CE F244

Highway Engineering

Dr. Nishant Bhargava

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Module 3
Traffic Engineering
Contents
• Traffic Characteristics
• Traffic Measurement and Analysis
• Traffic Flow and Roadway Capacity
• Traffic Regulation and Control
• Road Intersections
• Parking Studies
• Accident Analysis
• Traffic Planning and Management

3
References

4
Problem – 3
Determine the number of potential conflict points on cross roads where the lane widths of
road A and road B are 7 m and 14 m respectively. Assume the following scenarios
a) Both roads are two-way
b) Road A is one-way and Road B is two-way
c) Both roads are one way
Solution
Both roads are two-way

- Crossing = 24
- Merging = 8
- Diverging = 8
Solution
Road A = One-way
Road B = Two-way

- Crossing = 13
- Merging = 4
- Diverging = 4
Solution
Both roads are one-way

- Crossing = 8
- Merging = 2
- Diverging = 2
Some Terminologies …
Signal cycle
Period of time required for one complete sequence of signal indications
Signal phase
Part of signal cycle time that is allocated to stop or allow the traffic movement
 Red = STOP phase
 Amber = CLEARANCE time
 Green = GO phase
Interval
Any of the division of signal cycle during which signal indications do not change
9
Types of Traffic Signals

Traffic Control Signals

Types of
Pedestrian Signal
Traffic Signals

Special traffic signal

(Flashing beacons)

10
Traffic Control Signals
Different types
• Manually operated signals
 Operated remotely by traffic police constable
• Fixed time automatic signals
 Signal phase and signal cycle time constant
 No significant variation in traffic flow
• Automatic traffic-actuated signals
 Signal phase and signal cycle time change with traffic flow
 Use of detectors and computer

11
Design of Isolated Fixed Time Signals
Objectives
• Sufficient intersection capacity for traffic volume entering from all roads
• Minimize overall delay

Design of traffic control signal timings

• Optimum cycle time
 Traffic flow and capacity
 Signal phase decision based on volume on each road

12
Two-Phase Signal Design Principles
Red Amber Green 𝑅1 = 𝐺2 + 𝐴2
Road – 1 𝑅1 𝐴1 𝐺1 No turning movement ⇒ Incorporate
Road – 2 𝑅2 𝐴2 𝐺2 pedestrian crossing time

• End of red phase ⇒ Amber light with red light

Indicate ‘get set’ to go
• Clearance time (amber phase) – After green phase
 Allow stopping time for approaching vehicle to stop at stop-line
 Allow sufficient time for vehicle to cross intersection area
• Green time ⇒ Based on approach volume during peak hour
13
Signal Design Methods
• Trial cycle method
• Approximate method based on pedestrian crossing time
• Webster’s method
• Design as per IRC guidelines

14
Signal Design Methods
• Trial cycle method
• Approximate method based on pedestrian crossing time
• Webster’s method
• Design as per IRC guidelines

15
Trial Cycle Method
• 15-minute traffic count during design peak hour flow
 𝑛1 for Road – 1 & 𝑛2 for Road – 2

• Assumption
 Average time headway = 2.5 sec
 Trial cycle length = 𝐶1

• Number of cycles in 15 min

15 × 60 Τ𝐶1

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Trial Cycle Method
• Green periods
2.5 × 𝑛1 2.5 × 𝑛2
or
900/𝐶1 900/𝐶1
• Amber period – Assume (3 to 4 sec)
 𝐴1 for Road – 1 & 𝐴2 for Road – 2

• Total cycle length, 𝐶1′ = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐴1 + 𝐴2

 If 𝐶1 = 𝐶1′ ⇒ Accept as design cycle
 Otherwise, repeat till 𝐶1 = 𝐶1′

17
Trial Cycle Method – Example
The 15-minute traffic counts on cross roads 1 and 2 during peak hour are observed as
178 and 142 vehicles per lane respectively approaching the intersection in the direction
of heavier traffic flow. If the amber times required are 3 and 2 seconds respectively for
the two loads based on approach speeds, design the signal timings by trial cycle
method. Assume average time headway as 2.5 seconds during green phase.

18
Trial Cycle Method – Example
Given, 𝑛1 = 178 ; 𝑛2 = 142 ; 𝐴1 = 3 sec ; 𝐴2 = 2 sec ; 𝑡𝐻 = 2.5 sec
Assume trial cycle length, 𝑪𝟏 = 50 sec
Green period for Road – 1 and Road – 2

2.5 × 𝑛1 2.5 × 𝑛2
𝐺1 = ; 𝐺2 =
900/𝐶1 900/𝐶1

2.5 × 178 2.5 × 142

𝐺1 = = 24.7 sec ; 𝐺2 = = 19.7 sec
900/50 900/50
Total cycle length, 𝐶1′ = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝐶1′ = 49.2 sec < 𝑪𝟏 ⇒ Assume lower cycle length and repeat the procedure
19
Trial Cycle Method – Example
Given, 𝑛1 = 178 ; 𝑛2 = 142 ; 𝐴1 = 3 sec ; 𝐴2 = 2 sec ; 𝑡𝐻 = 2.5 sec
Assume trial cycle length, 𝑪𝟏 = 45 sec
Green period for Road – 1 and Road – 2

2.5 × 𝑛1 2.5 × 𝑛2
𝐺1 = ; 𝐺2 =
900/𝐶1 900/𝐶1

2.5 × 178 2.5 × 142

𝐺1 = = 22.25 sec ; 𝐺2 = = 17.75 sec
900/45 900/45
Total cycle length, 𝐶1′ = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝐶1′ = 45 sec = 𝑪𝟏 ⇒ Adopt cycle length of 45 sec
20
Webster’s Method
• Based on Optimum Signal Cycle Time
 Increase in cycle length ⇒ Average delay reduces and then increases

Optimum signal cycle time

1.5 𝐿 + 5 𝐿 = Total lost time per cycle
𝐶0 =
1−𝑌 𝑛 = Number of phases
𝑅 = All – red time or red – amber time
𝐿 =2𝑛+𝑅
𝑌 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑦1 𝑦2
𝐺1 = 𝐶0 − 𝐿 ; 𝐺2 = 𝐶0 − 𝐿
𝑦1 = 𝑞1 Τ𝑠1 ; 𝑦2 = 𝑞2 Τ𝑠2 𝑌 𝑌

21
Webster’s Method – Example
The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during design period are
400 and 250 PCU per hour; the saturation flow values on these roads are estimated as
1250 and 1000 PCU per hour respectively. The all-red time required for pedestrian
crossing is 12 sec. Design two-phase traffic signal with pedestrian crossing by Webster's
method.

22
Webster’s Method – Example
𝑞1 = 400 PCU/hr ; 𝑞2 = 250 PCU/hr
𝑆1 = 1250 PCU/hr ; 𝑆2 = 1000 PCU/hr
𝑅 = 12 sec ; 𝑛=2

Determine 𝒀 and 𝑳
𝑞1 𝑞2 400 250
𝑦1 = ; 𝑦2 = ⇒ 𝑦1 = = 0.32 ; 𝑦2 = = 0.25
𝑆1 𝑆2 1250 1000
𝒀 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕

𝑳=𝟐𝒏+𝑹 ⇒ 𝐿 = 2 × 2 + 12 = 16 sec

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Webster’s Method – Example
Optimum signal cycle time
1.5 𝐿 + 5 1.5 × 16 + 5
𝐶0 = ⇒ 𝐶0 = = 67.4 sec ≈ 67.5 sec
1−𝑌 1 − 0.57

Green time
𝑦1 𝑦2
𝐺1 = 𝐶0 − 𝐿 ; 𝐺2 = 𝐶0 − 𝐿
𝑌 𝑌
0.32 0.25
𝑮𝟏 = 67.5 − 16 = 𝟐𝟗 𝐬𝐞𝐜 ; 𝑮𝟐 = 67.5 − 16 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝐬𝐞𝐜
0.57 0.57

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Webster’s Method – Example
Amber time
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 𝐶0 − 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝑅

𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 67.5 − 29 + 22.5 + 12 = 4 sec

𝑨𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜

25
IRC Guidelines
Step 1 – Pedestrian crossing time
• Walking speed = 1.2 m/sec
• Initial walk time = 7 sec
Width of road to cross
Pedestrian green time = +7
1.2
Step 2 – Minimum green time for traffic

Minimum green time for minor road = Pedestrian green time for crossing major road

Traffic flow on major road

Minimum green time for major road = Min green time for minor road ×
Traffic flow on minor road
26
IRC Guidelines
Step 3 – Revised green time for traffic signals
• Inter-green time = 2 sec for each phase
• Clearance (Amber) time = 2 sec for each phase

Total cycle time = (Green time + inter-green time + clearance time) for each phase

• Revise total cycle time to NEXT multiple of 5

• Distribute extra time proportionally (multiple of 0.5 sec)

Minimum green time required = 16 sec

27
IRC Guidelines
Step 4 – Check for clearing the vehicles arrived during green phase
• Clearing of first vehicle = 6 sec
• Clearing of subsequent vehicle = 2 sec

Minimum green time required per cycle to clear vehicles

= 6 + 2 × (Vehicles arrivals per lane per cycle – 1)

28
IRC Guidelines
Step 5 – Check for optimum signal cycle by Webster's equation
Lost time per cycle
= (Amber time + inter-green time + time lost for initial delay of 1st vehicle) for 2 phases
= (2 + 2 + 4) × 2 = 16 sec

Approach roadway width (m) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Saturation flow (PCU/hr) 1850 1890 1950 2250 2550 2990
Approach roadway width > 5.5 m ⇒ Saturation flow = (525 × Width) PCU/hr
1.5 𝐿 + 5
𝐶0 = ⇒ If Optimum signal cycle < Cycle time calculated = Design is acceptable
1−𝑌
29
IRC Guidelines – Example
At a right-angled intersection of two roads, Road 1 has four lanes with a total width of
12.0 m and Road 2 has two lanes with a total width of 6.6 m. The volume of traffic
approaching the intersection during design hour are 900 and 743 PCU/hour on the
two approaches of Road 1 and 278 and 180 PCU/hour on the two approaches of
Road 2. Design the signal timings as per IRC guidelines.

30
IRC Guidelines – Example
Given data
• Road – 1
Width, 𝑊1 = 12 m
Approach volumes = 900 & 743 PCU/hr
Design traffic = max. (900, 743) = 900/2 = 450 PCU/hr (volume per lane)
• Road – 2
Width, 𝑊2 = 6.6 m
Approach volumes = 278 & 180 PCU/hr
Design traffic = max. (278, 180) = 278 PCU/hr (volume per lane)

31
IRC Guidelines – Example
Step 1 – Pedestrian crossing time
12
Pedestrian green time for Road – 1 = + 7.0 = 17 sec
1.2

6.6
Pedestrian green time for Road – 2 = + 7.0 = 12.5 sec
1.2

Step 2 – Minimum green time for traffic

Minimum green time for vehicles on Road – 2, 𝐺2 = 17 sec

450
Minimum green time for vehicles on Road – 1, 𝐺1 = 17 × = 27.5 sec
278
32
IRC Guidelines – Example
Step 3 – Revised green time for traffic signals
Total cycle time = (Green time + inter-green time + clearance time) for each phase
Total cycle time = (17 + 2 + 2) + (27.5 + 2 + 2) = 52.5 sec

Revise total cycle time to NEXT multiple of 5

Total cycle time = 55 sec

Extra time = 55 – 52.5 = 2.5 sec
Distribute extra time to Road – 1 and Road – 2 as 1.5 sec and 1.0 sec, respectively
𝐺1 = 27.5 + 1.5 = 29 sec
𝐺2 = 17.0 + 1.0 = 18 sec
33
IRC Guidelines – Example
Step 4 – Check for clearing the vehicles arrived during green phase
Minimum green time required per cycle to clear vehicles
= 6 + 2 × (Vehicles arrivals per lane per cycle – 1)

Minimum green time required per cycle to clear vehicles

Road – 1 = 6 + 2 × (450/55 – 1) = 20.4 sec < 29 sec (O.K.)
Road – 2 = 6 + 2 × (278/55 – 1) = 14.2 sec < 18 sec (O.K.)

34
IRC Guidelines – Example
Step 5 – Check for optimum signal cycle by Webster's equation
Lost time per cycle
= (Amber time + inter-green time + time lost for initial delay of 1st vehicle) for 2 phases
= (2 + 2 + 4) × 2 = 16 sec

Saturation flow
Road – 1 (width = 6 m) = 525 × 6 = 3150 PCU/hr
Road – 2 (width = 3.3 m) = From Table = 1874 PCU/hr

35
IRC Guidelines – Example
Step 5 – Check for optimum signal cycle by Webster's equation
𝑞1 𝑞2 900 278
𝑦1 = ; 𝑦2 = ⇒ 𝑦1 = = 0.286 ; 𝑦2 = = 0.148
𝑆1 𝑆2 3150 1874
𝒀 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟒

𝑳=𝟐𝒏+𝑹 ⇒ 𝐿 = 2 × 2 + 12 = 16 sec

1.5 𝐿 + 5 1.5 × 16 + 5
𝐶0 = ⇒ 𝐶0 = = 51.2 sec
1−𝑌 1 − 0.434

Optimum signal cycle < Cycle time calculated = Design is acceptable

36
IRC Guidelines – Example
Details of signal timings

Road Green phase, sec Amber time, sec Red phase, sec Cycle time, sec
Road – 1 29 2 22 + 2 55
Road – 2 18 2 33 + 2 55

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Road Markings
• Intended to regulate, control, warn or guide road
users
• Material (Clause 803 – MoRT&H)
 Hot Applied Thermoplastic Compound
 Solvent borne and Waterborne Road Marking Paints
 Cold Applied Plastics
 Preformed Adhesive Tapes

38
Road Markings
Classification
• Longitudinal Marking (LM)
• Transverse Marking (TM)
• Hazard Marking (HM)
• Block Marking (BM)
• Arrow Marking (AM)
• Directional Marking (DM)
• Facility Marking (FM)

39
Traffic Islands
Raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels through
which the vehicular traffic may be guided

Classification
• Divisional island
• Channelizing island
• Pedestrian loading island
• Rotary

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Divisional Islands
• Divide highway into two
ONE-WAY roadways

41
Channelizing Islands
Guide traffic into proper channel
through intersection area

Uses
• Reduce potential conflict points
• Control merging and crossing
angles and direction of flow
• Refuge islands for pedestrian

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Pedestrian Loading and Refuge Islands
• Provide at or near a cross walk
to aid and protect pedestrian
crossing carriageway

43
Rotary Islands
• Large central island
• Crossing converted to weaving
maneuver

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Road Intersections
Intersections at Grade Grade Separated Intersections
 Un-channelized Intersections  Over-pass
 Channelized Intersections  Under-pass
 Rotary Intersection
 Signalized Intersections

45
Intersections at Grade
All roads meet at almost same level

Factors governing design

• Relative speed
 Vector sum of speed of approaching vehicles from opposite direction
 Design – Low relative speed
• Maneuver areas
 Potential conflict area

46
Intersections at Grade
7 basic forms
• T; Y; Scissor; Cross; Staggered;
Staggered and skewed; Multiway.

47
Unchannelized Intersections
NO restriction to the vehicles to use any part of intersection area

• Entire section paved

• Easiest to construct
• More conflict points

48
Channelized Intersections
Channelize traffic flow into appropriate streams by introducing islands into
intersection areas

Functions
• Channelize turning traffic into appropriate paths
• Control angle of approach of vehicles
• Reduce relative speed
• Decrease conflict area at intersection

49
Rotary Intersections
Converging vehicles forced to move round a large central island in one direction
before they weave out into their respective directions radiating from central island

Design factors
• Design speed • Radius of entry and exit curves
• Shape of central island • Capacity
• Radius of rotary roadway • Channelizing islands
• Weaving angle and weaving distance • Camber and superelevation
• Width of entry and exit carriageway • Sight distance and grade
• Width of rotary roadway • Lighting and traffic signs
50
Rotary Intersections
Design speed
• One or more of converging roads is
important highway = 40 km/h
• All other cases = 30 km/h

Shape of central island

• Depends on number and layout of
intersecting roads
• Circular, elliptical, turbine and tangent

51
Rotary Intersections
Radius of central island
• Different radii at different points
• Radius of entry curve
 40 km/h = 20 to 35 m
 30 km/h = 15 to 25 m
• Min. radius of central island =
1.33 times of radius of entry curve

52
Rotary Intersections
Weaving angle
Angle between path of vehicle entering
rotary and another vehicle leaving
rotary at adjacent roads
• Angle ≥ 15°
• Smaller angle ⇒ Larger diameter of
central island

53
Rotary Intersections
Weaving length
Length of rotary roadway between two
channelizing islands of adjacent
intersecting legs
• 40 km/h = 45 to 90 m
• 30 km/h = 30 to 60 m

54
Rotary Intersections
Width of rotary roadway, 𝑾
Mean width of entry and non-weaving
section + One traffic lane

55
Rotary Intersections
Entrance and exit curves
• Radius of entrance curve = Min.
recommended radius of central island
• Radius of entry curve
 40 km/h = 20 to 35 m
 30 km/h = 15 to 25 m
• Radius of exit curve
 1.5 to 2.0 times radius of entry
curve

56
Rotary Intersections
Weaving section

Channelizing
Capacity of rotary island

𝒆 𝑷 Central
𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝑾 𝟏 + 𝟏− Island
𝑾 𝟑
𝑸𝒑 =
𝑾
𝟏+
𝑳
𝑸𝒑 = Practical capacity of weaving section, PCU/hr
𝑾 = Width of weaving section, m (Range = 6 to 18 m)
𝒆 = Average width of entry, 𝒆𝟏 and width of non-
weaving section, 𝒆𝟐 , m
𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐
𝒆= ; 𝒆Τ𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝐭𝐨 𝟏. 𝟎
𝟐

57
Rotary Intersections
Weaving section

Channelizing
Capacity of rotary island

𝒆 𝑷 Central
𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝑾 𝟏 + 𝟏− Island
𝑾 𝟑
𝑸𝒑 =
𝑾
𝟏+
𝑳
𝒍 = Length of weaving section between ends of
channelizing island (𝒘Τ𝒍 = 0.12 to 0.40)
𝑷 = Proportion of weaving traffic (Range = 0.4 to 1.0)
𝒃+𝒄
𝑷= 𝒂 = Left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄+𝒅
𝒃 = Crossing/weaving traffic turning right while entering rotary
𝒄 = Crossing/weaving traffic turning left while leaving rotary
𝒅 = Right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
58
Rotary Intersections
Sight distance
• Minimum sight distance
 40 km/h = 45 m
 30 km/h = 30 m

Gradient
• Level ground preferable
• Max. slope with horizontal = 1 in 50

59
Signalized Intersections
• Prevent traffic conflicts
• Reduce accidents
• Minimize overall delay
• Economize on time spent by police personnel

60
Grade Separated Intersections
Intersecting roads provided vertical level separation by means of a bridge to
eliminate crossing conflicts at intersection

Types of Interchanges

61
Interchanges
Diamond Interchange Rotary Interchange

62
Interchanges

Partial Clover Leaf

Clover Leaf

63
Capacity of Intersections
• Uncontrolled intersection
 Two-lane two-way traffic = 1200 to 1400 veh/hr
 Four-lane two-way traffic = 1400 to 1500 veh/hr

• Rotary intersection = 3000 veh/hr

 Six-lane approach roads and four arms = 5000 PCU/hr

• Signal intersection = 7500 PCU/hr

• Graded separated intersection ≥ 10,000 PCU/hr

64
Accident Analysis
• Main objective of traffic engineering
 SAFE traffic movements
 Minimize accident rate
o Systematic accident studies
o Preventive measures – Design and control

65
Causes of Accidents
• Road users – Drivers, pedestrians, passengers
• Vehicle – Vehicle defects
• Road features – Road design and condition
• Traffic – Traffic condition
• Environmental factors – Weather, animals, road furniture

66
Accident Studies and Records
• Collection of accident data
• Preparation of accident reports
• Preparation of location file
• Preparation of diagrams showing type of collision
• Suggestion to prevent similar accidents at same location

67
Collection of Accident Data
 Standard forms in IRC

68
Collection of Accident Data

69
Collection of Accident Data

70
Accident Report
• Report accidents to police authority
• Police authority
 Collect further details
 Take legal action
• Use of accident report
 Accident analysis
 Claims for compensation
 Evaluation of accident cost

71
Accident Records
• Location files
 Record of accident location
 Identify locations of high accidents
 Maintained by police station

• Spot maps
 Accident location by spots or
symbols in road map
 Suitable scale

72
Accident Records
• Collision diagram
 Details of accident location & path
of vehicles and pedestrian involved
 Compare accident pattern before
and after remedial measures taken

• Condition diagram
 Accident location showing cross-
section and geometric details, road
environment.

73
Accident Investigations & Analysis
• Accident investigations
• Analysis of individual accidents
• Statistical analysis of accidents

74
Accident Investigations
• Determine primary and contributing cause of accident
 Influence of alcohol
 Overspeeding
 Vehicle defect
 Skidding – Poor pavement condition

75
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Some simple types of accidents
• Moving vehicle collides with stationary object/parked vehicle
• Two vehicles approaching from different directions collide at intersection
• Head-on collision of two vehicle approaching from opposite direction
• Rear-end collision of two moving vehicles

76
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Assumptions
• Skid marks
 Present ⇒ Assume 100% skid. Use skid distance to find braking distance
 Not present Free collision (NO application of brakes)
• Direct or oblique at a known angle
• Uniform coefficient of friction through skid distance

77
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Newton Law of Collision
Velocity of separation
Coefficient of restitution =
Velocity of approach

Elastic collision, 𝑒 = 1
𝑉𝐵′ − 𝑉𝐴′ Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
𝑒=
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵′ − 𝑉𝐴′ = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵

Plastic collision, 𝑒 = 0
Velocity of separation = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝐵′ − 𝑉𝐴′ = 0
Both vehicles will stick after collision and move together
78
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Analysis of initial speed from skid resistance
Braking or skid distance, 𝑆 for a vehicle of weight, 𝑊 to slow down from 𝑣1 to 𝑣2

Reduction in kinetic energy = Work done against frictional force

1 𝑊
× × 𝑣1 2 − 𝑣2 2 = 𝑊. 𝑓. 𝑆
2 𝑔
𝑣1 2 − 𝑣2 2
𝑆= ⇒ 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 2 + 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆
2𝑔𝑓

79
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 1 = Collision of moving vehicle with a parked car

Vehicle A Vehicle B
(Moving vehicle) (Parked car)
Initial speed 𝑣1 0
Speed just before collision 𝑣2 0
Speed just after collision 𝑣3 𝑣3
Skid distance before collision 𝑆1 0
Skid distance after collision 𝑆2 𝑆2
Mass of vehicle 𝑊𝑎 𝑊𝑏
Coefficient of friction 𝑓 𝑓
80
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 1 = Collision of moving vehicle with a parked car
Step (a) – Before collision
𝑣1 2 = 𝑣2 2 + 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆1

81
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 1 = Collision of moving vehicle with a parked car
Step (b) – At collision
• Assuming plastic collision
Total momentum before impact = Momentum after impact
𝑊𝐴 𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝐵
𝑣2 = 𝑣3
𝑔 𝑔
𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝐵
𝑣2 = 𝑣3
𝑊𝐴
2
2
𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝐵
𝑣1 = 𝑣3 2 + 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆1
𝑊𝐴
82
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 1 = Collision of moving vehicle with a parked car
Step (c) – After collision
𝑣3 2 = 𝑣4 2 + 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆2 = 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆2
2
𝑊𝐴 + 𝑊𝐵
𝑣1 2 = 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆2 + 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆1
𝑊𝐴

𝟐
𝑾𝑨 + 𝑾𝑩
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐 𝒈 𝒇 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒈 𝒇 𝑺𝟏
𝑾𝑨

83
Analysis of Individual Accidents
A vehicle of weight 2.0 tonne skids through a distance equal to 40 m before
colliding with another parked vehicle of weight 1.0 tonne. After collision both the
vehicles skid through a distance equal to 12 m before stopping. Compute the initial
speed of the moving vehicle. Assume average coefficient of friction as 0.5.

𝟐
𝑾𝑨 + 𝑾𝑩
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐 𝒈 𝒇 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒈 𝒇 𝑺𝟏
𝑾𝑨

𝒗𝟏 = 25.6 m/sec = 92.2 km/h

84
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 2 = Two vehicles approaching from right angles collide

85
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 2 = Two vehicles approaching from right angles collide

Just before collision

𝑣𝐴1 = 𝑣𝐴2 2 + 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆𝐴1

𝑣𝐵1 = 𝑣𝐵2 2 + 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆𝐵1

86
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 2 = Two vehicles approaching from right angles collide

At collision
Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision

𝑊𝐴 𝑊𝐵 𝑊𝐴
𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑣𝐵3 sin 𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴3 c𝑜𝑠 𝐴
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

𝑾𝑩
𝒗𝑨𝟐 = 𝒗𝑩𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩 − 𝒗𝑨𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨
𝑾𝑨
𝑾𝑨
𝒗𝑩𝟐 = 𝒗𝑨𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 + 𝒗𝑩𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩
𝑾𝑩
87
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 2 = Two vehicles approaching from right angles collide

Just after collision

𝑣𝐴3 2 = 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆𝐴2
𝑣𝐵3 2 = 2 𝑔 𝑓 𝑆𝐵2

88
Analysis of Individual Accidents
Accident Type 2 = Two vehicles approaching from right angles collide
Two vehicles A and B approaching at right angles, A from West and B from South,
collide with each other. After collision, vehicle A skids in a direction 50° North of
West and vehicle B, 60° East of North. The initial skid distances of vehicle A and
B are 38 m and 20 m respectively before collision. The skid distance after collision
are 15 m and 36 m respectively. If the weights of vehicle A and B are 4.0 and 6.0
tonnes, calculate the original speeds of the vehicles. Assume average coefficient of
friction as 0.55.
𝒗𝑨𝟏 = 96 km/h ; 𝒗𝑩𝟏 = 79 km/h

89
Statistical Analysis of Accidents
• Estimate relative safety of identified road stretches
• Predict probability of accident occurrence per day

90
Measure for Reduction in Accidents
• Road design
• Vehicle maintenance
Engineering • Before and after studies
• Road lighting

• Speed control
Measures • Traffic control devices
Enforcement • Training and supervision
• Medical check
• Observance of law & regulation

• Education to road users

Education • Safety drive
91
Design of Parking Facility
On-Street or Kerb Parking Off-Street Parking
 Parallel parking  Surface parking lots
 Angle parking  Multi-storied parking garages

92
On-Street or Kerb Parking
Parallel parking
• Less roadway width required
• No. of vehicles parked per unit length = Least
• Parking and un-parking operations difficult

𝐿
5.9 m 5.9 m
Number of vehicles that can be
parked per unit length of road
5m 2.5 m
𝐿
𝑁=
0.9 m 5.9

93
On-Street or Kerb Parking
Angle parking
• Angles 30°, 45°, 60° or 90°
• Angle increases
 Roadway width required increases
 More vehicles accommodated per unit length of road
• Convenient to park and un-park
• More accidents
Best angle = 45°

94
 On-Street or Kerb Parking
𝑳 = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑵 − 𝟏 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑫𝑬
30° Angle Parking
𝐶𝑃
𝐿 𝐿 = 𝑂𝐵 sin 30° + 𝑁 − 1 + 𝐷𝑄 cos 30°
sin 30°
A B C D E
30° 30°
𝐿 = 1.25 + 𝑁 − 1 × 5 + 4.33 = 5 𝑁 + 0.58
O P Q 𝑊 𝑁 = 𝐿 − 0.58 Τ5
S R
𝑾 = 𝑬𝑸 + 𝑸𝑹
𝑊 = 𝐷𝑄 sin 30° + 𝑄𝑆 cos 30°
𝑊 = 2.5 + 2.16

𝑊 = 4.66 m
95
Off-Street Parking
Basic traffic operations
• Entrance
• Acceptance
Reservoir area
• Storage Space required in front of parking lot for
• Delivery entrance acceptance and exit operations
• Exit

96
Off-Street Parking
Surface parking lots Multi-storeyed parking garages
• High space requirement • Less space requirement
• Comparatively low cost • Very costly
• Types • Inter-floor travel facility
 Self parking system  Elevators
 Attendant parking system  Ramps

97
Traffic Planning and Management
• Traffic forecast
• Access control on highways
• Road Safety Audit

98
Traffic Forecast
Establishing past trends and Econometric models
extrapolation Traffic and gross national product
Growth of traffic as guide (GNP) as guide
𝑛
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃0 1 + 𝑟 ln 𝑃 = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 ln 𝐺𝑁𝑃
𝑃0 = Traffic flow in base year 𝑃 = Traffic volume
𝑃𝑛 = Traffic in nth year 𝐺𝑁𝑃 = Gross National Product
𝑛 = Number of years 𝐴0 , 𝐴1 = Regression constants
𝑟 = Annual rate of growth of traffic

99
Control of Access
Need Degree of access control
• Ribbon development • Full or partial
• Increase in interference from the • Dependent on
residential and commercial  Level of service
establishments ⇒ Congestion  Accident frequency

• Numerous conflicts points ⇒  Legal considerations

 Traffic pattern, vehicle operating costs
Accidents
 Travel time
• Speed drops, level of service reduces
 Land use and convenience of access
to abutting property owners
100
Road Safety Audit
A formal, systematic and detailed examination of
a road project by an independent and qualified
team of auditors that leads to a report of the
potential safety concerns in the project

Purpose: Ensure road users are exposed to

minimal risks of accidents in both new roads and
existing roads

101
Road Safety Audit
Stages
1. Feasibility Stage/Preliminary Design Stage
2. Detailed Design Stage
3. Construction Stage
4. Pre-Opening Stage
5. Safety Audit of Existing Roads

102