Chapter 6: Linear Functions

6.1 Slope of a Line

In the previous chapter we took a brief look at rates of change. In that definition, we
described the rate of change, or slope as being the quotient of the change in the dependent
variable and the change in the independent variable.

Δ𝑦
We also noted that, for relations where 𝑦 depends on 𝑥, that 𝑚 = Δ𝑥 .

Since Δ𝑦 = and Δ𝑥 =

we now more formally define slope as:

where (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are points on the line.

If a graph goes up as we read from left to right, then the function is increasing and we can
say that the slope is .

If a graph goes down as we read from left to right, then the function is decreasing and we
can say that the slope is .

Example: Determine the slope between each pair of points, then state whether it
represents an increase or decrease. Reduce all fractions to lowest terms.

(2, 5) and (8, 9) (−3, 0) and (5, −6)

(8, 11) and (−4, 14) (−9, −4) and (−2, 10)
We can note that horizontal lines will have a slope of because
, while the slope of a vertical line
will be described as being .

Example: Determine the whether each pair of points lies on a horizontal or vertical line,
and provide the slope for each.

(8, −4) and (−1, −4) (16, 9) and (9, 9)

Finally, by interpreting slope as being “rise over run” we can draw line segments that
model a particular slope. To do so, we will choose an appropriate starting point, then “rise”
by the slope’s numerator and “run” by the slope’s denominator.

Example: Draw a line segment that represents each given slope.

1
𝑚=2 𝑚=3

5 8
𝑚 = −7 𝑚 = −3

Practice: textbook pages 339-343, #1, 2, 5-7, 11, 13a, 27

Chapter 6: Linear Functions
6.2 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Let us suppose that Ryan can run at 9 m/s and he is going to race against Justin.

If Justin gets a head start but can also run at 9 m/s, will Ryan ever catch Justin? Explain.

If Justin gets a head start but can only run at 8 m/s, will Ryan ever catch Justin? Explain.

We note that when rates of change differ, an intersection will occur. When rates of change
are identical and starting points differ, no intersection occurs.

We thus define parallel lines as follows:

Parallel lines –

Example: Line 1 contains the points (4, 6) and (8, 4). Line 2 contains the points (−10, −3)
and (−7, −1). Line 3 contains the points (0, 5) and (−8, 9). Which lines, if any, are parallel?

Example: The line containing the points (−1, −1) and (1, 5) is parallel to the line
containing the points (−2, 3) and (6, 𝑦). Determine the value of 𝑦.
Another example! Given points 𝐴(−5, 6), 𝐵(3, 5), 𝐶(2, −2), 𝐷(−6, −1), is 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 a
parallelogram?

Practice: textbook pages 349-351, #3, 7, 13a, 14

Perpendicular lines, on the other hand, are a different beast. We can tell, pictorially, that a
line perpendicular to one representing an
increase would represent a decrease. We
can therefore conclusively state that
perpendicular lines must have opposite
signs – if one is positive, the other must be
negative.

But what of the value? A perpendicular

line is a rotation of the other. In that
process, the horizontal change (“run”)
rotates 90° to represent a vertical change,
and the vertical change (“rise”) rotates 90°
to represent a horizontal change. We thus
also take the reciprocal.

We state:
Two lines are said to be perpendicular if their slopes are

That is, if we have a given slope, we can find the slope of a perpendicular line by taking its
reciprocal then changing its sign.
Example: Find the slope that would be perpendicular to each given slope.
2 5
𝑚=3 𝑚=4 𝑚 = −6

1 7
𝑚 = −8 𝑚=5 𝑚=4

Example: Find the slope of a line perpendicular to the line through the points (−2, 3) and
(4, −7).

Example: Find the slope of a line perpendicular to the line through the points (7, 3) and
(−7, −39).

Yet another example! Given coordinates 𝑃(8, 3), 𝑄(−4, −5), 𝑅(−8, 1), 𝑆(1, 7), what kind of
quadrilateral is 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆? Justify your answer.

Practice: textbook pages 349-351, #4-6, 8, 11, 13b, 16, 19

Chapter 6: Linear Functions
6.5 Slope-Point Form

We will be examining three ways to represent linear relations. Two of them, slope-
intercept form and general form, are more commonly used, but slope-point form is a
helpful stepping stone when limited information is given about a line.

The equation for a line in slope point form is found by using the formula for slope between
the specific point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and the coordinates of a general point on the graph, (𝑥, 𝑦).

𝑚 is the slope, and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is a point on the graph.

Example: State the slope and the point given by each equation.
1
𝑦 − 4 = 2(𝑥 − 1) 𝑦 − 3 = − 2 (𝑥 − 6)

3
𝑦 − 1 = −(𝑥 + 2) 𝑦 + 5 = 5 (𝑥 + 7)

2 1
𝑦 = 3 (𝑥 − 9) 𝑦 − 7 = 2𝑥
To graph from slope-point form, plot the known point, then use the slope to find other
points. Then, using a straight edge, connect the dots!

Always make sure you:

 Label your axes
 Indicate your scale for both axes
3
𝑦 − 2 = 2 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑦 + 3 = 2(𝑥 + 1)

3 1
𝑦 − 4 = − 4 (𝑥 + 3) 𝑦 + 2 = − 2 (𝑥 − 2)

Practice: textbook pages 372-373, #4, 5, 7, 9a, 12, 14

In the case that we are to determine the equation for a line based on two given points, we
can start by finding the slope, then by using either of the points to substitute into slope-
point form.

Example: Determine an equation in slope-point form for the line through the points (2, 5)
and (6, 7).

Example: Determine an equation in slope-point form for the line through the points (1, −3)
and (4, 0).

Example: Determine an equation in slope-point form for the line that contains the point
3
(−7, 8) and is parallel to 𝑦 − 6 = (𝑥 + 3).
2

Example: Determine an equation in slope-point form for the line that contains the same
3
given point as 𝑦 + 2 = 94(𝑥 − 1) and is perpendicular to 𝑦 + 17 = 5 (𝑥 + 29).

Practice: textbook pages 372-374, #11, 22, 26

Chapter 6: Linear Functions
6.4 Slope-Intercept Form

This is one of the primary forms of a line. Before we talk about it, however, let’s quickly get
a couple definitions in, just for good measure (and a healthy dose of fun)!

𝑥-intercept -

𝑦-intercept -

A line in slope-intercept form is of the form:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
where:
𝑚 is
𝑏 is

The 𝑦-intercept gives us, in essence, an initial value for a situation – a starting value, if you
will.

Since the 𝑦-intercept is a point, we can use the same method of graphing as we did
previously. First plot the known point, then use the slope to find other points.

Example: Identify the slope and 𝑦-intercept for each linear function below, then graph the
line. Clearly label your scale and axes.

𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 2

Slope: Slope:

𝑦-intercept: 𝑦-intercept:
 1 2
𝑦 = 𝑥−1 𝑦 = 𝑥+3
2 3

Slope: Slope:

𝑦-intercept: 𝑦-intercept:

When given the graph of a line, we can find its equation in slope-intercept form by
determining those two things: the slope and the 𝑦-intercept.

Example: Determine the slope and 𝑦-intercept of each line below, then provide the
equation for the line in slope-intercept form.
𝑦 𝑦

3 3

𝑥 𝑥
3 3

Slope: Slope:

𝑦-intercept: 𝑦-intercept:

Practice: textbook pages 362-364, #4-6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18

Equations of lines can be manipulated (by performing the same operations on either side)
so as to create equivalent versions that provide different information. Therefore if a linear
equation is not in slope-intercept form, we can always convert it to be so.

What we need to do it isolate 𝑦 (or whatever the dependent variable happens to be).

Example: write each equation in slope-intercept form, then identify the slope and 𝑦-
intercept.
3 3
𝑦 + 4 = 2 (𝑥 − 6) 𝑦 − 3 = 5 (𝑥 − 10)

5𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 20 = 0 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 8 = 0

2𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 9 = 0 3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 12 = 0
Word problems time!

Example: The cost to ride in a particular taxi is determined by distance travelled, as shown
in the table below. Using appropriate variables, determine the equation that models the
cost based on distance travelled.
Distance (km) Cost
0 $5.10
1 $6.30
2 $7.50
3 $8.70

Follow-up questions:
a. What does the slope represent in this context?

b. What does the horizontal axis intercept represent?

Example: Mr. R decides to start tracking how much he can bench press every three weeks.
His results are shown in the table below. Assuming the trend is linear, use appropriate
variables to determine an equation that models the weight Mr. R can bench based on the
number of weeks elapsed.
Weeks Weight (lbs)
elapsed
0 135
3 150
6 165
9 180

Follow-up questions:
a. What does the slope represent in this context?

b. What does the horizontal axis intercept represent?

c. If Mr. R continues this trend, how much can he bench after 12 weeks?

Practice: textbook pages 363-364, #13-16, 22-24

Chapter 6: Linear Functions
6.6 General Form

The general form for equations will involve:

 Having all variables and constants on the same side of the equation
 Having only integer values
 Having a positive leading coefficient

The general form of a line is defined as:

where:

Example: Convert each equation to general form.

𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 4

2 3
𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 1 𝑦 = −7𝑥 − 2

4 1
𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 2 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 4

Practice: textbook pages 384-385, #4, 6, 8, 12, 18

There are many ways to graph a line from any particular form. With general form we
certainly have the option of converting to one of the other forms and graphing from that
point.

Alternately, we could find the 𝑥-intercept and 𝑦-intercept, plot them, then draw a straight
line through them. We could even use the slope between those points to find other points!

Example: Determine the intercepts of the function 3𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 15 = 0, and use them to

graph the line.

Example: Determine the intercepts of the function 5𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 30 = 0, and use them to

graph the line.
Let’s look at a contextual example!

Mr. A wants to take in 260 grams of protein daily. For some odd reason, he only wants his
protein to come from eggs (which have 9g of protein each) and cheddar cheese (which has
6g of protein per ounce).
a) Determine suitable variables for this situation
b) Determine an equation in general form to model the situation

Horizontal and Vertical Lines

Horizontal lines have a slope of 0, and thus when put into slope-intercept form have the
equation 𝑦 = 𝑏. As they have a set height above or below the 𝑥-axis, 𝑦 is given a constant
value. A horizontal line passing through the point (2, 7) would have the equation 𝑦 = 7,
which in general form would be 𝑦 − 7 = 0. Unless the horizontal line is the 𝑥-axis, it will
have no 𝑥-intercepts.

Similarly, vertical lines have a constant distance to the left or right of the 𝑥-axis, and thus
have the form 𝑥 = 𝑐. A vertical line passing through the point (5, 3) would have the
equation 𝑥 = 5, which is 𝑥 − 5 = 0 in general form. Unless the vertical line is the 𝑦-axis, it
will have no 𝑦-intercepts.

Example: Determine the general form equation of the horizontal line through each point:

(9, 4) (−8, 12) (7, −3)

Example: Determine the general form equation of the vertical line through each point:

(4, 19) (−5, −8) (1, −10)

Practice: textbook pages 384-385, #5, 10, 13, 14ad, 16, 28

Chapter review: textbook pages 388-390, #1, 2, 4, 6-9, 11-27