CSE 213

Computer Architecture

Lecture 1: History of Computer

Military Institute of Science and Technology

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Moore’s Law
1965; Gordon Moore –
co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that could

be put on a single chip was doubling every
year
Consequences of Moore’s law:
The pace slowed to
a doubling every 18
months in the Computer
1970’s but has The cost of
The electrical becomes
computer
sustained that rate logic and
path length is smaller and is Reduction in
Fewer
ever since shortened, more power and
memory interchip
increasing convenient to cooling
circuitry has use in a variety connections
operating requirements
fallen at a of
speed
dramatic rate environments
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 Computer
Architecture
A bit of History

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 ENIAC

Major
Memory drawback
consisted
was the need
Occupied of 20
Contained Capable
1500 Decimal accumulators,
more of for manual
Weighed square 140 kW rather each
than 5000 programming
30 feet Power than capable
18,000 additions by setting
tons of consumption binary of
vacuum per switches
floor machine holding
tubes second and
space a
10 digit plugging/
number unplugging
cables
21
Institute for Advanced Studies(IAS)

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+
IAS Memory Formats
 Both data and instructions are
 The memory of the IAS stored there
consists of 1000 storage
locations (called words) of  Numbers are represented in
binary form and each instruction
40 bits each is a binary code
+ Registers
Memory buffer register • Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
(MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit

Memory address • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from
register (MAR) or read into the MBR

Instruction register (IR) • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

Instruction buffer • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a

register (IBR) word in memory

• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched

Program counter (PC) from memory

Accumulator (AC) and • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU
multiplier quotient (MQ) operations
+
Structure
of
IAS
Computer
+
Commercial Computers
UNIVAC
 1947 – Eckert and Mauchly formed the Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Corporation to manufacture computers commercially

 UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

 First successful commercial computer
 Was intended for both scientific and commercial applications
 Commissioned by the US Bureau of Census for 1950 calculations

 The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation became part of the

UNIVAC division of the Sperry-Rand Corporation

 UNIVAC II – delivered in the late 1950’s

 Had greater memory capacity and higher performance

 Backward compatible
+
History of Computers
Second Generation: Transistors
 Smaller

 Cheaper

 Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

 Is a solid state device made from silicon

 Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947

 It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized

computers were commercially available
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Second Generation Computers

 Introduced:
 Appearance of the Digital
 More complex arithmetic
Equipment Corporation (DEC)
and logic units and control
units in 1957
 The use of high-level
 PDP-1 was DEC’s first
programming languages
computer
 Provision of system software
which provided the ability  This began the mini-computer
to:
phenomenon that would
 load programs become so prominent in the
 move data to peripherals third generation
and libraries
 perform common
computations
History of Computers
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit

 Discrete component
 Single, self-contained transistor
 Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and
soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards
 Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome

 The two most important members of the third generation

were the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8
+
Microelectronics
+  A computer consists of gates,
Integrated memory cells, and
interconnections among these
Circuits elements

 The gates and memory cells

 Data storage – provided by are constructed of simple
memory cells digital electronic components
 Data processing – provided by
gates  Exploits the fact that such
components as transistors,
resistors, and conductors can be
 Data movement – the paths fabricated from a
among components are used semiconductor such as silicon
to move data from memory to
memory and from memory  Many transistors can be
through gates to memory produced at the same time on a
single wafer of silicon
 Control – the paths among
components can carry control  Transistors can be connected
signals with a processor metallization to
form circuits
+ LSI
Large

Later
Scale
Integration

Generations
VLSI
Very Large
Scale
Integration

Semiconductor Memory ULSI

Microprocessors Ultra Large
Scale
Integration
+
Wafer,
Chip,
and
Gate
Relationship
 Computer Generations

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Computer Generations
Computer Architecture
Vs
Computer Organization

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 Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
• Attributes of a • Instruction set, number of
system visible to the bits used to represent
programmer various data types, I/O
• Have a direct mechanisms, techniques
impact on the for addressing memory
logical execution of
a program
Computer Architectural
Architecture attributes include:

Organizational Computer
attributes include: Organization
• Hardware details
transparent to the
programmer, control • The operational units and
signals, interfaces between their interconnections that
the computer and realize the architectural
peripherals, memory specifications
technology used
 Computer
Architecture
Basic Components

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 Function
 A computer can perform four basic
functions:
a) Data movement
b) Data storage
c) Data processing
d) Control
Operation
(a) Data movement:
The computer must be able to move data between itself
and the outside world. The computer’s operating
environment consists of devices that serve as either
sources or destinations of data. When data are received
from or delivered to a device that is directly connected to
the computer, the process is known as input–output
(I/O), and the device is referred to as a peripheral. When
data are moved over longer distances, to or from a
remote device, the process is known as data
communications.
 Operation
(b) Data Storage:
It is also essential that a computer store data. Even if
the computer is processing data on the fly (i.e., data
come in and get processed, and the results go out
immediately), the computer must temporarily store at
least those pieces of data that are being worked on at
any given moment. Thus, there is at least a short-term
data storage function. Equally important, the computer
performs a long-term data storage function. Files of
data are stored on the computer for subsequent retrieval
and update.
 Operation
(c) Data Processing:
The computer, of course, must be able to process data.
The data may take a wide variety of forms, and the
range of processing requirements is broad. However,
we shall see that there are only a few fundamental
methods or types of data processing.
 Operation
(d) Control: There must be control of these three
functions. Ultimately, this control is exercised by the
individual(s) who provides the computer with
instructions. Within the computer, a control unit manages
the computer’s resources and orchestrates the
performance of its functional parts in response to those
instructions.
 The
Computer
 Structure and Function
• Hierarchical system • Structure
– Set of interrelated – The way in which
subsystems components relate to
– Hierarchical nature of complex
each other
systems is essential to both • Function
their design and their – The operation of
description individual components
– Designer need only deal with a
as part of the structure
particular level of the system at
a time
– Concerned with structure
and function at each level
Structure
  CPU – controls the operation of
There are four the computer and performs its data
processing functions
main structural
components
 Main Memory – stores data
of the computer:
 I/O – moves data between the
computer and its external
environment
 System Interconnection – some
mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O
 • Control Unit
CPU – Controls the operation of the
CPU and hence the computer
Major structural – Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
components: – Performs the computer’s data
processing function

– Registers
– Provide storage internal to the
CPU

– CPU Interconnection
– Some mechanism that provides
for communication among the
control unit, ALU, and registers
 Computer
Architecture
Below your program

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More on Evolution

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+ Semiconductor Memory
In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory

Chip was about the size Could hold 256 bits of

Non-destructive Much faster than core
of a single core memory

In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit
of core memory
There has been a continuing and rapid decline in Developments in memory and processor
memory cost accompanied by a corresponding technologies changed the nature of computers in
increase in physical memory density less than a decade

Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations

Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied
by declining cost per bit and declining access time
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Microprocessors
 The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
 More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer
and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer
processor

 1971 Intel developed 4004

 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single
chip
 Birth of microprocessor

 1972 Intel developed 8008

 First 8-bit microprocessor

 1974 Intel developed 8080

 First general purpose microprocessor
 Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing
capability
 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

a. 1970s Processors
80286 386TM DX 386TM SX 486TM DX CPU
Introduced 1982 1985 1988 1989
6 MHz - 12.5
Clock speeds 16 MHz - 33 MHz 16 MHz - 33 MHz 25 MHz - 50 MHz
MHz
Bus width 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits
Number of transistors
134,000 275,000 275,000 1.2 million
Feature size (µm) 1.5 1 1 0.8 - 1
Addressable memory 16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB
Virtual memory 1 GB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
Cache — — — 8 kB

b. 1980s Processors
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

c. 1990s Processors

d. Recent Processors
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Microprocessor Speed
Techniques built into contemporary processors include:

Pipelining
• Processor moves data or instructions into a
conceptual pipe with all stages of the pipe
processing simultaneously

Branch • Processor looks ahead in the instruction code

fetched from memory and predicts which

prediction
branches, or groups of instructions, are likely
to be processed next

Data flow • Processor analyzes which instructions are

dependent on each other’s results, or data, to

analysis create an optimized schedule of instructions

Speculative
• Using branch prediction and data flow analysis,
some processors speculatively execute
instructions ahead of their actual appearance in

execution
the program execution, holding the results in
temporary locations, keeping execution
engines as busy as possible
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Performance
Balance
 Adjust the organization and Increase the number
of bits that are
architecture to compensate retrieved at one time
by making DRAMs
for the mismatch among the “wider” rather than
“deeper” and by
capabilities of the various using wide bus data
paths
components
Reduce the
 Architectural examples frequency of memory
access by
include: incorporating
increasingly
complex and
efficient cache
structures between
the processor and
main memory

Increase the
Change the DRAM interconnect
interface to make it bandwidth between
more efficient by processors and
including a cache or memory by using
other buffering higher speed buses
scheme on the DRAM and a hierarchy of
chip buses to buffer and
structure data flow
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Improvements in Chip
Organization and Architecture
 Increase hardware speed of processor
 Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size
 More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate
 Propagation time for signals reduced

 Increase size and speed of caches

 Dedicating part of processor chip
 Cache access times drop significantly

 Change processor organization and architecture

 Increase effective speed of instruction execution
 Parallelism
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Problems with Clock Speed and
Login Density
 Power
 Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed
 Dissipating heat

 RC delay
 Speed at which electrons flow on a chip between transistors is
limited by resistance and capacitance of metal wires
connecting them
 Delay increases as RC product increases
 Wire interconnects thinner, increasing resistance
 Wires closer together, increasing capacitance

 Memory latency
 Memory speeds lag processor speeds
+ Processor
Trends
 The use of multiple

Multicore processors on the same chip

provides the potential to
increase performance
without increasing the clock
rate

Strategy is to use two simpler

processors on the chip rather
than one more complex
processor

With two processors larger

caches are justified

As caches became larger it

made performance sense to
create two and then three
levels of cache on a chip
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Many Integrated Core (MIC)
Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
MIC GPU
 Leap in performance as well  Core designed to perform
as the challenges in parallel operations on graphics
developing software to exploit data
such a large number of cores
 Traditionally found on a plug-in
 The multicore and MIC graphics card, it is used to
strategy involves a encode and render 2D and 3D
homogeneous collection of graphics as well as process
general purpose processors video
on a single chip
 Used as vector processors for a
variety of applications that
require repetitive computations
+ Overview
ARM
 Results of decades of design effort on
complex instruction set computers Intel
(CISCs)

 Excellent example of CISC design

 Incorporates the sophisticated design

principles once found only on
mainframes and supercomputers

 An alternative approach to processor

design is the reduced instruction set
x86 Architecture
computer (RISC)

 The ARM architecture is used in a

wide variety of embedded systems
and is one of the most powerful and
best designed RISC based systems on
the market

 In terms of market share Intel is CISC

ranked as the number one maker of
microprocessors for non-embedded
systems RISC
  8080
 First general purpose microprocessor
 8-bit machine with an 8-bit data path to
memory
 Used in the first personal computer (Altair)

 8086
 16-bit machine
 Used an instruction cache, or queue
 First appearance of the x86 architecture

x86 Evolution  8088

 used in IBM’s first personal computer
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 80286
 Enabled addressing a 16-MByte memory
instead of just 1 MByte

 80386
 Intel’s first 32-bit machine
 First Intel processor to support multitasking

 80486
 More sophisticated cache technology and
instruction pipelining
 Built-in math coprocessor
x86 Evolution - Pentium

Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II Pentium III Pentium 4

• Superscalar • Increased • MMX • Additional • Includes

• Multiple superscalar technology floating-point additional
instructions
executed in
+ organization
• Aggressive
• Designed
specifically to
instructions to
support 3D
floating-point
and other
parallel register process video, graphics enhancements
renaming audio, and software for multimedia
• Branch graphics data
prediction
• Data flow
analysis
• Speculative
execution
x86 Evolution (continued)

 Core
 First Intel x86 microprocessor
Instruction set with a dual core, referring to
architecture is the implementation of two
backward
compatible with processors on a single chip
earlier versions
 Core 2
 Extends the architecture to 64
X86
architecture bits
continues to  Recent Core offerings have
dominate the
processor up to 10 processors per chip
market outside
of embedded
systems
 Embedded system: Embedded

“A combination of computer
hardware and software, and
perhaps additional mechanical or
other parts, designed to perform a Systems
dedicated function. In many cases,
embedded systems are part of a
+
larger system or product, as in the
case of an antilock braking system
in a car.”
Examples of Embedded Systems and Their Markets
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Embedded Systems
Requirements and Constraints
Small to large systems,
implying different cost
constraints and different
needs for optimization and
reuse
Relaxed to very strict
requirements and
Different models of combinations of different
computation ranging from quality requirements with
discrete event systems to respect to safety,
hybrid systems reliability, real-time and
flexibility

Different application
characteristics resulting
in static versus dynamic
loads, slow to fast speed, Short to long life times
compute versus interface
intensive tasks, and/or
combinations thereof

Different environmental
conditions in terms of
radiation, vibrations, and
humidity
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Possible Organization of an Embedded System
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Acorn RISC Machine (ARM)

 Family of RISC-based  Widely used in PDAs and

microprocessors and other handheld devices
microcontrollers
 Chips are the processors in
 Designs microprocessor and iPod and iPhone devices
multicore architectures and
licenses them to  Most widely used embedded
manufacturers processor architecture

 Chips are high-speed  Most widely used processor

processors that are known for architecture of any kind
their small die size and low
power requirements
 +
E
v
o
A l
R u
t
M i
o
n

DSP = digital signal processor SoC = system on a chip

 ARM Design Categories
 ARM processors are designed to meet the needs of three
system categories:

 Secure applications
 Smart cards, SIM cards, and
payment terminals

 Application platforms
 Embedded real-time
systems  Devices running open
 Systems for storage, operating systems including
automotive body and power- Linux, Palm OS, Symbian OS,
train, industrial, and and Windows CE in wireless,
networking applications consumer entertainment and
digital imaging applications