle

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor module in an electronic
device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be used to detect
obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real-time. This circuit comprises of the
following components
 LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair
 Resistors of the range of kilo-ohms.
 Variable resistors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode).
 IR Sensor Circuit

In this project, the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits continuous IR
rays to be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the receiver varies
depending upon its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be analyzed as such,
therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational amplifier (op-
amp) of LM 339 is used as comparator circuit.
When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at the inverting input goes
higher than that non-inverting input of the comparator IC (LM339). Thus the output of the
comparator goes low, but the LED does not glow. When the IR receiver module receives
signal to the potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus the output of the comparator (LM
339) goes high and the LED starts glowing. Resistor R1 (100 ), R2 (10k ) and R3 (330) are
used to ensure that minimum 10 mA current passes through the IR LED Devices like
Photodiode and normal LEDs respectively. Resistor VR2 (preset=5k ) is used to adjust the
output terminals. Resistor VR1 (preset=10k ) is used to set the sensitivity of the circuit
Diagram. Read more about IR sensors.

Different Types of IR Sensors and Their Applications

IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. Some of the
typical applications of different types of sensors are
The speed sensor is used for synchronizing the speed of multiple motors. The temperature
sensor is used for industrial temperature control. PIR sensor is used for automatic door
opening system and Ultrasonic sensor are used for distance measurement.
IR Sensor Applications

IR sensors are used in various Sensor based projects and also in various electronic devices
which measures the temperature that are discussed in the below.
Radiation Thermometers

IR sensors are used in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon the
temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the
following features

 Measurement without direct contact with the object

 Faster response
 Easy pattern measurements
Flame Monitors

These types of devices are used for detecting the light emitted from the flames and to monitor
how the flames are burning. The Light emitted from flames extend from UV to IR region
types. PbS, PbSe, Two-color detector, pyro electric detector are some of the commonly
employed detector used in flame monitors.

Moisture Analyzers

Moisture analyzers use wavelengths which are absorbed by the moisture in the IR region.
Objects are irradiated with light having these wavelengths(1.1 µm, 1.4 µm, 1.9 µm, and
2.7µm) and also with reference wavelengths. The Lights reflected from the objects depend
upon the moisture content and is detected by analyzer to measure moisture (ratio of reflected
light at these wavelengths to the reflected light at reference wavelength). In GaAs PIN
photodiodes, Pbs photoconductive detectors are employed in moisture analyzer circuits.

Gas Analyzers

IR sensors are used in gas analyzers which use absorption characteristics of gases in the IR
region. Two types of methods are used to measure the density of gas such as dispersive and
non dispersive.
 Gas Analizer

Dispersive: An Emitted light is spectroscopically divided and their absorption characteristics

are used to analyze the gas ingredients and the sample quantity.
Non dispersive: It is most commonly used method and it uses absorption characteristics
without dividing the emitted light. Non dispersive types use discrete optical band pass filters,
similar to sunglasses that are used for eye protection to filter out unwanted UV radiation.
This type of configuration is commonly referred to as non dispersive infrared (NDIR)
technology. This type of analyzer is used for carbonated drinks, whereas non dispersive
analyzer is used in most of the commercial IR instruments, for an automobile exhaust gas fuel
leakages.

IR Imaging Devices

IR image device is one of the major applications of IR waves, primarily by virtue of its
property that is not visible. It is used for thermal imagers, night vision devices, etc.

IR Imaging Devices
For examples Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, an atmosphere, and human tissue all features
emit IR radiation. The Thermal infrared detectors measure these radiations in IR range and
map the spatial temperature distributions of the object/area on an image. Thermal imagers
usually composed of a Sb (indium antimonite), Gd Hg (mercury-doped germanium), Hg Cd
Te (mercury-cadmium-telluride) sensors.

An electronic detector is cooled to low temperatures using liquid helium or liquid nitrogen’s.
Then the Cooling the detectors ensures that the radiant energy (photons) recorded by the
detectors comes from the terrain and not from the ambient temperature of objects within the
scanner itself an IR imaging electronic devices.

MEMS:

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), also written as micro-electro-mechanical systems

(or microelectronic and microelectromechanical systems) and the related micro mechatronics
and microsystems constitute the technology of microscopic devices, particularly those with
moving parts. They merge at the nanoscale into nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) and
nanotechnology. MEMS are also referred to as micromachines in Japan and microsystem
technology (MST) in Europe. MEMS are made up of components between 1 and 100
micrometers in size (i.e., 0.001 to 0.1 mm), and MEMS devices generally range in size from
20 micro metres to a millimetre (i.e., 0.02 to 1.0 mm), although components arranged in
arrays (e.g., digital micromirror devices) can be more than 1000 mm2.[1] They usually
consist of a central unit that processes data (an integrated circuit chip such as microprocessor)
and several components that interact with the surroundings (such as microsensors).[2]
Because of the large surface area to volume ratio of MEMS, forces produced by ambient
electromagnetism (e.g., electrostatic charges and magnetic moments), and fluid dynamics
(e.g., surface tension and viscosity) are more important design considerations than with larger
scale mechanical devices. MEMS technology is distinguished from molecular
nanotechnology or molecular electronics in that the latter must also consider surface
chemistry. The potential of very small machines was appreciated before the technology
existed that could make them (see, for example, Richard Feynman's famous 1959 lecture
There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom). MEMS became practical once they could be
fabricated using modified semiconductor device fabrication technologies, normally used to
make electronics.[3] These include molding and plating, wet etching (KOH, TMAH) and dry
etching (RIE and DRIE), electrical discharge machining (EDM), and other technologies
capable of manufacturing small devices.

History

MEMS technology has roots in the silicon revolution, which can be traced back to two
important silicon semiconductor inventions from 1959: the monolithic integrated circuit (IC)
chip by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor, and the MOSFET (metal-oxide-
semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon
Kahng at Bell Labs. MOSFET scaling, the miniaturisation of MOSFETs on IC chips, led to
the miniaturisation of electronics (as predicted by Moore's law and Dennard scaling). This
laid the foundations for the miniaturisation of mechanical systems, with the development of
micromachining technology based on silicon semiconductor technology, as engineers began
realizing that silicon chips and MOSFETs could interact and communicate with the
surroundings and process things such as chemicals, motions and light. One of the first silicon
pressure sensors was isotropically micromachined by Honeywell in 1962.[4]

An early example of a MEMS device is the resonant-gate transistor, an adaptation of the

MOSFET, developed by Harvey C. Nathanson in 1965.[5] Another early example is the
resonistor, an electromechanical monolithic resonator patented by Raymond J. Wilfinger
between 1966 and 1971.[6][7] During the 1970s to early 1980s, a number of MOSFET
microsensors were developed for measuring physical, chemical, biological and environmental
parameters.[8]

Types

There are two basic types of MEMS switch technology: capacitive and ohmic. A capacitive
MEMS switch is developed using a moving plate or sensing element, which changes the
capacitance.[9] Ohmic switches are controlled by electrostatically controlled cantilevers.[10]
Ohmic MEMS switches can fail from metal fatigue of the MEMS actuator (cantilever) and
contact wear, since cantilevers can deform over time.[11]
Materials for MEMS manufacturing

The fabrication of MEMS evolved from the process technology in semiconductor device
fabrication, i.e. the basic techniques are deposition of material layers, patterning by
photolithography and etching to produce the required shapes.[12]

Silicon

Silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in
the modern industry. The economies of scale, ready availability of inexpensive high-quality
materials, and ability to incorporate electronic functionality make silicon attractive for a wide
variety of MEMS applications. Silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its
material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material,
meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy
dissipation. As well as making for highly repeatable motion, this also makes silicon very
reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in the range of billions
to trillions of cycles without breaking. Semiconductor nanostructures based on silicon are
gaining increasing importance in the field of microelectronics and MEMS in particular.
Silicon nanowires, fabricated through the thermal oxidation of silicon, are of further interest
in electrochemical conversion and storage, including nanowire batteries and photovoltaic
systems.

Polymers

Even though the electronics industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry,
crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively expensive material to produce. Polymers
on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes, with a great variety of material
characteristics. MEMS devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection
molding, embossing or stereolithography and are especially well suited to microfluidic
applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges.

Metals
Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not have some of the
advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their
limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability. Metals can be deposited by
electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes. Commonly used metals include gold,
nickel, aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, tungsten, platinum, and silver.

Ceramics

Electron microscope pictures of X-shaped TiN beam above ground plate (height difference
2.5 µm). Due to the clip in the middle an increasing reset force develops, when the beam
bends downwards. The right figure shows a magnification of the clip. [13]

The nitrides of silicon, aluminium and titanium as well as silicon carbide and other ceramics
are increasingly applied in MEMS fabrication due to advantageous combinations of material
properties. AlN crystallizes in the wurtzite structure and thus shows pyroelectric and
piezoelectric properties enabling sensors, for instance, with sensitivity to normal and shear
forces.[14] TiN, on the other hand, exhibits a high electrical conductivity and large elastic
modulus, making it possible to implement electrostatic MEMS actuation schemes with
ultrathin beams. Moreover, the high resistance of TiN against biocorrosion qualifies the
material for applications in biogenic environments. The figure shows an electron-microscopic
picture of a MEMS biosensor with a 50 nm thin bendable TiN beam above a TiN ground
plate. Both can be driven as opposite electrodes of a capacitor, since the beam is fixed in
electrically isolating side walls. When a fluid is suspended in the cavity its viscosity may be
derived from bending the beam by electrical attraction to the ground plate and measuring the
bending velocity. [13]

MEMS basic processes

Deposition processes

One of the basic building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of
material with a thickness anywhere between one micrometre, to about 100 micrometres. The
NEMS process is the same, although the measurement of film deposition ranges from a few
nanometres to one micrometre. There are two types of deposition processes, as follows.

Physical deposition

Physical vapor deposition ("PVD") consists of a process in which a material is removed from
a target, and deposited on a surface. Techniques to do this include the process of sputtering,
in which an ion beam liberates atoms from a target, allowing them to move through the
intervening space and deposit on the desired substrate, and evaporation, in which a material is
evaporated from a target using either heat (thermal evaporation) or an electron beam (e-beam
evaporation) in a vacuum system.

Chemical deposition

Chemical deposition techniques include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), in which a stream
of source gas reacts on the substrate to grow the material desired. This can be further divided
into categories depending on the details of the technique, for example LPCVD (low-pressure
chemical vapor deposition) and PECVD (plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition).

Oxide films can also be grown by the technique of thermal oxidation, in which the (typically
silicon) wafer is exposed to oxygen and/or steam, to grow a thin surface layer of silicon
dioxide.

Patterning

Patterning in MEMS is the transfer of a pattern into a material.

Lithography

Lithography in MEMS context is typically the transfer of a pattern into a photosensitive

material by selective exposure to a radiation source such as light. A photosensitive material is
a material that experiences a change in its physical properties when exposed to a radiation
source. If a photosensitive material is selectively exposed to radiation (e.g. by masking some
of the radiation) the pattern of the radiation on the material is transferred to the material
exposed, as the properties of the exposed and unexposed regions differs.

This exposed region can then be removed or treated providing a mask for the underlying
substrate. Photolithography is typically used with metal or other thin film deposition, wet and
dry etching. Sometimes, photolithography is used to create structure without any kind of post
etching. One example is SU8 based lens where SU8 based square blocks are generated. Then
the photoresist is melted to form a semi-sphere which acts as a lens.

Electron beam lithography

Main article: Electron beam lithography

Electron beam lithography (often abbreviated as e-beam lithography) is the practice of

scanning a beam of electrons in a patterned fashion across a surface covered with a film
(called the resist),[15] ("exposing" the resist) and of selectively removing either exposed or
non-exposed regions of the resist ("developing"). The purpose, as with photolithography, is to
create very small structures in the resist that can subsequently be transferred to the substrate
material, often by etching. It was developed for manufacturing integrated circuits, and is also
used for creating nanotechnology architectures.

The primary advantage of electron beam lithography is that it is one of the ways to beat the
diffraction limit of light and make features in the nanometer range. This form of maskless
lithography has found wide usage in photomask-making used in photolithography, low-
volume production of semiconductor components, and research & development.

The key limitation of electron beam lithography is throughput, i.e., the very long time it takes
to expose an entire silicon wafer or glass substrate. A long exposure time leaves the user
vulnerable to beam drift or instability which may occur during the exposure. Also, the turn-
around time for reworking or re-design is lengthened unnecessarily if the pattern is not being
changed the second time.
Ion beam lithography

It is known that focused-ion beam lithography has the capability of writing extremely fine
lines (less than 50 nm line and space has been achieved) without proximity effect.[citation
needed] However, because the writing field in ion-beam lithography is quite small, large area
patterns must be created by stitching together the small fields.

Ion track technology

Ion track technology is a deep cutting tool with a resolution limit around 8 nm applicable to
radiation resistant minerals, glasses and polymers. It is capable of generating holes in thin
films without any development process. Structural depth can be defined either by ion range or
by material thickness. Aspect ratios up to several 104 can be reached. The technique can
shape and texture materials at a defined inclination angle. Random pattern, single-ion track
structures and aimed pattern consisting of individual single tracks can be generated.

X-ray lithography

X-ray lithography is a process used in electronic industry to selectively remove parts of a thin
film. It uses X-rays to transfer a geometric pattern from a mask to a light-sensitive chemical
photoresist, or simply "resist", on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then engraves
the produced pattern into the material underneath the photoresist.

Diamond patterning

A simple way to carve or create patterns on the surface of nanodiamonds without damaging
them could lead to a new photonic devices.[citation needed]

Diamond patterning is a method of forming diamond MEMS. It is achieved by the

lithographic application of diamond films to a substrate such as silicon. The patterns can be
formed by selective deposition through a silicon dioxide mask, or by deposition followed by
micromachining or focused ion beam milling.[16]
Etching processes

There are two basic categories of etching processes: wet etching and dry etching. In the
former, the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution. In the latter, the
material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant.[17][18]

Wet etching

Main article: Etching (microfabrication)

Wet chemical etching consists in selective removal of material by dipping a substrate into a
solution that dissolves it. The chemical nature of this etching process provides a good
selectivity, which means the etching rate of the target material is considerably higher than the
mask material if selected carefully.

Isotropic etching

Etching progresses at the same speed in all directions. Long and narrow holes in a mask will
produce v-shaped grooves in the silicon. The surface of these grooves can be atomically
smooth if the etch is carried out correctly, with dimensions and angles being extremely
accurate.

Anisotropic etching

Some single crystal materials, such as silicon, will have different etching rates depending on
the crystallographic orientation of the substrate. This is known as anisotropic etching and one
of the most common examples is the etching of silicon in KOH (potassium hydroxide), where
Si <111> planes etch approximately 100 times slower than other planes (crystallographic
orientations). Therefore, etching a rectangular hole in a (100)-Si wafer results in a pyramid
shaped etch pit with 54.7° walls, instead of a hole with curved sidewalls as with isotropic
etching.
HF etching

Hydrofluoric acid is commonly used as an aqueous etchant for silicon dioxide (SiO

2, also known as BOX for SOI), usually in 49% concentrated form, 5:1, 10:1 or 20:1 BOE
(buffered oxide etchant) or BHF (Buffered HF). They were first used in medieval times for
glass etching. It was used in IC fabrication for patterning the gate oxide until the process step
was replaced by RIE.

Hydrofluoric acid is considered one of the more dangerous acids in the cleanroom. It
penetrates the skin upon contact and it diffuses straight to the bone. Therefore, the damage is
not felt until it is too late.

Electrochemical etching

Electrochemical etching (ECE) for dopant-selective removal of silicon is a common method

to automate and to selectively control etching. An active p-n diode junction is required, and
either type of dopant can be the etch-resistant ("etch-stop") material. Boron is the most
common etch-stop dopant. In combination with wet anisotropic etching as described above,
ECE has been used successfully for controlling silicon diaphragm thickness in commercial
piezoresistive silicon pressure sensors. Selectively doped regions can be created either by
implantation, diffusion, or epitaxial deposition of silicon.

Dry etching

Main article: Dry etching

Vapor etching

Xenon difluoride

Xenon difluoride (XeF

2) is a dry vapor phase isotropic etch for silicon originally applied for MEMS in 1995 at
University of California, Los Angeles.[19][20] Primarily used for releasing metal and
dielectric structures by undercutting silicon, XeF
2 has the advantage of a stiction-free release unlike wet etchants. Its etch selectivity to silicon
is very high, allowing it to work with photoresist, SiO

2, silicon nitride, and various metals for masking. Its reaction to silicon is "plasmaless", is
purely chemical and spontaneous and is often operated in pulsed mode. Models of the etching
action are available,[21] and university laboratories and various commercial tools offer
solutions using this approach.

Plasma etching

Modern VLSI processes avoid wet etching, and use plasma etching instead. Plasma etchers
can operate in several modes by adjusting the parameters of the plasma. Ordinary plasma
etching operates between 0.1 and 5 Torr. (This unit of pressure, commonly used in vacuum
engineering, equals approximately 133.3 pascals.) The plasma produces energetic free
radicals, neutrally charged, that react at the surface of the wafer. Since neutral particles attack
the wafer from all angles, this process is isotropic.

Plasma etching can be isotropic, i.e., exhibiting a lateral undercut rate on a patterned surface
approximately the same as its downward etch rate, or can be anisotropic, i.e., exhibiting a
smaller lateral undercut rate than its downward etch rate. Such anisotropy is maximized in
deep reactive ion etching. The use of the term anisotropy for plasma etching should not be
conflated with the use of the same term when referring to orientation-dependent etching.

The source gas for the plasma usually contains small molecules rich in chlorine or fluorine.
For instance, carbon tetrachloride (CCl

4) etches silicon and aluminium, and trifluoromethane etches silicon dioxide and silicon
nitride. A plasma containing oxygen is used to oxidize ("ash") photoresist and facilitate its
removal.

Ion milling, or sputter etching, uses lower pressures, often as low as 10−4 Torr (10 mPa). It
bombards the wafer with energetic ions of noble gases, often Ar+, which knock atoms from
the substrate by transferring momentum. Because the etching is performed by ions, which
approach the wafer approximately from one direction, this process is highly anisotropic. On
the other hand, it tends to display poor selectivity. Reactive-ion etching (RIE) operates under
conditions intermediate between sputter and plasma etching (between 10–3 and 10−1 Torr).
Deep reactive-ion etching (DRIE) modifies the RIE technique to produce deep, narrow
features.

Sputtering

Main article: Sputtering

Reactive ion etching (RIE)

Main article: Reactive-ion etching

In reactive-ion etching (RIE), the substrate is placed inside a reactor, and several gases are
introduced. A plasma is struck in the gas mixture using an RF power source, which breaks the
gas molecules into ions. The ions accelerate towards, and react with, the surface of the
material being etched, forming another gaseous material. This is known as the chemical part
of reactive ion etching. There is also a physical part, which is similar to the sputtering
deposition process. If the ions have high enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the
material to be etched without a chemical reaction. It is a very complex task to develop dry
etch processes that balance chemical and physical etching, since there are many parameters to
adjust. By changing the balance it is possible to influence the anisotropy of the etching, since
the chemical part is isotropic and the physical part highly anisotropic the combination can
form sidewalls that have shapes from rounded to vertical.

Main article: Deep reactive ion etching

Deep RIE (DRIE) is a special subclass of RIE that is growing in popularity. In this process,
etch depths of hundreds of micrometres are achieved with almost vertical sidewalls. The
primary technology is based on the so-called "Bosch process",[22] named after the German
company Robert Bosch, which filed the original patent, where two different gas compositions
alternate in the reactor. Currently there are two variations of the DRIE. The first variation
consists of three distinct steps (the original Bosch process) while the second variation only
consists of two steps.

In the first variation, the etch cycle is as follows:

(i) SF

6 isotropic etch;

(ii) C

4F

8 passivation;

(iii) SF

6 anisoptropic etch for floor cleaning.

In the 2nd variation, steps (i) and (iii) are combined.

Both variations operate similarly. The C

4F

8 creates a polymer on the surface of the substrate, and the second gas composition (SF

6 and O

2) etches the substrate. The polymer is immediately sputtered away by the physical part of the
etching, but only on the horizontal surfaces and not the sidewalls. Since the polymer only
dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of the etching, it builds up on the sidewalls and
protects them from etching. As a result, etching aspect ratios of 50 to 1 can be achieved. The
process can easily be used to etch completely through a silicon substrate, and etch rates are
3–6 times higher than wet etching.
Die preparation

After preparing a large number of MEMS devices on a silicon wafer, individual dies have to
be separated, which is called die preparation in semiconductor technology. For some
applications, the separation is preceded by wafer backgrinding in order to reduce the wafer
thickness. Wafer dicing may then be performed either by sawing using a cooling liquid or a
dry laser process called stealth dicing.

MEMS manufacturing technologies

Bulk micromachining

Main article: Bulk micromachining

Bulk micromachining is the oldest paradigm of silicon-based MEMS. The whole thickness of
a silicon wafer is used for building the micro-mechanical structures.[18] Silicon is machined
using various etching processes. Anodic bonding of glass plates or additional silicon wafers is
used for adding features in the third dimension and for hermetic encapsulation. Bulk
micromachining has been essential in enabling high performance pressure sensors and
accelerometers that changed the sensor industry in the 1980s and 90's.

Surface micromachining

Main article: Surface micromachining

Surface micromachining uses layers deposited on the surface of a substrate as the structural
materials, rather than using the substrate itself.[23] Surface micromachining was created in
the late 1980s to render micromachining of silicon more compatible with planar integrated
circuit technology, with the goal of combining MEMS and integrated circuits on the same
silicon wafer. The original surface micromachining concept was based on thin polycrystalline
silicon layers patterned as movable mechanical structures and released by sacrificial etching
of the underlying oxide layer. Interdigital comb electrodes were used to produce in-plane
forces and to detect in-plane movement capacitively. This MEMS paradigm has enabled the
manufacturing of low cost accelerometers for e.g. automotive air-bag systems and other
applications where low performance and/or high g-ranges are sufficient. Analog Devices has
pioneered the industrialization of surface micromachining and has realized the co-integration
of MEMS and integrated circuits.

Thermal oxidation

Main article: Thermal oxidation

To control the size of micro and nano-scale components, the use of so-called etchless
processes is often applied. This approach to MEMS fabrication relies mostly on the oxidation
of silicon, as described by the Deal-Grove model. Thermal oxidation processes are used to
produced diverse silicon structures with highly precise dimensional control. Devices
including optical frequency combs,[24] and silicon MEMS pressure sensors,[25] have been
produced through the use of thermal oxidation processes to fine-tune silicon structures in one
or two dimensions. Thermal oxidation is of particular value in the fabrication of silicon
nanowires, which are widely employed in MEMS systems as both mechanical and electrical
components.

High aspect ratio (HAR) silicon micromachining

Both bulk and surface silicon micromachining are used in the industrial production of
sensors, ink-jet nozzles, and other devices. But in many cases the distinction between these
two has diminished. A new etching technology, deep reactive-ion etching, has made it
possible to combine good performance typical of bulk micromachining with comb structures
and in-plane operation typical of surface micromachining. While it is common in surface
micromachining to have structural layer thickness in the range of 2 µm, in HAR silicon
micromachining the thickness can be from 10 to 100 µm. The materials commonly used in
HAR silicon micromachining are thick polycrystalline silicon, known as epi-poly, and
bonded silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers although processes for bulk silicon wafer also have
been created (SCREAM). Bonding a second wafer by glass frit bonding, anodic bonding or
alloy bonding is used to protect the MEMS structures. Integrated circuits are typically not
combined with HAR silicon micromachining.
Microelectromechanical systems chip, sometimes called "lab on a chip"

Applications

A Texas Instruments DMD chip for cinema projection

File:Gold stripe testing with MEMS.webm

Measuring mechanical properties of a gold stripe (width ~1 µm) using MEMS inside a
transmission electron microscope.[26]

Some common commercial applications of MEMS include:

Inkjet printers, which use piezoelectrics or thermal bubble ejection to deposit ink on paper.

Accelerometers in modern cars for a large number of purposes including airbag deployment
and electronic stability control.

Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs): MEMS Accelerometers and MEMS gyroscopes in

remote controlled, or autonomous, helicopters, planes and multirotors (also known as
drones), used for automatically sensing and balancing flying characteristics of roll, pitch and
yaw. MEMS magnetic field sensor (magnetometer) may also be incorporated in such devices
to provide directional heading. MEMS are also used in Inertial navigation systems (INSs) of
modern cars, airplanes, submarines and other vehicles to detect yaw, pitch, and roll; for
example, the autopilot of an airplane.[27]

Accelerometers in consumer electronics devices such as game controllers (Nintendo Wii),

personal media players / cell phones (virtually all smartphones, various HTC PDA models)
[28] and a number of Digital Cameras (various Canon Digital IXUS models). Also used in
PCs to park the hard disk head when free-fall is detected, to prevent damage and data loss.

MEMS microphones in portable devices, e.g., mobile phones, head sets and laptops. The
market for smart microphones includes smartphones, wearable devices, smart home and
automotive applications.[29]

Precision temperature-compensated resonators in real-time clocks.[30]

Silicon pressure sensors e.g., car tire pressure sensors, and disposable blood pressure sensors
Displays e.g., the digital micromirror device (DMD) chip in a projector based on DLP
technology, which has a surface with several hundred thousand micromirrors or single micro-
scanning-mirrors also called microscanners

Optical switching technology, which is used for switching technology and alignment for data
communications

Bio-MEMS applications in medical and health related technologies from Lab-On-Chip to

MicroTotalAnalysis (biosensor, chemosensor), or embedded in medical devices e.g. stents.
[31]

Interferometric modulator display (IMOD) applications in consumer electronics (primarily

displays for mobile devices), used to create interferometric modulation − reflective display
technology as found in mirasol displays

Fluid acceleration such as for micro-cooling

Micro-scale energy harvesting including piezoelectric,[32] electrostatic and electromagnetic

micro harvesters.

Micromachined ultrasound transducers.[33][34]

MEMS-based loudspeakers focusing on applications such as in-ear headphones and hearing

aids

Industry structure

The global market for micro-electromechanical systems, which includes products such as
automobile airbag systems, display systems and inkjet cartridges totaled $40 billion in 2006
according to Global MEMS/Microsystems Markets and Opportunities, a research report from
SEMI and Yole Developpement and is forecasted to reach $72 billion by 2011.[35]

Companies with strong MEMS programs come in many sizes. Larger firms specialize in
manufacturing high volume inexpensive components or packaged solutions for end markets
such as automobiles, biomedical, and electronics. Smaller firms provide value in innovative
solutions and absorb the expense of custom fabrication with high sales margins. Both large
and small companies typically invest in R&D to explore new MEMS technology.
The market for materials and equipment used to manufacture MEMS devices topped $1
billion worldwide in 2006. Materials demand is driven by substrates, making up over 70
percent of the market, packaging coatings and increasing use of chemical mechanical
planarization (CMP). While MEMS manufacturing continues to be dominated by used
semiconductor equipment, there is a migration to 200 mm lines and select new tools,
including etch and bonding for certain MEMS applications.

ADXL335:

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The ADXL335 is a small, thin, low power, complete 3-axis
accelerometer with signal conditioned voltage outputs. The product measures acceleration
with a minimum full-scale range of ±3 g. It can measure the static acceleration of gravity in
tilt-sensing applications, as well as dynamic acceleration resulting from motion, shock, or
vibration. The user selects the bandwidth of the accelerometer using the CX, CY, and CZ
capacitors at the XOUT, YOUT, and ZOUT pins. Bandwidths can be selected to suit the
application, with a range of 0.5 Hz to 1600 Hz for the X and Y axes, and a range of 0.5 Hz to
550 Hz for the Z axis. The ADXL335 is available in a small, low profile, 4 mm × 4 mm ×
1.45 mm, 16-lead, plastic lead frame chip scale package (LFCSP_LQ)

FEATURES

 3-axis sensing
 Small, low profile package 4 mm × 4 mm × 1.45 mm LFCSP
 Low power : 350 μA (typical)
 Single-supply operation: 1.8 V to 3.6 V 10,000 g shock survival
 Excellent temperature stability
 BW adjustment with a single capacitor per axis
 RoHS/WEEE lead-free compliant

APPLICATIONS

 Cost sensitive, low power, motion- and tilt-sensing applications

  Mobile devices
 Gaming systems
 Disk drive protection
 Image stabilization Sports and health devices

D.C. Motor:

A dc motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very generally

through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-containing conductors. The reverse
process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is carried out by an alternator,
source or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as sources, and vice verse. The
input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).

Fig 3.19: DC Motor

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and the
stable part that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary part is also called
up the stator. Figure shows a depict of a distinctive DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a
DC armature, and Figure shows a picture of a distinctive stator. From the picture you can see
the armature is made of coils of wire wrapped around the core, and the core has an covered
shaft that rotates on charges. You should also notice that the ends of each coil of wire on the
armature are finished at one end of the armature. The outcome points are called the
commutator, and this is where's brushes make electrical contact to bring electrical current
from the stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.

Operation:
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very similarly
to the simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter. Figure 12-9 demonstrates an
electrical diagram of a simple DC motor. comment that the DC voltage is applied directly to
the field winding and the brushes. The armature and the area are both shown as a coil of wire.
In afterward diagrams, a field resistor will be added in series with the field to control the
motor speed. When voltage is applied to the motor, current begins to flow by the field coil
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a inviolable magnetic field in
the field winding. Current also begins to feed through the brushes into a commutator segment
and then through an armature coil. The current goes forward to flow through the coil back to
the brush that is attached to other end of the coil and returns to the DC power source. The
current flow in the armature coil sets up a strong magnetic field in the armature.

Fig 3.20: Simple electrical diagram of DC motor

 Fig 3.21: Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to
rotate. This occurs by the dissimilar magnetic poles attracting each other and the like
magnetic poles grossing out each other. As the armature begins to rotate, the commutator
sections will also begin to move beneath the brushes. As an individual commutator segment
moves under the brush connected to positive voltage, it will become positive, and when it
impresses under a brush connected to negative voltage it will turn negative. In this way, the
commutator segments continually change polarity from positive to negative. Since the
commutator segments are associated to the ends of the wires that make up the field winding
in the armature, it induces the magnetic field in the armature to change polarity continually
from north pole to south pole. The commutator sections and brushes are aligned in such a
way that the switch in polarity of the armature coincides with the location of the armature's
magnetic field and the field winding's magnetic field. The switching accomplish is timed so
that the armature will not lock up magnetically with the field. Rather the magnetic fields tend
to build on each other and provide additional torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in that
armature and the field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's speed will
begin to drop to zero. If voltage is enforced to the motor again, the magnetic fields will
toughen and the armature will begin to rotate again .

Types of DC motors:

1. DC Shunt Motor,

2. DC Series Motor,

3. DC Long Shunt Motor (Compound)

4. DC Short Shunt Motor (Compound)

The rotational energy that you get from any motor is usually the battle between two magnetic
fields going after each other. The DC motor has magnetic poles and an armature, to
windward DC electricity is flowed, The Magnetic Poles are electromagnets, and when they
are energized, they develop a strong magnetic field approximately them, and the armature
which is given power with a commutator, invariably repels the poles, and therefore rotates.

1. The DC Shunt Motor:

In a 2 pole DC Motor, the armature will have two separate sets of winding, connected to a
commutator at the end of the shaft that are in constant touch with carbon brushes. The
brushes are motionless, and the commutator rotates and as the portions of the commutator
touching the respective positive or negative polarity brush will energize the respective part of
the armature with the respective polarity. It is commonly arranged in such a way that the
armature and the poles are always repelling.

The general idea of a DC Motor is, the stronger the Field Current, the stronger the magnetic
field, and faster the rotation of the armature. When the armature revolves between the poles,
the magnetic field of the poles induce power in the armature conductors, and some electricity
is generated in the armature, which is called back emf, and it acts as a resistance for the
armature. Generally an armature has resistance of less than 1 Ohm, and powering it with
heavy voltages of Direct Current could result in immediate short circuits. This back emf helps
us there.When an armature is loaded on a DC Shunt Motor, the speed naturally reduces, and
therefore the back emf reduces, which allows more armatures current to flow. This results in
more armature field, and therefore it results in torque.

Fig: Diagram of DC shunt motor

When a DC Shunt Motor is overloaded, if the armature becomes too slow, the reduction of
the back emf could cause the motor to burn due to heavy current flow thru the armature.
The poles and armature are excited separately, and parallel, therefore it is called a Shunt
Motor.

2. The DC Series Motor:

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor

A DC Series Motor has its field coil in series with the armature. hence any amount of power
drawn by the armature will be passed through the field. As a result you cannot start a Series
DC Motor without any load affiliated to it. It will either run uncontrollably in full speed, or it
will block.

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor graph representation

When the load is increased then its efficiency increases with respect to the load employed. So
these are on Electric Trains and elevators.

Specifications
  DC supply: 4 to 12V
 RPM: 300 at 12V
 Total length: 46mm
 Motor diameter: 36mm
 Motor length: 25mm
 Brush type: Precious metal
 Gear head diameter: 37mm
 Gear head length: 21mm
 Output shaft: Centred
 Shaft diameter: 6mm
 Shaft length: 22mm
 Gear assembly: Spur
 Motor weight: 105gms

We generally use 300 RPM Center Shaft Economy Series DC Motor which is high quality
low cost DC geared motor. It has steel gears and pinions to assure longer life and better wear
and tear places. The gears are fixed on hardened steel spindles polished to a mirror finish.
The output shaft circumvolve in a plastic bushing. The whole assembly is crossed with a
plastic ring. Gearbox is sealed off and lubricated with lithium grease and require no
sustainment. The motor is screwed to the gear box from inside.

Although motor gives 300 RPM at 12V but motor runs smoothly from 4V to 12V and gives
wide range of RPM, and torque. Tables below gives reasonably good idea of the motor’s
performance in terms of RPM and no load current as a function of voltage and stall torque,
stall current as a operate of voltage.

3. DC Compound Motor:

A compound of Series and Shunt excitation for the fields is done in a Compound DC Motor.
This affords the best of both series and shunt motors. Improve torque as in a series motor,
while the possible action to start the motor with no load.
Fig: Diagram of DC compound motor

Above is the diagram of a long shunt motor, as in a short shunt, the shunt coil will be
connected after the serial coil.

A Compound motor can be run as a shunt motor absent connecting the serial coil at all but
not vice versa.

Applications

BLDC motors fulfill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors, but cost
and control complexity keeps BLDC motors from replacing brushed motors completely in the
lowest-cost areas. However, DC motors have come to dominate many applications, especially
devices such as computer hard drives and CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans in electronic
instrumentation are powered exclusively by BLDC motors. They can be detected in cordless
power tools where the increased efficiency of the motor leads to longer periods of use before
the battery needs to be charged. Low speed, low power BLDC motors are expended in direct-
drive turntables for "analog" audio discs.

Transport
 High power BLDC motors are found in electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. These
motors are basically AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet rotors.

The Segway Scooter and Vectrix Maxi-Scooter expend BLDC technology.

A number of electric bicycles use BLDC motors that are sometimes built into the
wheel hub itself, with the stator determined solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to
and rotating withstand wheel. The bicycle wheel hub is the motor. This type of electric
bicycle as well has a standard bicycle transmission on pedals, sprockets, and chain that can be
pedaled along with, or absent, the use of the motor as need arises.

Heating and ventilation

There is a trend in the HVAC and refrigeration industries to use BLDC motors instead
of various types of AC motors. The most significant conclude to switch to a BLDC motor is
the dramatic reduction in power required to operate them versus a typical AC motor.[8][9]
While shaded-pole and permanent disconnected capacitor motors once dominated as the fan
motor of choice, many fans are immediately run using a BLDC motor. Some fans use BLDC
motors also in govern to increase overall system efficiency.[10]In increase to the BLDC
motor's higher efficiency, certain HVAC systems (especially those featuring variable-speed
and/or load modulation) use BLDC motors because the built-in microprocessor allows for
programmability, better assure over airflow, and serial communication.

Industrial engineering

This section requires expansion.

See Stepper motor, Servo motor.

Stepper motor

The stepper motor is used in microprocessor and micro controller-based and robotic
equipment, as it takes less power and provides accurate movement of robotic arms.
Semiconductor manufacturers include infinite engineering's, Texas Instruments and
Microchip. Infineon offers supposed LIN stepper motors used in applications such as
instrumentation and gauges, CNC machining, multi-axis laying, printers and surveillance
equipment.

Model engineering

BLDC motors are a popular motor choice for model aircraft including helicopters. Their
prosperous power-to-weight ratios and large range of usable sizes, from under 5 gram to large
motors rated at thousands of watts, have inspired the market for electric-powered model
flight.

Their introduction has redefined performance in electric model aircraft and helicopters,
moving virtually all brushed electric motors. They have also advocated a development of
simple, lightweight electric model aircraft, rather than the premature internal combustion
engines powering larger and greater models. The large power-to-weight ratio of modern
batteries and brushless motors allows models to come up vertically, rather than climb
gradually. The low noise and lack of mess compared to small glow fuel internal combustion
engines that are used is another reason for their popularity.

Legal confinements for the use of combustion engine driven model aircraft in some countries
have also supported the shift to high-power electric systems.

Their popularity has also risen in the Radio Controlled Car, cracked, and Truck scene, where
sensor-type motors (with an extra six wires, connected to Hall effect sensors) allow the
position of the rotor magnet to be detected. Brushless motors have been effectual in RC Car
Racing in accordance to ROAR (the American governing body for RC Car Racing), since
2006. various RC Car Brushless motors, feature expendable and upgradable parts, such as
sintered neodymium-iron-boron (rare earth magnets), ceramic bearings, and exchangeable
motor timing assemblies. These motors as a result are rapidly rising to be the preferred motor
type for electric on and off-road RC racers and recreational drivers alike, for their low
maintenance, high campaigning reliability and power efficiency (most Sensored motors have
an efficiency rating of 80% or greater).

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM):

 Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a commonly
used technique for controlling power to inertial electrical devices, made practical by modern
electronic power switches.

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the
switch between supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on equated
to the off periods, the higher the power provided to the load is.

The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would regard the
load, which is to say the device that uses the power. generally switching have to be done
several times a minute in an electric range, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz
(kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio
amplifiers and computer power supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or
'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most
significant bit the time. Duty cycle is conveyed in percent, 100% being fully on.

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low.
When a switch is off there is much no current, and when it is on, there is nearly no voltage
drop across the switch. Power loss, existence the product of voltage and current, is thus in
both examples close to zero. PWM also works well with digital assures, which, because of
their on/off nature, can easily set the necessitated duty cycle. PWM has also been used in
certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information
over a communications channel.

One of the advantages of PWM is that the signal remains digital all the way from the
processor to the controlled system; no digital-to-analog conversion is necessary. By
continuing the signal digital, noise effects are understated. Noise can only affect a digital
signal if it is strong enough to change a logic-1 to a logic-0, or contrariwise.

Increased noise immunity is yet another benefit of choosing PWM over analog
control, and is the principal conclude PWM is sometimes used for communication. Switching
from each one analog signal to PWM can increase the length of a communication channel
dramatically. At the receiving end, a suitable RC (resistor-capacitor) or LC (inductor-
capacitor) network can remove the modulating high frequency square wave and return the
signal to analog form.

PWM finds application in a variety of systems. As a concrete example, conceive a

PWM-assured brake. To put it simply, a brake is a device that clamps down hard on
something. In many brakes, the quantity of clamping enforced (or stopping power) is
controlled with an analog input signal. The more voltage or current that's enforced to the
brake, the more force the brake will exert.

The output of a PWM controller could be connected to a switch between the supply
and the brake. To develop more stopping power, the software necessitates only increase the
duty cycle of the PWM output. If a particular amount of braking pressure is wanted,
measurements would need to be taken to determine the mathematical relationship between
duty cycle and pressure. (And the ensuing formulae or lookup tables would be tweaked for
functioning temperature, surface wear, and so on.)

To set the pressure on the bracken to, say, 100 psi, the software would do a reverse
lookup to determine the duty cycle that should produce that quantity of force. It would then
set the PWM duty cycle to the new value and the brake would react accordingly. If a sensor is
available in the system, the duty cycle can be tweaked, beneath closed-loop control, until the
desired pressure is precisely achieved.

PWM is economical, space saving, and noise resistant. And it's now in your bag of
deceptions. So use it.

PWM controllers
Many microcontrollers include on-chip PWM controllers. For example, Microchip's
PIC16C67 admits two, each other which has a selectable on-time and period of time. The
duty cycle is the ratio of the on-time to the period; the modulating frequency is the inverse of
the period. To start PWM procedure, the data sheet suggests the software should:

• Set the period of time in the on-chip timer/counter that provides the modulating
square wave

• Set the on-time in the PWM assure register

• Set the direction of the PWM output, which is one of the general-function I/O pins

• Start the timer

• Enable the PWM controller

Although particular PWM controllers do vary in their programmatic details, the basic idea is
generally the same.

DC Motor Driver:
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is
designed to allow for bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V.
The L293D is planned to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages of
4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids,
dc and bipolar maltreating motors, as well as other high-current/high up-voltage loads in
positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit,
with a Darlington transistor drop and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are changed in
pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled near 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When
an enable input is high, the linked drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in
phase with their inputs.

When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the
high-impedance state. With the thoroughly data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or
bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293,
international high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient stifling.
A VCC1 terminal, classify from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device
power dissolution. The L293and L293D are characterized for operation from 0°C to 70°C.

Fig 3.22: L293D IC

Pin Diagram of L293D motor driver:

 Fig 3.23: L293D pin diagram

Fig 3.24: Internal structure of L293D.

Features of L293D:

 600mA Output current capability per channel

  1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel
 Enable facility
 Over temperature protection
 Logical “0”input voltage up to 1.5 v
 High noise immunity
 Internal clamp diodes

Applications of DC Motors:

1. Electric Train: A kind of DC motor called the DC Series Motor is used in Electric Trains.
The DC Series Motors have the attribute to deliver more power when they are affluent more.
So the more the people get on a train, the more herculean the train becomes.

2. Elevators: The best bidirectional motors are DC motors. They are expended in elevators.
Compound DC Motors are used for this covering.

3. DC Fans, CD ROM Drives, and Hard Drives: All these things need motors, very miniature
motors, with great exactness. AC motors can never conceive of any application in these
places.

4. Starter Motors in Automobiles: An automobile battery supplies DC, so a DC motor is best

fitted here. Also, you cannot start an engine with a small sized AC motor,

5. Electrical Machines Lab in Colleges.

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications)

Introduction:

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is a cellular network, which means that
mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks
operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or
1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands
because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated.
The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries, where these
frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.

GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station
(uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124 RF channels
(channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used. In some
countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This
'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880–915 MHz (uplink) and 925–960 MHz (downlink), adding
50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band. Time
division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per
radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped
into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same
timeslot. The channel data rate is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

GSM Advantages:

GSM also pioneered a low-cost, to the network carrier, alternative to voice calls, the Short t
message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported on other
mobile standards as well. Another advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide
Emergency telephone number, 112. This makes it easier for international travelers to connect
to emergency services without knowing the local emergency number.

The GSM Network:

GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the
functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware. The GSM
network is divided into three major systems: the switching system (SS), the base station
system (BSS), and the operation and support system (OSS).
The Switching System:

The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-
related functions. The switching system includes the following functional units.

 Home location register (HLR): The HLR is a database used for storage and management
of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores
permanent data about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location
information, and activity status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of
the PCS operators, he or she is registered in the HLR of that operator.
  Mobile services switching center (MSC): The MSC performs the telephony switching
functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems.
It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel
signaling, and others.

 Visitor location register (VLR) : The VLR is a database that contains temporary
information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting
subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station
roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about
the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR
will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR
each time.

 Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides authentication and
encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of
each call. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in
today's cellular world.

 Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database that contains information about
the identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or
defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or
as a combined AUC/EIR node.

The Base Station System (BSS):

All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of base station
controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).

 BSC: The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links between the MSC
and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides functions such as handover, cell
configuration data, and control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in base
transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are served by an MSC.

 BTS: The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the radio
equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network. A
group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.
The Operation and Support System

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching
system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support
system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors
and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support
for centralized, regional and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for
a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support
the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance organizations.

Additional Functional Elements

 Message center (MXE): The MXE is a node that provides integrated voice, fax, and
data messaging. Specifically, the MXE handles short message service, cell broadcast,
voice mail, fax mail, e-mail, and notification.

 Mobile service node (MSN): The MSN is the node that handles the mobile intelligent
network (IN) services.

 Gateway mobile services switching center (GMSC) : A gateway is a node used to

interconnect two networks. The gateway is often implemented in an MSC. The MSC
is then referred to as the GMSC.

 GSM inter-working unit (GIWU): The GIWU consists of both hardware and software
that provides an interface to various networks for data communications. Through the
GIWU, users can alternate between speech and data during the same call. The GIWU
hardware equipment is physically located at the MSC/VLR.

GSM Network Areas:

The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As shown in bellow figure, these areas
include cells, location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, and public land mobile network
(PLMN) areas.
Location Areas:

The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base transceiver station. The GSM network
identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI) number assigned to each cell. The
location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is paged. Each LA is
served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a single MSC Each LA is assigned
a location area identity (LAI) number.

MSC/VLR service areas:

An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is covered by one
MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the MSC.

PLMN service areas:

The PLMN service area is an area served by one network operator.

GSM Specifications:

Specifications for different personal communication services (PCS) systems vary among
the different PCS networks. Listed below is a description of the specifications and
characteristics for GSM.
  Frequency band: The frequency range specified for GSM is 1,850 to 1,990 MHz
(mobile station to base station).

 Duplex distance: The duplex distance is 80 MHz. Duplex distance is the distance
between the uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has two frequencies, 80
MHz apart.

 Channel separation: The separation between adjacent carrier frequencies. In GSM, this
is 200 kHz.

 Modulation: Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing the

characteristics of a carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via Gaussian minimum
shift keying (GMSK).

 Transmission rate: GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.

 Access method: GSM utilizes the time division multiple access (TDMA) concept.
TDMA is a technique in which several different calls may share the same carrier.
Each call is assigned a particular time slot.

 Speech coder: GSM uses linear predictive coding (LPC). The purpose of LPC is to
reduce the bit rate. The LPC provides parameters for a filter that mimics the vocal
tract. The signal passes through this filter, leaving behind a residual signal. Speech is
encoded at 13 kbps.

GSM Subscriber Services:

Dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF): DTMF is a tone signaling scheme often used for various
control purposes via the telephone network, such as remote control of an answering machine.
GSM supports full-originating DTMF.

Facsimile group III—GSM supports CCITT Group 3 facsimile. As standard fax machines are
designed to be connected to a telephone using analog signals, a special fax converter
connected to the exchange is used in the GSM system. This enables a GSM–connected fax to
communicate with any analog fax in the network.

Short message services: A convenient facility of the GSM network is the short message
service. A message consisting of a maximum of 160 alphanumeric characters can be sent to
or from a mobile station. This service can be viewed as an advanced form of alphanumeric
paging with a number of advantages. If the subscriber's mobile unit is powered off or has left
the coverage area, the message is stored and offered back to the subscriber when the mobile
is powered on or has reentered the coverage area of the network. This function ensures that
the message will be received.

Cell broadcast: A variation of the short message service is the cell broadcast facility. A
message of a maximum of 93 characters can be broadcast to all mobile subscribers in a
certain geographic area. Typical applications include traffic congestion warnings and reports
on accidents.

Voice mail: This service is actually an answering machine within the network, which is
controlled by the subscriber. Calls can be forwarded to the subscriber's voice-mail box and
the subscriber checks for messages via a personal security code.

Fax mail: With this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at any fax machine. The
messages are stored in a service center from which they can be retrieved by the subscriber via
a personal security code to the desired fax number

Supplementary Services:

GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that can complement and
support both telephony and data services.

Call forwarding: This service gives the subscriber the ability to forward incoming calls to
another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable, if it is busy, if there is no reply, or
if call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.

Barring of outgoing calls: This service makes it possible for a mobile subscriber to prevent all
outgoing calls.

Barring of incoming calls: This function allows the subscriber to prevent incoming calls. The
following two conditions for incoming call barring exist: baring of all incoming calls and
barring of incoming calls when roaming outside the home PLMN.

Advice of charge (AoC): The AoC service provides the mobile subscriber with an estimate of
the call charges. There are two types of AoC information: one that provides the subscriber
with an estimate of the bill and one that can be used for immediate charging purposes. AoC
for data calls is provided on the basis of time measurements.
Call hold: This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call and then
subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only applicable to normal
telephony.

Call waiting: This service enables the mobile subscriber to be notified of an incoming call
during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call. Call
waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications services using a circuit-switched
connection.

Multiparty service: The multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to establish a

multiparty conversation—that is, a simultaneous conversation between three and six
subscribers. This service is only applicable to normal telephony.

Calling line identification presentation/restriction : These services supply the called party with
the integrated services digital network (ISDN) number of the calling party. The restriction
service enables the calling party to restrict the presentation. The restriction overrides the
presentation.

Closed user groups (CUGs): CUGs are generally comparable to a PBX. They are a group of
subscribers who are capable of only calling themselves and certain numbers

Main AT commands:

"AT command set for GSM Mobile Equipment” describes the Main AT commands to
communicate via a serial interface with the GSM subsystem of the phone.

AT commands are instructions used to control a modem. AT is the abbreviation of

Attention. Every command line starts with "AT" or "at". That's why modem commands are
called AT commands. Many of the commands that are used to control wired dial-up modems,
such as ATD (Dial), ATA (Answer), ATH (Hook control) and ATO (Return to online data
state), are also supported by GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones. Besides this common
AT command set, GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones support an AT command set that
is specific to the GSM technology, which includes SMS-related commands like AT+CMGS
(Send SMS message), AT+CMSS (Send SMS message from storage), AT+CMGL (List SMS
messages) and AT+CMGR (Read SMS messages).
Note that the starting "AT" is the prefix that informs the modem about the start of a command
line. It is not part of the AT command name. For example, D is the actual AT command name
in ATD and +CMGS is the actual AT command name in AT+CMGS. However, some books
and web sites use them interchangeably as the name of an AT command.

Here are some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with a GSM/GPRS modem
or mobile phone:

 Get basic information about the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example,
name of manufacturer (AT+CGMI), model number (AT+CGMM), IMEI number
(International Mobile Equipment Identity) (AT+CGSN) and software version
(AT+CGMR).
 Get basic information about the subscriber. For example, MSISDN (AT+CNUM) and
IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) (AT+CIMI).
 Get the current status of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example,
mobile phone activity status (AT+CPAS), mobile network registration status
(AT+CREG), radio signal strength (AT+CSQ), battery charge level and battery
charging status (AT+CBC).
 Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem (ATD, ATA, etc).
 Send and receive fax (ATD, ATA, AT+F*).
 Send (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS), read (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL), write (AT+CMGW)
or delete (AT+CMGD) SMS messages and obtain notifications of newly received
SMS messages (AT+CNMI).
 Read (AT+CPBR), write (AT+CPBW) or search (AT+CPBF) phonebook entries.
 Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks (AT+CLCK),
checking whether a facility is locked (AT+CLCK) and changing passwords
(AT+CPWD).
(Facility lock examples: SIM lock [a password must be given to the SIM card every
time the mobile phone is switched on] and PH-SIM lock [a certain SIM card is
associated with the mobile phone. To use other SIM cards with the mobile phone, a
password must be entered.])
 Control the presentation of result codes / error messages of AT commands. For
example, you can control whether to enable certain error messages (AT+CMEE) and
 whether error messages should be displayed in numeric format or verbose format
(AT+CMEE=1 or AT+CMEE=2).
 Get or change the configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, change the GSM network (AT+COPS), bearer service type (AT+CBST),
radio link protocol parameters (AT+CRLP), SMS center address (AT+CSCA) and
storage of SMS messages (AT+CPMS).
 Save and restore configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, save (AT+CSAS) and restore (AT+CRES) settings related to SMS
messaging such as the SMS center address.
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

ARDUINO SOFTWARE:

The Arduino is a family of microcontroller boards to simplify electronic design, prototyping

and experimenting for artists, hackers, hobbyists, but also many professionals. People use it
as brains for their robots, to build new digital music instruments, or to build a system that lets
your house plants tweet you when they’re dry. Arduinos (we use the standard Arduino Uno)
are built around an ATmega microcontroller — essentially a complete computer with CPU,
RAM, Flash memory, and input/output
What you will need:
 A computer (Windows, Mac, or Linux)
 An Arduino-compatible microcontroller (anything from this guide should work)
 A USB A-to-B cable, or another appropriate way to connect your Arduino-compatible
microcontroller to your computer (check out this USB buying guide if you’re not sure
which cable to get).
 An Arduino Uno
 Windows 7, Vista, and XP
 Installing the Drivers for the Arduino Uno (from Arduino.cc)
 Plug in your board and wait for Windows to begin it’s driver installation process After
a few moments, the process will fail, despite its best efforts

 Click on the Start Menu, and open up the Control Panel

 While in the Control Panel, navigate to System and Security. Next, click on System
Once the System window is up, open the Device Manager
 Look under Ports (COM & LPT). You should see an open port named “Arduino UNO
(COMxx)”.
 If there is no COM & LPT section, look under ‘Other Devices’ for ‘Unknown Device’

 Right click on the “Arduino UNO (COMxx)” or “Unknown Device” port and
choose the “Update Driver Software” opti Next, choose the “Browse my
computer for Driver software” option
  Finally, navigate to and select the Uno’s driver file, named
“ArduinoUNO.inf”, located in the “Drivers” folder of the Arduino Software
download (not the “FTDI USB Drivers” sub-directory). If you cannot see
the .inf file, it is probably just hidden. You can select the ‘drivers’ folder with
the ‘search sub-folders’ option selected instead. Windows will finish up the
driver installation

LAUNCH AND BLINK!

After following the appropriate steps for your software install, we are now ready to
test your first program with your Arduino board!

 Launch the Arduino application

 If you disconnected your board, plug it back in
 Open the Blink example sketch by going to: File > Examples > 1.Basics >
Blink
 Select the type of Arduino board you’re using: Tools > Board > your board type
  Select the serial/COM port that your Arduino is attached to: Tools > Port >
COMxx

If you’re not sure which serial device is your Arduino, take a look at the available ports, then
unplug your Arduino and look again. The one that disappeared is your Arduino.

With your Arduino board connected, and the Blink sketch open, press the ‘Upload’ button
After a second, you should see some LEDs flashing on your Arduino, followed by the
message ‘Done Uploading’ in the status bar of the Blink sketch.

If everything worked, the onboard LED on your Arduino should now be blinking! You just
programmed your first Arduino!

CONCLUSION The most essential thing in today’s world is providing security to the public
and private vehicles. So, vehicle tracking system is proposed to locate the exact position of
the vehicle when it is lost or hidden somewhere. GPS technology is used to track the location
and that data is transmitted to the user using GSM. Along with the tracking system anti-theft
system is also developed to provide security. It is mostly applicable in fleet management,
transportation system, military applications, school buses, public vehicles etc.

FUTURE SCOPE Further this system can be enhanced into the advanced system which uses
IoT concept to operate the vehicle remotely by anyone from anywhere in the world. It can be
arranged in such a way that it can connect a call to the owner or it can send the information to
the multiple persons.
REFERENCES

1. H. D. Pham, M. Drieberg and C. C. Nguyen, "Development of vehicle tracking system

using GPS and GSM modem," in IEEE Conference on Open Systems (ICOS), Kuching ,
2013.

2. Mashood Mukhtar, “GPS based Advanced Vehicle Tracking and Vehicle Control System”,
I.J. Intelligent Systems and Applications, 2015, 03, 1-120

3. Albert Alexe, R. Ezhilarasie, “Cloud Computing Based Vehicle Tracking Information

Systems”, ISSN: 2229 - 4333 (Print) | ISSN: 0976 - 8491 (Online) IJCST Vol. 2, Issue 1,
March 2011

4. Ambade Shruti Dinkar and S.A Shaikh, Design and Implementation Of Vehicle Tracking
System Using GPS, Journal of Information Engineering and Applications, ISSN 2224-5758,
Vol 1,No.3, 2011.

5. M. Ahmad Fuad and M. Drieberg, "Remote vehicle tracking system using GSM Modem
and Google map," in IEEE Conference on Sustainable Utilization and Development in
Engineering and Technology (CSUDET), Selangor , 2013.

6. M. Parvez, K. Ahmed, Q. Mahfuz and M. Rahman, "A theoretical model of GSM network
based vehicle tracking system," in International Conference on Electrical and Computer
Engineering (ICECE), Dhaka, 2010.
7. R.Ramani,S.Valarmathy,D. N.SuthanthiraVanitha, S.Selvaraju and
M.Thiruppathi.R.Thangam,"Vehicle Tracking and Locking System Based on GSM and
GPS," I.J. Intelligent Systems and Applications, vol. 09, pp. 89-93, August 2013.

8. P. P. Wankhade and P. S. Dahad, "Real Time Vehicle Locking and Tracking System using
GSM and GPS Technology-An Anti-theft System," International Journal of Technology And
Engineering System, vol. 2,no. 3, 2011.

9. P. Verma and J. Bhatia, "Design and Development of GPSGSM based Tracking System
with Googlemap based Monitoring," International Journal of Computer Science, Engineering
and Applications (IJCSEA), vol. 3, no. 2,June 2013.

10. N Mangla, K Sushma, L Kumble,” IPB-Implementation of Parallel Mining for Big Data”,
Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 2016