Solar Radiation

Prof. Suhil Kiwan

Mechanical Engineering Department
Jordan University of Science and Technology
Irbid-Jordan
 Terminology
• Radiation (heat transfer): is a transport process, in which energy propagates through a
medium or through empty space (electromagnetic radiation)
• Radiant energy: energy of electromagnetic waves ([J])
• Radiant power: radiant energy per unit time ([W])
• Radiant emittance: emerging radiant power per unit area of emitting surface ([Wm-2])
• Thermal radiation is a form of energy emission and transmission that depends entirely
on the temperature characteristics of the emissive surface
• Irradiance (G) The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area of
that surface (W/m2).
• Irradiation The incident energy per unit area on a surface found by integration of
irradiance over a specified time (usually, an hour or a day) (J/m2).
• Insolation (I) A term applying specifically to solar energy irradiation (J/m2)
Extraterrestrial Radiation
• Radiation above the atmosphere normal to a surface is given by

Gon=Gsc [1+0.033 cos (360N/365)]

• Gsc Solar constant= 1366.1 W/m2

• N number of day in the year
• G used for any surface orientation, o outside atm.
• H used for Horizontal surfaces
• Instantaneous beam energy (direct) received by a horizontal surface outside
the atmosphere at any time

• Integrate Eqn. (*) from sunrise to sunset, get

The total radiation, Ho, incident on an extraterrestrial horizontal surface during a day

(J/m2)

hss is the sunset hour in degrees

The extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface for an hour period between hour angles,
h1 and h2

The subscripts will be used for G, H, and I are beam (B), diffuse (D), and ground-reflected (G) radiation.
EXAMPLE
Determine the extraterrestrial normal radiation and the extraterrestrial radiation
on a horizontal surface on March 10 at 2:00 pm solar time for 35 N latitude.
Determine also the total solar radiation on the extraterrestrial horizontal surface
for the day.
Terrestrial Solar Radiation
Terminology
• There are two general classes of extinction processes: absorption and
scattering
• Absorption means that the energy of a photon is taken up by matter.
Scattering means that radiation is deviated from straight propagation.
• Some constituents of the atmosphere absorb radiation of a certain
spectral range.
 Atmospheric attenuation

Absorption
• Ozone (O3) in the upper atmosphere absorbs almost completely short-
wave radiation at wavelengths below 290nm. Above 290nm ozone
absorption decreases, until at 350nm there is nearly no absorption.
Another weak ozone absorption band is near 600nm.
• Water vapour absorbs strongly in the infrared part of the solar spectrum,
with absorption bands at 1, 1.4 and 1.8μm.
• Carbone dioxide is another strong absorber of infrared radiation. Due to
both gases, H2O and CO2, the radiation transmission through the
atmosphere is very low at wavelengths above 2.5μm.
• Oxygen and nitrogen absorb radiation over a large wavelength range.
 Atmospheric attenuation

Scattering
• Radiation is forced to deviate from a straight trajectory by non-
uniformities in its way (molecules, dust particles etc.). Two Types:
Rayleigh-scattering and Mie-scattering (the size of the non-
uniformities)
• Due to scattering processes, solar radiation reaches the Earth’s
surface partially as diffuse radiation.
 Atmospheric attenuation

Rayleigh-scattering

• It is the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by particles which

are much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation.
• In the case of light, with a wavelength between 380nm and 780nm,
these particles are individual atoms or molecules.
• Light with a smaller wavelength will be scattered much more than
light with a longer wavelength
• The sky is blue because the blue light, with its shorter wavelength,
is scattered much more than the light of other spectral ranges. The
Sun looks reddish at sunrise and at sunset (why?)
 Atmospheric attenuation

Mie-scattering

• It is the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by particles whose

diameter is of about the same dimension as the wavelength or larger.
• Water droplets, ice crystals and aerosol particles cause Mie-scattering.
• Mie-scattering does not have a similarly clear-cut -dependency as
Rayleigh-scattering;
• Mie-scattering depends strongly on local conditions, especially on air
pollution and cloudiness.
Terrestrial Irradiation

The degree of attenuation of solar radiation traveling through the earth’s atmosphere depends
on the length of the path and the characteristics of the medium traversed.
In solar radiation calculations, one standard air mass is defined as the length of the path
traversed in reaching the sea level when the sun is at its zenith (the vertical at the point of
observation).
The air mass is related to the zenith angle, , without considering the earth’s curvature, by the
equation

At sea level when the sun is directly overhead then m=1

When =60, we get m=2 (air mass two).

Estimation of Terrestrial Irradiation

Define the monthly average clearness index, (The bar signifies a long-term average) as
It measures the average long term attenuation
Daily clearness index KT Hourly

H= monthly average daily total radiation on a terrestrial horizontal surface (MJ/m2 day).
Ho = monthly average daily total radiation on an extraterrestrial horizontal surface (MJ/m2 day).
Data from meteorological service such as 24 h average temperature, monthly average daily radiation
on a horizontal surface H (MJ/m2 day), and monthly average clearness index, KT, are usually given.
 Terrestrial Irradiation
H (bar), H, and I can be obtained from measurements of total solar radiation on horizontal using a Pyranometer

To predict the performance of a solar system, hourly values of radiation are required.
Because in most cases these types of data are not available, long-term average daily radiation data
can be utilized to estimate long-term average radiation distribution.

To do so, two frequently used correlations are the Liu and Jordan (1977) correlation for the
diffuse radiation

and the Collares-Pereira and Rabl (1979) correlation for the total radiation.
EXAMPLE

Given the following empirical equation,

where HD is the monthly average daily diffuse radiation on horizontal surface,

estimate the average total radiation and the average diffuse radiation between
11:00 am and 12:00 pm solar time in the month of July on a horizontal surface
located at 35N latitude. The monthly average daily total radiation on a horizontal
surface, H, in July at the surface location is 23.14 MJ/m2 day.
Given
In this example we
saw how to find
average hourly solar
radiation (total and
diffused) on a
horizontal surface by
knowing the value of
KT

The difference is
Direct radiation
 Total radiation on tilted surfaces

Usually, collectors are installed at an angle to increase the amount of radiation intercepted (reduce reflection
and cosine losses)

A flat surface absorbs beam (GBt), diffuse (GDt), and

ground-reflected (GGt) solar radiation; that is,

Measured or estimated radiation data are mostly available either for normal incidence or for horizontal
surfaces. To convert these data to radiation on tilted surfaces, let us look at
RB is called the beam
where Thus radiation tilt factor

So the beam radiation component for any surface surface is

For the specific case of a south-facing fixed surface tilted 

For a surface rotated continuously about a horizontal east–west axis, from

Eq. (2.26a), the ratio of beam radiation on the surface to that on a horizontal
surface at any time is given by

EXAMPLE

Estimate the beam radiation tilt factor for a surface located at 35 N latitude and tilted 45  at
2:00 pm solar time on March 10. If the beam radiation at normal incidence is 900 W/m2,
estimate the beam radiation on the tilted surface.
Solution The wall is facing south

Tilting the surface led to an increase of (1181-900)/900%= 31% of solar radiation.

Example
• Calculate Rb for a surface facing south with β = 30°, at L = 31.8° north
for the hour 9 to 10 solar time on March 3. Use 9:30 (h=2.5
hr=2.5*15=37.5, before noon : negative)
Example
• Calculate the instantaneous irradiance for a surface facing south with
β = 30°, at φ = 31.8° north at 10 a.m. solar time on March 3, when the
global radiation measured was 750 W/m2 and the beam radiation was
650 W/m2. The surface is located within an urban institution.
Solution
• On March 3, δ = –7.5°. From Table 2.5 rr = 0.38.
Example
• Solve the previous problem assuming that only global solar radiation
is available
• Solution

• From Orgill and Hollands

 RADIATION MODELS ON A TILTED SURFACE

• Many mathematical models have been proposed to estimate hourly and daily
global solar radiation on tilted surfaces from data measured on horizontal
surfaces. Data include information such as level of cloudiness, pollution,
temperature, and humidity, among other variables.
• Although these methods work well at local levels, there is not yet a general
highly accurate method for predicting insolation.
• Isotropic sky model
• Klucher model
• Hay-Davies model
• Reindl model
The latter proved to give very good results in the Mediterranean Region
 ISOTROPIC SKY MODEL
Developed originally by Hottel and Woertz (1942) and refined by Liu and Jordan (1960).

Assumes that diffuse and ground reflected radiation are isotropic. Thus, the sum of the diffuse from the
sky and the ground-reflected on a tilted surface is the same regardless of its orientation

Diffuse radiation on a tilted surface, GDt View factor

from tilted to
the sky
The total radiation on a tilt surface
View factor
from tilted to
the ground

Thus, the total

radiation tilt factor, R
Klucher model
Klucher (1979) found that the isotopic model gives good results for
overcast skies but underestimates irradiance under clear and partly
overcast conditions, when there is increased intensity near the horizon
and in the circumsolar region of the sky. The model developed by
Klucher gives the total irradiation on a tilted plane:
Hay-Davies model
In the Hay-Davies model, diffuse radiation from the sky is composed of
an isotropic and circumsolar component and horizon brightening is not
taken into account. The anisotropy index, A represents the
transmittance through atmosphere for beam radiation
 Reindl model
In addition to isotropic diffuse and circumsolar radiation, the Reindl model also accounts
for horizon brightening and employs the same definition of the anisotropy index, A.

• Reflection on the ground is dealt with as in the isotropic model.

• Due to the additional term representing horizon brightening, the Reindl model provides
slightly higher diffuse irradiances than the Hay–Davies model.
 Insolation on tilted surfaces
The amount of insolation on a terrestrial surface at a given location
and time depends on the orientation and slope of the surface.
Liu and Jordan (1977) Model. They developed an empirical method for the estimation of the
monthly average daily total radiation incident on a tilted surface.
In their correlation, the diffuse to total radiation ratio for a horizontal surface is expressed in terms
of the monthly clearness index, KT, as:

Collares-Pereira and
Rabl (1979) Model

Erbs et al. (1982) Model

Expressed the monthly average
daily diffuse correlations by
taking into account the season
 With the monthly average daily total radiation, H (bar) and the monthly average daily diffuse
radiation HD (bar) known, the monthly average beam radiation on a horizontal surface can be
calculated by:

For the monthly total radiation tilt factor R (bar)

Liu and Jordan (1977), For

surfaces facing directly toward
the equator,
• To estimate the same information when only the horizontal total radiation
(G) is known, GB and GD must still be calculated. This can be done by
taking into account the clearness index KT, which is related to sunshine
duration for a particular location. KT=H/Ho
• A simple correlation between the clearness index KT and the total beam
radiation Ib in W/m2 was developed by Boes et al. (1976) from
measurements taken in the United States:

• The Orgill and Hollands correlation is expressed by

EXAMPLE
For July, estimate the monthly average daily total solar radiation on a surface facing south, tilted
45, and located at 35N latitude. The monthly average daily insolation on a horizontal surface is
23.14 MJ/m2 day. Ground reflectance (albedo) is equal to 0.2.
Peak Sun Hours (PSH)

The PSH is a useful value for comparison of the

energy differences received daily, monthly,
seasonally, and yearly for one site, and also to
evaluate different locations.
It is common to find a solar resource map with
annually or average PSH values

PSH is the energy parameter use when sizing

PV systems; the criteria vary from (1) the
month with the maximum demand of energy,
(2) the month with the lowest PSH, or (3) the
yearly average PSH.
The Solar Data Resource
The operation of solar collectors and systems depends on the solar
radiation input and the ambient air temperature and their sequences.
One of the forms in which solar radiation data are available is on maps.
These give the general impression of the availability of solar radiation
without details on the local meteorological conditions and, for this
reason, must be used with care. One valuable source of such
information is the Meteonorm.
Jordan Solar Map

Annual Direct Normal Irradiation DNI [kWh/m²/y] in Jordan

Measurements of Terrestrial Radiation

Pyranometer
Global
Pyrheliometer
Direct beam
Pyranometer with shading ring
Global
 SOLAR RADIATION MEASURING EQUIPMENT

• Instruments used to measure solar radiation are based on either the

thermoelectric or the photoelectric effects (PV)
• Thermoelectric: Thermocouples, thermoplies
• The PV effect occurs when solar radiation strikes a light-sensitive detector;
atoms in the detector absorb some of the photons’ energy. In this excited
state, which may be produced only by light in a specific range of
wavelengths, the atoms release electrons, which can flow through a
conductor to produce an electrical current. The current is proportional to
the intensity of the radiation striking the detector.
• The major disadvantage of PV sensors is that their spectral response is not
uniform in the solar band
Local Data
For the local climate, data in the form of a typical meteorological year
are usually required. This is a typical year, which is defined as a year
that sums up all the climatic information characterizing a period as long
as the mean life of a solar system. In this way, the long-term
performance of a collector or a system can be calculated by running a
computer program over the reference year.
Typical Meteorological Year (TMY) Files
• A representative database of weather data for one-year duration is known as the
test reference year (TRY) or typical meteorological year (TMY).
• A TMY is a data set of hourly values of solar radiation and meteorological
elements. It consists of months selected from individual years concatenated to
form a complete year.
• The TMY contains values of solar radiation (global and direct), ambient
temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed and direction for all hours of the
year.
• The intended use of a TMY file is for computer simulations of solar energy
conversion systems and building systems
Assignment

• Develop TMY file of second generation for a site in Jordan

• See section “2.4 The solar resource” Kalogirou, Soteris, Solar energy
engineering : processes and systems / Soteris Kalogirou” 1st ed.,
2009, Elsevier Inc.
End of this part