Chapter Tools and Techniques of

Assessment for Learning

Physical Science

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Test, Examination, Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation
11.3 Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
11.3.1 Educational assessment and educational evaluation
11.3.2 Performance-based assessment: A flexible way of school-
based assessment
11.4 Assessment Framework
11.4 (A) Purpose of assessment
11.4 (B) Learning Indicators (LI)
11.4(B).(1) Types of indicators
11.4(B).(2) Illustrations : Learning Indicators (LI)
(i) Assessment of activity
(ii) Assessment of presentation
(iii) Assessment of group work
(iv) Assessment of collaborative learning
11.4 (C) Tools and Techniques of Assessment
11.4(C).(1) Written test
11.4(C).(2) Project work
11.4(C).(3) Field trips and field diary
11.4(C).(4) Laboratory work
11.4(C).(5) Interview/Oral test
11.4(C).(6) Journal writing
11.4(C).(7) Concept mapping
11.4 (D) Recording and Reporting
11.4(D).(1) Measurement of students’ achievements
11.4(D).(2) What is grading system?
 Tools
11.4(D).(3) Measurement of process skills

and
11.4(D).(4) Measurement of attitudes
11.4(D).(5) Portfolio: Its role in evaluating students’
performance

Techniques
11.4 (E) Reflecting Process
11.4(E).(1) Assessment as a reflected process
11.4(E).(2) Assessment as a reflecting process
11.5 Assessment of Learning of Students With Special Needs
11.6 Summary

of
11.1 Introduction

Assessment
Education is an activity which is undertaken to fulfil the needs of both
the individual and the society at the same time. Schools in general and
classrooms specifically are places where many processes take place
such as teaching, learning and evaluation. Teaching, learning and
evaluation are interdependent and a science teacher should take these
aspects together to make teaching-learning process effective.
‘Evaluation’, as we know is an integral component of a teaching-

for
learning process, which comprises
 Objectives

Learning Physical Science

 Curriculum
Objective
 Evaluation
Mor eover, all the thr ee
components have a two-way
relationship among them, Learners
i.e. each affects the other
two and in turn is effected Curriculum Evaluation
by them. For example,
on the one hand through Fig. 11.1 The three components of
evaluation, we come to know teaching-learning process have a
how far our objectives have two-way relationship
been achieved and only those
parts of the curriculum get precedence in the eyes of learners and
teachers both, which carry weightage in examination system. On the
other hand evaluation method will depend on the kind of objectives and
activities taken up in curriculum. Thus, it becomes imperative for us to
appreciate this interrelationship and take a holistic view of evaluation,
where it is not considered as a ‘necessary evil’ to be taken up, but an 
343
 entity interwoven in the very process of teaching-learning. We shall
discuss this in the section of continuous and comprehensive evaluation
(Section 11.3). We shall also see the meaning of test, examination,
measurement, assessment and evaluation separately.
The chapter discusses in detail various elements of an assessment
framework including details of various tools and techniques of
assessment along with examples. The chapter concludes with some
suggestions for the assessment of the learning of students with special
needs.
Science: Physical Science

11.2 Test, Examination, Measurement, Assessment

and Evaluation
Some of these words are often used more or less synonymously (for
example, test, examination) and all of them seem related to the process
of judgement. Let us consider each of them separately.
Test and examination are used many a times interchangeably, or
test is considered a mini examination, for example, monthly test and
annual examination. But then ‘TET’ (Teacher Eligibility Test), that you
will take after completing your B.Ed. programme or ‘Admission Test,’
you successfully cleared for getting into the programme, are also tests,
which by any stretch of imagination cannot be called mini examinations.
Let us take another example from our day-to-day life.
of

Suppose, you go to a doctor. Will she examine you or test you? Certainly,
here the two words cannot be used interchangeably, and we say that
Pedagogy

doctor examines a patient and may prescribe certain tests. Thus, test is
basically a tool (for example, intelligence test, aptitude test, achievement
test, etc.) and examination is the process. Measurement as we are familiar,
is depicted by a numeral and the unit (if need be) in which a quantity is
measured, i.e. 5 cm, 10 kg or 15g, etc. Let us now go back to our earlier
example to understand the other two words, ‘Assessment’ and ‘Evaluation’.
After you get the tests conducted in a laboratory, you get a report which
contains measurement(s) (numerals + units) of tested parameters. For
example, your haemoglobin value is 16 gm/dl (deciliter). Along with these,
there is another column in the report, which assigns certain meaning to
these measurements, i.e. below normal, normal, above normal, etc. Thus,
assigning meaning to a measurement is called assessment, which may
be quantitative as well as qualitative, and final conclusion drawn on
the basis of several assessments along with value judgement is called
 evaluation.

344
 Tools
Let us now see, how assessment and evaluation are intertwined in
classroom situations.

and
(i) When the teacher starts any lesson, she needs to know the
existing ideas of the students. She gets the learners involved in

Techniques
dialogue, conversation and inquiry. It helps to know about their
prior knowledge. Various learning opportunities are provided to
know about their capabilities, interest and needs.
(ii) During teaching-learning process the teacher is interested
in knowing what are the existing ideas of the students?
What are their misconceptions and naive concepts? What
modifications are required to improve the performance of the
student as a learner and her own performance as a teacher?

of
How is the class progressing? How effective has been her

Assessment
approaches and strategies of teaching? In order to do so,
she again has to make some kind of evaluation. Purpose of such
an evaluation is to find if their is any learning gap between
students’ concept and scientific explanations of the concept. She
monitors process of their learning and concept development,
provides continuous feedback and encourages them to reflect on
their learning. She facilitates them to construct and reconstruct

for
the new knowledge.
(iii) At the end of the lesson/unit/session, she has to make
judgement of learning of the

Learning Physical Science

The belief that assessment lead to
finding learning difficulties and then students and document their
those difficulties can be remediated, learning evidences. The teacher
is often very impractical and not comes to know the extent of
founded on a sound pedagogic success of her teaching-learning
p r a c t i c e . P r o b l e m s r e g a r d i n g processes. When the learner is
conceptual development cannot promoted to next class a grade
and do not wait for formal tests is allotted to her. Thus, she has
in order to be detected. A teacher
to make a final assessment of the
can in the course of teaching-
learning itself come to know of such learners, for which she again has
problems by asking questions that to take recourse to some kind of
make children think or by giving evaluation.
them small assignments. She can Thus, we see that assessment
then attend to them in the process and evaluation are ongoing
of teaching-learning by ensuring processes. These are seamlessly
that her planning is flexible and i n t e g r a t e d w i t h t e a c h i n g -
responsive to the learners and their
learning process. Teacher has
learning.
to make herself aware of the
–NCF 2005
learners’ learning process and

345
 learning product (their performance) both, and evaluate the students
holistically.
Let us now perform a small activity before discussing continuous
and comprehensive evaluation.

Activity 11.1
During teaching-learning process of the concept, ‘Image formation by
spherical mirrors’ in Class X, a teacher observed that a student has drawn
the following ray diagram:
Science: Physical Science

A M

B
B C F P

D N

Fig. 11.2 A ray diagram indicating naive concept of a student

How can this figure help the teacher to observe students’ naive concept?
Suppose teacher assess this naive concept at the end of unit, then how can
it hinder further development of student’s concept on ray optics? Discuss
of

in the class.
Pedagogy

11.3 Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation

(CCE)
We have learnt that evaluation is the final judgement which expresses
our opinion about object being evaluated and that final judgement is
made in the light of some objectives. Let us take an example— When you
go to buy a shirt piece or dress material for yourself, keeping in mind
the purpose/occasion for which you are buying the piece, you look into
several factors; colour, design, quality, price, etc. of the piece. You do
not select a piece, just because you like only one of these parameters
(say colour), but make a choice based on overall assessment of all such
factors and select the one which is a best fit of all the parameters.
Similarly, when you are supposed to make a judgement about how
good a particular student is in science, you have to consider all the
 parameters/attributes which contribute towards making her a good
346
 Tools
student of science. It may include her understanding of principles of
science, ability to solve problems, skills in handling scientific equipment

and
and experimentation, ability to think logically and rationally and may
be her attitude of inquiry and interest in science. As there is little

Techniques
chance of making a correct choice regarding the piece of cloth just
on the basis of a single parameter (say colour), similarly we cannot
judge a student accurately unless we take all the needed parameters
(depending on objectives) into account. Such an evaluation is called
comprehensive evaluation.
We evaluate the learners not only on the basis of their understanding
of scientific concepts and process skills of science but also their critical
thinking, creativity, curiosity, attitude and behaviour.

of
As a learner of science, we know that whenever we make any

Assessment
measurement, we take several observations and report the mean of
consistent observations as the measured value of the parameter. Taking
several observations makes the measurement reliable. Thus, while
evaluating any indicator of learning of the student, we have to measure
it several times at different time intervals to arrive at its reliable value
which will ultimately form the basis for our evaluation.
Therefore, we see that in order to be able to judge the worth
of a student’s performance successfully, our process of evaluation

for
has to be both continuous (i.e., each parameter is measured at
different points of time) and comprehensive (i.e. it is based on

Learning Physical Science

assessment of all concerned parameters).
Thus, Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), possesses
the following features:
(i) Since teaching-learning in a school is a continuous process and
assesment is an intergral part of this very process, therefore
CCE is essentially a school-based evaluation.
(ii) Teacher uses a number of tools and techniques of evaluation.
(iii) Teacher provides feedback on different aspects of learning and
understanding qualitatively. It motivates students for further
learning.
(iv) Continuous aspect of CCE not only ensures reliability of our
measurement process but also enables us to identify how
learners’ conceptual development is taking place. It helps
us to observe existing concepts of the learners, identify their
misconceptions and naive concepts and to deal with them.
(v) In order to ensure continuity, a particular performance parameter
or learning indicator can be measured in the beginning of the
lesson, during teaching-learning process (assessment for 
347
 learning ); at different intervals, at the end of each unit and at
the end of the session (assessment of learning). These repeated
assessments of the same parameter make evaluation continual
and periodic.
(vi) The comprehensive evaluation includes assessment in curricular
or subject specific areas that should be assessed informally as
well as formally using multiple techniques. It also takes care of
all-round development of the learner’s personality.
(vii) It guides the learner in self-assessment and she takes
responsibility of her learning. There is collective understanding
Science: Physical Science

among all concerned learners, teacher, parents, school and

institute of higher education about what is being evaluated.
(viii) CCE does not mean more frequent tests and examinations.
On the contrary, routine activities and exercises can be employed
effectively to assess learning.

Activity 11.2
‘An evaluation system which is not continuous and comprehensive, needs
to be discarded.’ Comment.

11.3.1 Educational assessment and educational evaluation

As we have learnt in the beginning of this section that on the basis of
several assessments, we make final judgement/evaluation. Looking
in this manner, assessments are part of evaluation. But suppose we
assess a learner in English and Science and find her good in English
of

and excellent in Science, Can we combine these two assessments to

make any judgement? Certainly not, as only similar entries could be
Pedagogy

combined. Moreover, if we are making a comprehensive assessment

for her performance in English, we would like to assess her reading
ability, her vocabulary, her spellings, her command over grammar,
her speaking ability and so on. We can assign grades for each of
these abilities, but can we combine all of them to assign grade for
her performance in English, i.e. evaluate her for her performance in
English? Again, it is desirable that we do not make such a judgement
and instead of saying that she is good in English, we only say that
she has excellent vocabulary, has good command over grammar and
possesses average reading ability and so on. This procedure will provide
a better feedback to the learner as she will come to know the areas she
has to improve in. Providing an overall grade is very cumbersome on
one hand, because two students may get 2As, 3Bs, 1C, but in different
 areas and assigning them the same grade will signify that both have
348
 Tools
performed to the same level and does not provide the proper feedback
to the student on the other hand. Thus, it is better to limit ourselves

and
to comprehensive assessment and follow the procedure:
 Identify the various aspects of a performance in a given area, that

Techniques
is task-specfic to learning indicators.
 Assess each aspect/task continuously and assign grade for each of
them.
The various aspects of a performance are called performance parameters
or learning indicators. We shall discuss in detail on it in section 11.4(B).
11.3.2 Performance-Based Assessment (PBA): A flexible
way of school-based assessment

of
A lot of psychological data suggest that different learners learn

Assessment
differently. Hence, there should be more varied modes of assessment
beyond the examination hall paper–pencil test. To test all learners
through a written test of the same type in subject, after subject is
unfair to those whose verbal proficiency is superior to their writing
skills, those who work more slowly but with deeper insight or those
who work better in group than individually. Hence, there is a need to
shift in the process of assessment. Table 11.1 shows a major shift
required in the assessment process.

for
Table 11.1 Major shift required in the assessment process

Learning Physical Science

From To
Teacher-centred­ Learner-centred­
1 Learner as passive recipients Learner is viewed as active
participant ­
2 Focus is on learning product Focus is on learning process
and outcome­ and experiences­
3 Focus is on knowing learning Focus is on strength, ability and
deficit of the learner­ needs of the learner­
4 One slot/intermittent approach­ Continuous and comprehensive
approach­
5 Assessment of single attribute­­ Continuous and comprehensive
assessment
6 Assessment of learning Assessment for learning

For a learner-centred approach to assessment, more focus should be

given to assess learner’s individual performance. The performance of
one learner should not be compared with that of other learner. Learner’s
existing ideas, misconceptions, naive concepts, and her performance 
349
 should be communicated to her in order to improve her performance. The
emphasis should be given to assess learner’s individual progress based
on her skills, attitude, approach and ability which are changed during
learning process. Opportunity for feedback leading to revision
and improvement of performance should constantly be available
without examination and evaluation being used as a threat to study.
To cater to the needs of different learners and allow flexibility
in assessment systems, Position Paper of National Focus Group on
Examination Reforms (NCERT, 2006) has broadly proposed following
solutions for examination reforms:
Science: Physical Science

 Using more varied modes of assessment including oral testing and

group work evaluation.
 Do not expect everything from everybody in every subject.
 Flexibility in time when examinations are taken.
 Enhanced reporting of performance.
Tasks that are challenging and allow independent thinking, and
multiple ways of being solved, encourages independence, creativity and
self-discipline in learners. Instead of a culture of quizzing of answers
quickly and always knowing the right answer, we need to allow learners
to spend time on deeper and meaningful learning. For this purpose,
performance-based assessment (PBA) can be one of the modes of school-
based assessment. Teacher can devise a number of ways to make such
internal assessment more credible. Performance-based assessment
provides learners to:
 get actively engaged in teaching-learning process;
of

 develop their critical thinking and problem solving skills; and

 get encouraged to learn and excel in their performance of task as
Pedagogy

they are free to originate and apply their own ideas.

Performance-based assessment consists of two parts—a task that
is open-ended and a set of learning indicators (LI) for assessment.
These two parts of assessment demonstrate product of performance
and process of performance, examples of which are depicted in
Fig. 11.3. The task may be a product, performance or extended written
response to a question that requires students to apply critical thinking
skills. A well designed performance-based programme focuses on
students’ ability to integrate what they have learnt creatively; ability
to work collaboratively and their written and oral expression skills.
Existing classroom teaching-learning activities may be transformed
into a performance-based assessment with the addition of suitable
learning indicators. Since an element of subjectivity is likely to creep
 in the assessment, a set of precisely defined criteria in the form of
350
 Tools
Performance-Based Assessment

and
involves

Techniques
Open-ended answers
written by learners
or
Products of learning Learning Indicators
which helps in

Minimising subjectivity

of
in assessment

Assessment
Product of performance Process of performance
Example Example

for
Handling Observation
Experiment Project apparatus skill

Learning Physical Science

Activity Model Measurement
skill Creativity

Oral presentation, etc.

Team spirit, etc.

Fig. 11.3 Concept map of performance-based assessment

various learning indicators may be developed by the teacher for a given

teaching-learning situation. This criteria should be content specific.
It should also respond to the particular needs and characteristics of
the students, teacher, discipline, topic and context, i.e. what works in
a given topic and class may not necessarily work in another context.
Tasks specific to these indicators help teacher communicate to
students what constitutes understanding of scientific concepts and
how to evaluate their own work, define excellence and plan how to
help students achieve it.
The purpose of assessment is necessarily to improve process
and materials of the teaching-learning. This is feasible only if teacher
is prepared with not only the tools and techniques of assessment, but
also with the learning indicators.

351
 Activity 11.3
Discuss how performance-based assessment can facilitate students in the
construction of their knowledge in science. Think–pair–share with your
friends.

11.4 Assessment Framework

A teacher is required to make several decisions during teaching-
learning process about the (i) learners’ abilities, aptitude, attitude,
Science: Physical Science

existing ideas, etc., (ii) learning objectives, approaches and strategies

to be adopted, (iii) teaching-learning materials, (iv) learning process,
(v) collecting learning evidences, (vi) tools and techniques of assessment,
(vii) recording and reporting of the assessment, etc. Teacher is also
sometimes required to select students for a particular purpose like
representing the school in state level science exhibition. She is always
interested in knowing how her students are progressing. Are they
facing any difficulty in learning? If yes, what is that difficulty? Does a
particular learner face any particular problem in learning? If so, what
measures should she take to facilitate her learning? How effective was
the transaction of teaching-learning materials? What is the degree
of achievement of the learning objectives? What modification she
has to make in teaching-learning materials and the approaches and
strategies adopted? In order to take any decision regarding the issues
mentioned above, the teacher has to make some kinds of assessment
and evaluation. Thus, it becomes important for her to plan classroom
of

assessment, so that the decisions taken on the basis of assessment

are correct and result in meaningful learning of students.
Pedagogy

We now understand that assessment is an integral part of

teaching-learning process spread out to entire teaching-learning
process and throughout the year. Therefore, making a broad plan
is required on what is the purpose of assessment, what can be
learning indicators, how assessment is to be done, how evidences of
students’ learning can be collected, how feedback can be provided at
the suitable juncture of concept formation of learners, how evidences
of their learning can be reported and how we can reflect on the
overall assessment process. This broad planning can be done by an
assessment framework.
Developing an assessment framework helps in making decision
about proper tools and techniques for the assessment of the teaching-
learning activity or task and the process of assessment. An assessment
 framework covers following main areas:
352
 Tools
A. Purpose of assessment
B. Learning Indicators (LI)

and
C. Tools and techniques of assessment
D. Recording and reporting

Techniques
E. Reflecting process
This is represented in Fig. 11.4. Notice that learner is at the centre of
the assessment throughout the process. After reflecting on the feedback
received from the learners and the learning evidences, teacher can
revisit the learning indicators.

of
A B

Assessment
Why assessment? What to assess?
 What is the purpose?  What are the learning indicators?
 Who will use the feedback?  What are the tasks specific to
learning indicators?

C
How to assess?
 What are the tools and
techniques?

for
Learning Physical Science
Learner

E D
How assessment is a How to communicate about
assessment?
reflected as well as  How to maintain the records?
reflective process?  How to report the learning
evidences?

Fig. 11.4 Assessment framework

11.4(A) Purpose of assessment
 To collect, analyse, and interpret evidences to judge the extent of
students’ learning. 
353
  To give students the feedback about their performance.
 To give feedback to the teacher about the learning gaps and
conceptual changes taking place in the students.
 Plan teaching-learning situations in more suitable way.
 Support and improve every learner’s learning and development.
 Provide evidences of learner’s progress so as to communicate the
same to parents and administrators.
 Reflect on the teaching-learning practices.

The purpose of evaluation is not­

Science: Physical Science

– to motivate children to study under threat;

– to identify or label children as ‘slow learners’, or ‘bright students’, or
‘problem children’. Such categories segregate children, placing the onus
for learning solely on them, and detract from the role and purpose of
pedagogy;
– to identify children who need remediation (this need not wait for formal
assessment. It can be detected by teacher in the course of teaching-
learning and attended to as a part of pedagogic planning, through
individualised attention);
– to diagnose learning difficulties and problem areas— while broad
indications about conceptual difficulties can be identified via evaluation
and formal testing.
Diagnosis requires special testing instruments and training. It is also
specific to foundational areas of literacy and numeracy, and is not meant
for subject areas.
–NCF 2005
of

Who will use the feedback of assessment? We have to keep in mind

Pedagogy

the purpose of assessment before discussing, and selecting learning

indicators, tools and techniques, recording and getting engaged with
reflected and reflecting process of assessment.
11.4 (B) Learning indicators (LI)
In the previous section, we have studied that comprehensive assessment
involves an all round assessment of performance and personality of
the learner, which in turn may depend on several factors. There could
be a number of performance parameters to be assessed separately
and continuously. These are called learning indicators and make the
process of assessment easier. Assessment of the indicators can throw
light on the extent and quality of performance of the learner at a given
point of time. A wide range of learning evidences can be pre-defined
 with suitably designed learning indicators.
354
 Tools
In this section, we shall discuss about learning indicators with the
help of examples.

and
Learning indicators help us in following ways:
 knowing various parameters of learning evidences of the learner

Techniques
as she progresses through the process of learning and acquisition
of process skills of science;
 monitoring formation of concepts of the learner and her progress
in different areas of learning;
 providing feedback for teaching-learning process; and
 enhancing learner’s understanding of science as well as teacher’s
understanding about learner’s understanding.

of
11.4(B).(1) Types of indicators

Assessment
In this section, a number of sets of learning indicators of science
have been suggested to facilitate the teachers in continuous and
comprehensive assessment in day-to-day teaching. These indicators
are only a broad framework. Teacher may select various learning
indicators depending on the learner’s performance and teaching-
learning experiences provided to them. In doing so, a teacher
may observe 4–5 students everyday and make a note of observations

for
regularly. Some of the indicators are coupled in order to make
assessment teacher-friendly as well as student friendly. Learning

Learning Physical Science

experiences and processes should be assessed and not only learning
products.
a. Observation and inquiry
 Observing an object, an event or a phenomenon
 Using all senses to collect information.
 Identifying similarity and differences between objects or events.
 Recognising the order/sequence that takes place in an event.
 Observing details of an object for event.
 Asking questions to get information about objects, events or
phenomenon.
 Identifying questions which can be answered by their own
investigations.
 Raising critical questions that help deeper analysis.
 Thinking critically about one’s own reasoning.
Let us take an example.
Starting the topic of the moon, Mahesh, a teacher assigns a class project
to record observations of the moon in the form of sketches with detailed

355
 descriptions regarding size, shape and position of the moon with respect
to some tree or building (Fig. 11.5).
The teacher initiates the topic of the moon by comparing the sketches
made by the students. He finds some discrepancies regarding the curve
and position of the moon. The discussion is carried out to point out
these discrepancies of the students. During this discussion, a number of
questions are raised by the students, such as:
 Why does the moon change its shape?
 Does the moon look different at different places?
 Why does it move?
Science: Physical Science

Fig. 11.5 Observing phases of the moon

of

b. Classification and experimentation

Classifying a group of objects on the basis of observable
Pedagogy


characteristics.
 Identifying similarities in groups of objects.
 Identifying differences in groups of objects.
 Grouping the objects on the basis of one characteristic at a time.
 Interacting with teacher for safety instructions.
 Following safety measures while working in the laboratory to
avoid any accident.
 Handling things, equipments with care— individually and in a
group.
 Performing activities individually or in a group in a systematic
manner.
 Using standard and non-standard measures in making
comparisons and taking readings.

 Improving and creating new things on their own.
356
 Tools
 David, a teacher at secondary stage wishes to perform an activity on the
classification of materials as metals and non-metals. He helps students

and
to collect various materials made of metals and non-metals from their
surroundings. Next day, he collects those materials from the students

Techniques
and puts them for observation and classification in the classroom.
Students observe the materials, discuss among themselves and write
some characteristics on the basis of which metals and non-metals can
be classified. They identify characteristics such as malleable, ductile,
sonorous, etc. With the help of the students, David consolidates the
general classification.

 In order to classify substances on the basis of their solubility in water

of
through experimentation, Simran suggests her students to collect a
variety of substances like sand, coal powder, salt, sugar, saw dust,

Assessment
chalk powder, washing soda, etc. Students are then asked to perform
the experiment in groups to check solubility of the given substances
in water. They write their observations in tabular form and classify
substances as soluble and insoluble in water.
c. Collection and presentation of data/recording and reporting
of data
 Discussing with others to get information.

for
 Manipulating laboratory equipments and setting up experiments.
 Reading Tables, graphs, pictures, maps with gradually increasing

Learning Physical Science

complexity.
 Reporting and narrating an event or process in oral or written
form.
The students are asked to measure the body temperature of some of their
friends (at least of 10) with a clinical thermometer. At the end, children
present this information in tabular form on charts which can be displayed
in the classroom.

d. Communication skill
 Distinguishing between opinion, facts and hypothesis.
 Expressing her ideas in her own words.
 Listening and responding to others’ ideas in a group.
 Accepting feedback from others and appreciating that others’
may have a different point of view.
 Reviewing one’s ideas according to feedback given by others.
 Defining the situation/event in her own language.
 Expressing herself through various channels (quick test/
worksheet/quiz/poster/debate/drama). 
357
 The emphasis of assessment in this indicator is to check whether a
learner can explicitly communicate her ideas orally, or in written or in
any other form. It enables the teacher to find out whether a child has
understood the concept transacted.
e. Providing explanation
 Making simple hypothesis to explain observations or
relationships.
 Recognising the need to test explanations by gathering more
Science: Physical Science

evidences.
 Explaining logical consistency of hypothesis with relevant laws,
theory and experiment.
 Proposing, validating procedure for both experiments and
activities.
 Explaining scientific phenomena with reason on the basis of
observation and experiment.
Sunanda, a teacher brings the following samples to the classroom:
Tap water, detergent solution, aerated drink, soap solution, milk of
magnesia, washing soda solution and limewater solution.
She provides pieces of blue and red litmus paper and suggests them to
test which solution is acidic and which one is alkaline in nature. Students
then tabulate their observations and put forward an explanation for the
same.

f. Drawing conclusions/inference
Making inferences based on evidence gained by experiences/
of


experiments.
Pedagogy

 Changing ideas when a different one makes better sense of

evidence.
 Treating every conclusion as being open to challenge by new
evidence.
 Identifying or predicting possible causes of any event/
phenomenon.
 Making logical connections, using evidences or patterns to make
prediction.
Gurpreet suggests her students to collect the soil from various places and
perform the activity given below:
For 2 g of soil in a test tube, add 5 mL water to it. Shake the contents
of the test tube. Filter the contents and collect the filtrate in a test tube.
Check the pH of this filtrate with the help of universal indicator paper. Also,
you can note down the name of the plants growing in the region where you
 have collected the soil.
358
 Tools
On the basis of their observations, students can draw conclusion about
the relationship between growth of plants in a particular reason and pH

and
of the soil.

g. Application to daily life/life experiences

Techniques
 Observing the surrounding environment keenly.
 Raising questions based on daily life experiences.
 Recognising relevance of the learnt material to her daily life.
 Applying the scientific concepts in novel situation to find
explanation.
 Solving problems in novel situation.

of
 Describing how technology makes our work easier.
h. Value/attitude/concern

Assessment
 Taking initiatives/responsibility in conducting collective work.
 Sharing and working with others; being considerate and helpful
towards others.
 Being aware of one’s strength and challenges.
 Having a strong sense of justice and being ready to act for a just
cause.

for
 Concern for the environment including plants and animals.
 Avoiding wastage of material, trying to reuse and recycle.
 Being sensitive towards others who may be disadvantaged or

Learning Physical Science

differently-abled.
 Being conscious of inequality in the family and society; being
able to reflect and question.
 Endeavouring to become independent learner.
These indicators reflect the personality of the learner and can be
assessed by observing the day-to-day action and behaviour of the
student. These indicators should not be assessed on point scale but
should be treated qualitatively. All students in the same classroom
may not learn in the same manner and show same learning
evidences. However, efforts can be made to consider specific instances
and provide positive feedback to each learner and her parents. For
example, when a learner uses equipment, apparatus, chemicals
carefully and asks thought-provoking questions, then such a student
should be appreciated for these qualities.
Various indicators of learning are linked to each other. One task
can assess many indicators. Also, there may be overlapping of the
indicators. Students observe, discuss, express, explain, analyse and
classify. They also question, analyse and perform experiment. They

359
 take initiative, share their ideas and help each other. Many processes
may take place together, though learners are engaged with one kind
of process more deeply at sometime. Teacher can assess the learners
in a holistic manner so as to assess more than one indicators at the
same time.
Example of performance-based assessment for an activity, oral
presentation and group work each, specifying their various parameters
have been given below.
11.4 (B).(2) Illustrations: Learning Indicators (LI)
Science: Physical Science

(i) Assessment of activity

Name of the activity: Measurement of body temperature­
How to perform:
Measure the body temperature of some of your friends (at least 5) with
a clinical thermometer and enter the data in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2 Measurement of body temperature

Name Body temperature 0C

Table 11.3 Assessment of activity

S. No. Learning Tasks specific to Checklist to

of

­Indicator­ Indicator assess the

(What can be learner
Pedagogy

assessed)­ ­
1.­
Experimenting/ Washes and wipes Yes/No­
Collecting data­ thermometer before
use­.
­ ­ Jerks the thermometer  Jerks the
to bring the level of thermometer
mercury below 35°C.­ carefully, so
that it does
not break.
 ­Brings mercury
level below 35°C­
­ ­ Places the bulb of Yes/No­
thermometer at
 appropriate place
of the body­.
360
 Tools
­ ­ Keeps there for Uses clock to
about one minute. ­ monitor time.

and
Reads the mercury Holds
level in the ­ thermometer

Techniques
thermometer. parallel to
her eyes and
the point to be
read is in front
of her eyes. ­
­ ­ Measures temperature Follows correct
of 5 students. procedure while

of
measuring
temperature of

Assessment
each student­.
­ ­ Washes and wipes Yes/No
the thermometer
before next use. ­ Yes/No
­ ­ Washes and wipes Yes/No­
the thermometer
and puts it back in Yes/No­

for
its case. ­
2.­ Presenting data­ Enters name of  Enters data in

Learning Physical Science

students and correct columns.
temperatures in  ­Fills data for all
the Table­. 5 students.
 ­­Speaks out
temperature
with unit.
3.­
Analysing data Realises that the Yes/No­
and drawing body temperature
conclusions of every person
is not the same­.
­ ­ Realises that the
temperature of
human bodies is in
the range 35–42°C­. Yes/No­
­ ­ For a healthy person,
temperature is
around 37°C­. Yes/No­

361
 4.­
Providing Answers questions  ­­Why should we
explanations­ related to the wash thermometer
procedure.­ before and after
use?­
 Why should we
bring mercury level
below 35°C?
 ­Why do we place
it under the
Science: Physical Science

tongue for one

minute?
­  Is the
temperature of
all students
the same?­
5.­ Asking questions­ Shows interest/  Why
curiosity in getting thermometer
related knowledge­. is brought in
contact with a
particular part of
the body ?
­  Why mercury
is used in
thermometer ?­
 Why Celsius
scale is used ?
of

­  What are the

other scales of
Pedagogy

measurement of
temperature ?­
6.­ Values/attitudes  Shows concern so Yes/No­
/concerns ­ that no accident
takes place­.
­ ­  Takes care to wash Yes/No­
and wipe the thermo-
meter before and after
each use­.
­ ­  Takes and records Yes/No­
temperature of 5
students honestly­.


362
 Tools
(ii) Assessment of presentation
Table 11.4 Assessment of presentation

and
(Tick mark  may be put on the relevant tasks)

Techniques
Learning
Tasks specific to indicator
Indicator ­
Grade­ A B C­ D­
Content­ Correct/ Correct/ Correct/ Correct
concise/ concise/ concise/ partially/
complete/ complete/ complete/ concise to
coherent. ­ coherent to coherent some extent/

of
some extent.­ to a very incomplete/
little extent­ mostly

Assessment
incoherent­. incoherent­.
Understand- Describes Describes all Describes Describes
ing of the all principles most of the principles
subject­ principles involved principles involved with
involved with some involved some errors/
with details details/ with little describes a few
/clearly explains details/ concepts/

for
explains all most of the explains a conveys very
relevant relevant few relevant little
concepts/ concepts/ concepts/ understanding­.

Learning Physical Science

conveys conveys conveys a
depth understan- little
in under- ding­­. understan-
standing. ding­.
Presenting­ Speaks Speaks with Speaks with Speaks
clearly with confidence/ little vaguely/avoids
confidence/ speaks kno- confidence making eye
speaks kno- wledgeably/ and contact/ no
wledgeably/ makes knowledge/ involvement of
makes eye frequent eye rarely makes classmates­.
contact/ contact/ eye contact/
involves involves involves
classmates classmates/ classmates/
/modulates modulates a speaks in
voice­. little­. monotone­.
Using visual Aids Aids Aids Aids support
aids­ support the support support presentation to
presentation presentation presentation a little extent/

363
 /organised /organised /organised organised to
/ relevant/ to some to a little some extent/
neat­. extent/neat­. extent/neat­. messy­.
Organisation­ Speaks in Speaks in Speaks in Speaks mostly
logical way logical way/ logical way/ in logical way/
/smooth smooth jerky jerky transition
transition transition transition from one
from one from one from one concept to
concept to concept to concept to other­.
other/ other/ other­.
Science: Physical Science

shows shows little

connection connection
of concepts­. of concepts­.
Creativity­ Shows Shows some Shows a Performs the
innovative- innovative- little task in
ness/ ness/ innovative- repetitive way/
explores generates ness/ generate a little
novel ways and mostly generates interest of the
/generates sustain and sustains class­.
and sustain interest of interest of
interest of the class­. the class to
the class. ­ some extent.

(iii) Assessment of group work

Table 11.5 Assessment of group work
(Tick mark  may be put on the relevant task)
of

Learning
Tasks specific to Indicator ­
Pedagogy

­Indicator
Grade­ A­ B­ C­ D
Participation­ Actively Actively Actively Actively
participates participates/ participates/ participates/
/contributes contributes a contributes a contributes
significantly lot/ little/ very little/
/volunteers volunteers volunteers rarely
work/shows work/mostly work volunteers
positive shows sometimes/ work/ rarely
attitude/ positive mostly shows shows
shows attitude/ positive positive
initiatives.­ shows attitude/ attitude­.
initiatives rarely shows
 occasionally­. initiatives­.

364
 Tools
Team spirit­ Shows team Shows team Shows little Shows very
spirit/works spirit/ team spirit/ little team

and
collaborativ- works mostly works spirit/
ely/respects collaborativ- collaboratively interacts a
other’s ideas ely/respects /respects little/

Techniques
/involves other’s ideas other’s ideas/ respects
others in /involves rarely involves other’s ideas
work­. others in others in /hardly
work work­. involves
occasionally­. others
in work­.
Democratic Allows others Allows others Allows others Sometimes

of
attitude­ to speak/ to speak/ to speak/ allows others
work/ gets work/gets work/gets to speak/

Assessment
involved in involved in involved in work/rarely
healthy healthy healthy gets involved
discussion/ discussion/ discussion in healthy
listens/ listens/ most of the discussion/
interacts to interacts to time/listens/ listens/
others/gives others/gives interacts to interacts to
weightage to weightage to others/gives others
other’s work other’s work weightage to sometimes/

for
/appreciates most of the other’s work rarely gives
other’s time / sometimes/ weightage to
contribution/ appreciates appreciates other’s work

Learning Physical Science

demonstrates other’s other’s / hardly
social values­. contribution contribution appreciates
most of the sometimes / other’s
time/ demonstrates contribution/
demonstrates little social demonstrates
social values values­. very little
most of the ­ social values­.
time.
Reflection on Facilitates Facilitates Facilitates Facilitates
collective collective collective collective collective
experiences­ decision/ decision/gets decision/gets decision/gets
gets involved involved in involved in involved in
in open open open open
discussion/ discussion discussion discussion
encourages most of the most of the occassionally
and time/ time/ /encourages
recognises encourages encourages and
multiple and and recognises
views/ recognises recognises multiple 
365
 speaks multiple multiple views rarely/
without fear views views speaks with
/unbiased/ occasionally/ sometimes / fear/biased/
constructs speaks speaks with constructs
meaning of without fear little fear/ meaning of
concept /unbiased/ unbiased/ concept
socially/ constructs constructs socially/
questions/ meaning of meaning of rarely
inquires/ concept concept questions/
debates to socially most socially/ inquires/
Science: Physical Science

arrive at a of the time/ sometimes debates to

concept/ questions/ questions/ arrive at
provides inquires/ inquires/ concept/
support debates to debates to provides
to the group­. arrive at a arrive at a little support
concept/ concept/ to the
most of the provides group.
time provids support to the
support to group.
the group. occasionally­.
Multiple Works with Works with Works with Works with
manifestation­ effective effective mostly mostly
planning/ planning/ effective effective
planning planning planning/ planning/
relates to relates to planning planning
project/ project/ relates to relates
experiment/ experiment/ project/ project/
of

activity at activity at experiment/ experiment/

hand with hand with activity at activity at
Pedagogy

contextual contextual hand with hand with

background background contextual contextual
/provides /provides background background
explanations little vaguely/ vaguely/
/always explanations provides a provides
defends her /defends her little very little
hypothesis hypothesis explanation/ explanation/
with with defends her rarely
analysis/ analysis/ hypothesis defends her
evidences evidences with analysis hypothesis
/suggests most of the /evidence with
alternatives time/suggests sometimes/ analysis/
/various alternatives suggests evidence/
ways to /various alternatives/ rarely
 interpretating ways to various suggests

366
 Tools
experiments interpretating ways to alternative
/projects/ experiments interpretating ways to

and
data/works /projects/ experiments interpretating
at a cognitive data/ /projects/ experiments

Techniques
level above sometimes data /projects/
her own­. works at a sometimes data/hardly
cognitive /rarely works works at a
level above at a cognitive cognitive
her own­. level above level above
her own­. her own­.

(iv) Assessment of collaborative learning

of
Activities, experimental work, projects, field trips and various other

Assessment
learning experiences provide an opportunity to work in groups and
help in developing a positive attitude towards group work, sharing
and learning from each other. Let us see in the following example
how assessment of participation in collaborative learning was done by
Geeta, a teacher.
After completing the Chapter Metals and non-metals, Geeta, Class VIII
teacher suggested her students to work on a common project given below.

for
“Prepare index cards for any four metals and four non-metals. The card
should have information such as name of the metal/non-metal; their
physical properties, chemical properties and their uses.”

Learning Physical Science

Geeta facilitated the class to form nine heterogeneous groups
comprising five students each.
Each group was having a leader with whom other group members
were cooperating. They all first discussed among themselves, recalled what
teacher discussed in the class and started their work. One student, wrote
name of metals and non-metals on the index cards. The second student
wrote physical properties of metals and non-metals. Third student wrote
chemical properties of metals and non-metals and the fourth one wrote
about their uses on the same index card.
After completing the task, each group leader presented the work in the
class. Geeta had kept herself free to give attention to the student, who was
not able to tackle the problems.
While evaluating the collaborative work, Geeta kept in her mind that
groups of students worked collaboratively and each group of students
contributed in one way or the other. She randomly asked questions to each
member of the group.
Geeta assessed the students on the basis of following learning indicators:
• Content knowledge of the activity/project.
• Putting forth her views with reasoning.

367
 • Proper communication skills, i.e. speaking/writing
• Respect for other members of the group.
• Proper body language while interacting.

It is reiterated that these learning indicators are suggestive, not

prescriptive. Tick mark(s) can be put on the grade or on the observed
tasks specific to the indicator of an individual learner. These can be
used for the assessment of learners’ proficiency in various activities
of learning processes. These assessment Tables help in reviewing and
revisiting the concepts. It also helps to remain focused on the task in
Science: Physical Science

refining teaching-learning experiences. The indicators can be varied,

modified or altered according to the need of the situation. It saves
time spent by a teacher on assessment. Assessment is authentic
with much scope of flexibility and consideration for a heterogeneous
classroom. Performance of the learner can be shown qualitatively or
in terms of grades in each area of learning. It also helps learners to
know their strengths and challenges. Different indicators of learning for
various learning experiences may be developed with the help of students
for providing a sense of ownership of learning to them and giving them
opportunity of self-assessment. A file with one paper sheet for each
learner can be maintained for recording the performance of students.
With proper planning and little investment of time, it can be one of the
effective tools of ongoing assessment and meaningful learning.

Activity 11.4
(i) Discuss your ideas with your classmates about the learning indicators
of

for the assessment of the assignments given to the students. You may
Pedagogy

design tasks specific to the following indicators:

Understanding, reasoning, data collection, creativity, completeness,
etc.
(ii) What indicators will you use to assess your students on their ability
to perform an experiment in the group? Identify the tasks specific to
indicators as a group work and give presentation in the class.
(iii) Select any two activities from the textbook of science of Class IX/X.
Write down learning indicators and tasks specific to indicators in
tabular form for the activities.
11.4 (C) Tools and techniques of assessment
There is a wide choice of tools and techniques of assessment. Tool is a
device to perform a task. For example, assignment, project work, field
diary, laboratory work, unit test, etc. are tools of evaluation. Technique
 is a way of doing something in a systematic way. Oral examination,
368
 Tools
written examination, practical examination, observation, self-
assessment, peer assessment-etc. are techniques of assessment.

and
Tools and techniques must evaluate not just the achievement
levels in understanding and process skills of science. Evaluation of

Techniques
the process of thinking of the learner; whether she knows where the
information could be found, and how it can be found and used and
how this information can be analysed and evaluated is also important.
Though many of the tools such as written tests, projects,
assignments, activities/experiments, field visits, etc. are being used
in schools, there are a large number of teachers who are seen not
adopting all the different tools and techniques to the extent desired,

of
thereby limiting their own understanding of the learner’s learning and
progress. Let us now discuss why different tools and techniques of

Assessment
assessment need to be used. These are required, so that:
 learning in different areas of subject and aspects of concept
development are to be assessed;
 learners are given an opportunity to be able to respond better to
one tool and technique as compared to another; and
 each tool and technique contributes in its own way to the teacher’s
understanding of student’s learning.

for
No single assessment tool or technique can provide information about
a child’s progress and learning in different areas of development.
No tool or technique is superior to other and all are viable, if used

Learning Physical Science

properly. A lot can be understood from observing students, listening
to them, discussing informally with their peers and parents as well as
talking to other teachers, reviewing their classwork and homework and
other articles made by students. We shall discuss following tools and
techniques of assessment:
(i) Written test
(ii) Project work
(iii) Field trips and field diary
(iv) Laboratory work
(v) Interview/oral test
(vi) Journal writing
(vii) Concept mapping
We shall also discuss assessment of collaborative learning that can
take place in a number of teaching-learning situations.
We all agree that every student learns differently and the teacher
is the main person who assesses student’s learning. Teacher can use
the following basic process of organising assessments, in using above
tools and techniques: 
369
  Individual assessment: It focuses on one student while she is
doing an activity/task and thus, on their individual work and
accomplishments.
 Group assessment: It focuses on the learning and progress of a
group of students working on a task together with the objective of
completing it. This method of organisation is found to be more useful
in order to assess social skills, cooperative learning processes and
other value related dimensions of a learner’s behaviour.
 Self assessment: Since assessment is part of the learning process,
students themselves can and also need to play an important
Science: Physical Science

role in assessing their own learning and progress in knowledge,

skills, interests, attitudes, etc. Teachers can help students assess
themselves by enabling them to develop a better understanding of
process of learning by involving them in critically looking at their
own work and performance.
 Peer assessment: refers to one student assessing other students.
This can be conducted in pairs or in groups.
11.4.(C).(1) Written test
(i) Preparing design of the test
Before constructing the test paper, several decisions have to be made by
the teacher/paper setter. For example, what content is to be included
in the test? What weightage is to be given to different components of
the content (units and sub units)? If major categories of the objectives
to be tested are remembring, understanding, applying and analysing,
then what weightage should be given to each of these categories? What
of

form of questions — essay, short answer and/or objective type should

Pedagogy

be given? If it is decided to use all three or more than one type, then
what should be their respective weightage? As a balanced test paper
should contain easy, average and difficult questions, what should
be the weightage of each of these? Should there be any choice in the
paper or not?
All these decisions, which have to be taken before actual
construction of the test paper, are parts of the design of a test paper.
(ii) Construction of blue prints
The next step is to prepare the blue prints. The policy decisions as
reflected in the design of the question paper are translated into action
through the blue prints. Blue print is a table which facilitates the
teacher/paper setter to decide as to how many questions are to be set,
marks assigned for different objectives and also that under which unit
 a particular question is to be set. It also depicts marks assigned for
370
 Tools
each question, form of each question and their difficulty level.
A sample form of the blue print is given below.

and
Subject ___________ Total Marks ___________
Class ___________ Time ___________

Techniques
1. Weightage to constituent units
Generally, all the units/sub units, selected for the test are neither of
equal length nor equally important from teaching-learning or subject
point of view. Some are more difficult compared to others. Thus, all units
may not be given equal weightage. In order to decide the weightage, the
paper setter has to use his/her own wisdom, unless the examination

of
body (board, etc.) has already provided the weightage. One guiding
principle to decide the weightage could be the time spent on teaching a

Assessment
particular unit/sub unit. For example, if 10 periods have been spent on
unit A and 5 on unit B, the weightage to A may be double to that of B.
2. Weightage to learning objectives
Again the weightage to each objective has to be decided in relation
to content area selected for the test. Generally, if we have selected a
representative area of the total content, weightage to remembering,

for
understanding, applying and analysing can be assigned depending upon
the nature of the content. Higher order abilities can also be included
and given due weightage.

Learning Physical Science

Now we can prepare the blue print depicting weightage to constituent
units and weightage to learning objectivies as shown in Table 11.6.
Table 11.6 Weightage to constituent units and learning objectives
S.No. (Unit/ Marks Percentage Objective
Sub Unit) 50 (say) of marks
Remembering Understanding Applying Analysing Total
1. A 10 20 2 (say) 3 3 2 10
2. B 15 30
3. C 15 30
4. D 10 20
Total 50 (say) 100

3. Weightage to types/forms of questions

Types/forms of questions can be of long answer, short answer, very
short answer or objective (selection type). However , long answer, 
short answer and very short answers are relative terms and could be
371
 determined only in relation to the content area and standard of the
class. Number of each type of questions is decided and marks assigned
for each question is written as shown in Table 11.7.
Table 11.7 Weightage to types/forms of questions

S.No. Type/Form of question Marks for each No. of questions Total marks
1. Long Answer (LA) 5(say) 3 15
2. Short Answer (SA) 3 5 15
3. Very Short Answer (VSA) 2 6 12
Science: Physical Science

4. Objective (Selection Type) 1 8 8

Total - 22 50

4. Weightage to time and length of the questions

Actual length of a particular type of question and number of questions
of that type have to be decided by keeping the total time in mind. It
would therefore be advisable to budget time properly.
Table 11.8 Weightage to time and length of the questions

S.No. Type / Form Marks for Expected Expected

of question each time for each length of each
question question question
(Minutes) (No. of words/
sentences)
of

1. Long Answer (LA) 5 15 2-3 pages

2. Short Answer (SA)
Pedagogy

3. Very Short Answer (VSA)

4. Objective (Selection type)

5. Weightage to difficulty level

Table 11.9 Weightage to difficulty level

S. No. Difficulty level Marks Percentage of marks

1. Difficult 15 30
2. Moderately difficult
3. Easy

The terms used above (difficult, moderately difficult, easy) are in fact
 relative. No question can be called easy, only it may be easier compared
372
 Tools
to other questions. However, as a guiding principle, following criteria
could be used:

and
 An easy question is the one, which could be answered correctly by a
student who has gone through the content once or twice, although

Techniques
not in a systematic manner.
 A moderately difficult question is the one, which could be answered
correctly by those students only who have gone through the content
in a very systematic manner.
 A difficult question is the one, which could be answered correctly
by those students only who have gone through the content in a
systematic manner and their learning is well organised. Questions

of
testing deeper understanding and novel applications generally fall
in this category.

Assessment
6. Scheme of options
Generally, one should refrain from providing options in a question
paper. If an option has to be provided, one should make sure that among
the options provided they should be equivalent as far as possible. It
should be ensured that the questions are from the same content area,
have same objective, have same difficulty level and are of the same

for
form, otherwise the weightage allotted to each of these will be disturbed.
Table 11.10 Scheme of options

Learning Physical Science

S.No. Type /Form Total Number Marks allotted
of Questions In question To be In question To be
paper answered paper answered
1. Long Answer 4 (say) 3 20 15
2. Short Answer
3. Very Short Answer
4. Objective (Selection
type)

Now a comprehensive blue print can be prepared by combining all the

blue prints, that have been given above.

BLUE PRINT

Examination ___________ Subject/Unit ___________

Class ___________ Time ___________
Maximum Marks ___________ 
373
 Table 11.11 A blue print

Subject Remembering Understanding Applying Analysing Total

Forms LA SA VSA ST LA SA VSA ST LA SA VSA ST LA SA VSA ST LA SA VSA ST
of QS TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM TM
Unit/ (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. (No. No.
Sub of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of
Unit Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs) Qs)
A 5(1) –– 2(1) 2(2)
B
C
Science: Physical Science

D
Total
Total 50(22), say.

All columns can be filled up with total marks and number of questions under
each heading. 5(1), 2(1) and 2(2) indicate one LA type question of 5 marks;
1 VSA question of 2 marks and two ST question of 1 mark each respectively.
50(22) indicates that there are twenty two questions in all for maximum
marks 50.

Abbreviations
LA: Long answer SA: Short answer VSA: Very short answer
ST: Selection type TM: Total marks
No. of Qs: Number of questions.
Summary
Long answer Qs ........... Marks
of

Short Answer Qs ........... Marks

Pedagogy

Very Short Answer Qs ........... Marks

Supply type Qs ........... Marks
Difficult Qs ........... Marks
Moderately difficult Qs ........... Marks
Easy Qs ........... Marks
Scheme of options ........... questions e.g. Internal choice in two long
answer type.
Scheme of section ........... questions e.g. Section A and Section B.
This blue print is merely suggestive. The individual teacher is free to design
it according to needs of the learners.

Activity 11.5
Analyse a question paper of physics/chemistry of final examination and
 make a blue print of the question paper.
374
 Tools
Activity 11.6

and
Fill up the Table 11.11 and based on this blue print set up a question
paper of 100 marks in physics/chemistry of three hours duration at higher
secondary stage.

Techniques
(iii) Writing questions
After preparing the blue print, we start writing questions according to
the blue prints. For example, if we know from the blue print that from
Unit 1, we have to prepare four objective type questions, one each for
testing remembering, understanding, applying and analysing and two

of
of them should be easy and two moderately difficult, then we proceed
accordingly.

Assessment
After writing the questions in this manner, questions of one type
should be clubbed together, preceeded by specific instruction, e.g.,
if they are short answer type questions, then indicate the length of
expected answer in instruction. If there is any option provided, indicate
that also.
Above we have just outlined one possible way of constructing
questions according to the blue prints prepared. You can follow any

for
order.
We have named various types of questions as long answer type
(which is also called essay type), short answer type, very short answer

Learning Physical Science

type, etc. These are supply type questions as students have to supply
the answers. A different form of objective type question is selection type,
as students have to select the correct answer from the choices provided.
It can have different forms. Let us now briefly discuss about them.
1. Long answer type
There are certain outcomes of learning (e.g. organising, summarising,
integrating ideas and expressing in one’s own words) which can be best
measured by long answer type questions alone.
Long answer type questions could be divided into following
categories:
Restricted response type: In this form of long answer questions, limit
is imposed by restricting the content and length of expected answer in
the statement of the question. Restricted response type items are quite
useful for testing learning outcomes which require interpretation and
application that are specific and clearly defined in nature.
Extended response type: In this form of long answer questions, no
limit is imposed and student is given full freedom to write any number 
375
 of pages and organise the material according to her choice. There is
enough freedom to select, integrate, evaluate and express in any way
one likes. Such questions are also useful for measuring broad abilities
of learners.
Long answer type questions are deceptively easy to construct, but
are difficult to score.
Open-ended type: Open-ended questions can be very useful in evaluating
the creativity and innovativeness in students. These type of questions
also help students to be imaginative and think divergently and can
Science: Physical Science

provide scope to apply their knowledge, which varies from individual

to individual. They provide space to generate and express individual
thoughts and ideas in a variety of ways.
Example: Suggest some ways of managing/recycling waste plastics.
Open-ended type questions could be even fictitious, as long as
it serves the purpose for which it is used. For example, in order to
underline the importance of nitrogen in air, we could set question
like, what are the various consequences if air had only oxygen, but no
nitrogen? Open-ended questions often bring out surprising answers
from students. We can also ask the way an experiment could be
designed, an apparatus to be fabricated, etc.

Activity 11.7
Select any chapter of your choice from the textbook of science/physics/
chemistry. Make two questions on each of the following long answer type:
(i) Restricted response type (ii) Extended response type
of

(iii) Open-ended type

Exchange the questions with your classmates and discuss and justify how
Pedagogy

these questions can be classified as restricted response, extended response

and open-ended response types.

2. Short answer type

Short answer type questions, if skilfully prepared, can test with
reasonable accuracy many aspects of learning in terms of subject
matter, abilities and skills. Answers to these questions are rather
specific. Thus, they can easily provide the feedback to the teacher
essential for observation of students’ misconceptions and naive
concepts for effective teaching-learning.
Although there are many forms of short answer type questions, their
common features are:
 They usually take a short time (1-5 minutes) to read and answer.
  They include some guidance on the extent of the answer required,
376
 Tools
e.g. specific instruction such as ‘answer in not more than 10 words’
regarding length of answer sentences or required space in the

and
answersheet are provided.
3. Objective type questions

Techniques
Constructing a good quality objective type question requires skills and
practice. Objective type questions can be of supply type or selection type.
Some of the points to be taken into consideration for the construction
of such question are discussed below.
3(a) Supply type objective questions
Following points are worth consideration in constructing these types
of questions:

of
 While using any form (short answer or completion) of supply type

Assessment
one has to be 100% certain that one and only one word (or group of
words) can fill the blank correctly or is the correct answer. This is
most distinguishing characteristic of an objective type test item that
ensures its objectivity in scoring. If a blank can be correctly filled
by two different words, such an item should never be constructed.
For example, What type of wave is light? (short answer)
Light is…. wave. (Completion type question)
Now the answer to the above question could be transverse as well as

for
electromagnetic. Both are correct. This is, therefore, not an approprite
example.

Learning Physical Science

 Who is the discoverer of Theory of relativity? Or, Theory of Relativity
was given by.... The correct response is Albert Einstein and the
item has been constructed to test the knowledge of the name of the
discoverer of Theory of Relativity.
What would you do with these answers to the same question?
(a) Einstein (b) A. Einstein (c) E.A.
The subjectivity in deciding which response of the above should be given
full marks could be eliminated by providing two blank spaces in a single
item. One mark should be allotted for filling each blank separately.
 While using fill in the blank type, care should also be taken that clue
to the answer is not provided by the construction of the sentence.
Example - An .... is used to measure current.
Use of the word ‘An’, automatically gives a clue the word begins with
a vowel. This type of error in constructing question may occur in
selection type objective questions also, but chances increase in fill up
the blank type.
Thus, it is advisable that supply type questions should only be used
in places where the learning evidence cannot be obtained by selection 
377
 type items and even there, care must be taken that the student is
required to supply an answer as brief as possible.

Activity 11.8
Do you think supply type questions are suitable for assessment of students
at higher secondary stage? Think-pair share your ideas in the class.

3(b) Selection type objective questions

Clear/unambiguous instruction
Science: Physical Science

Items of each of true/false, multiple choice and matching type should

be separately clubbed in an objective type test paper and preceded by
a clear cut unambiguous instruction to the student, so that they know,
how they are expected to indicate their preference. This becomes even
more important if computer is to be used for scoring.
In order that they mark their answers at the right place, it is necessary
that space be provided for putting a  (right) or  (wrong) and properly
explained in the instruction.
Oxygen helps in burning. 
Water is an element. 
Illutrating with an example to clarify the instructions for answering
the questions will be helpful to the student.
Some important points which should be kept in mind while
constructing a true/false type item are:
 Avoid broad general statements.
of

Broad general statements are generally false unless qualified and the
use of qualifiers provide clue to the answer.
Pedagogy

Poor example: All substances expand on heating

Poor example: All solids usually change into liquids on heating to a
certain temperature.
The first one is false, because water is an exception and second
is although true, but the word ‘usually’ provides a clue. Words like
generally, usually, commonly, often, etc. are likely to appear in true
statement.
 Avoid long complex sentences and use of words which are not likely
to be a part of students’ vocabulary.
 Avoid including two ideas in one statement.
Poor example: A worm cannot see, because it has simple eyes. 
The item has been marked , because worm does not have simple eyes.
 But a student can mark it , because he feels a worm can see.
378
 Tools
 The number of true statements and false statements should be
approximately equal.

and
Some students have a tendency to mark tick  when in doubt,
whereas some students have a tendency to mark cross  when in

Techniques
doubt. Neither response set should be favoured by overloading the test
with items of one type.
Multiple choice questions (MCQ)
Instruction and examples for MCQ can be given as illustrated below.
For each of the questions given below, 4 possible answers A, B, C,
D are given. Only one of them is correct. Put the letter of the answer

of
you consider correct in the box given at the end.
Example: Which is the element having maximum hardness?

Assessment
A. Diamond
B. Steel
C. Calcium
D. Manganese
We know that a multiple choice item has a stem, a few (2-5) distractors
and one key (can be more than 1 to increase the difficulty level). Key
(s) is the correct answer.

for
All selection type items are basically multiple choice items. In case
of T/F multiplicity is just 2 whereas the multiplicity increases in a
multiple choice item. In the above example, as there are four choices,

Learning Physical Science

multiplicity is 4 and becomes maximum in matching the column type
questions. For example, if column A has 5 entries and column B has
7 entries, then for each entry in column A, there are seven choices
with which it can be matched. Here the multiplicity is 7. Therefore,
the form in which the question is constructed also has an impact on
its difficulty level.
A question when asked in a T/F form is the simplest and a matching
type format is the most difficult form for the same question. Thus, by
changing its form we can make a question more or less difficult.
Constructing multiple choice questions
Let us now discuss in detail the form of a good MCQ.
 The most crucial element in a multiple choice item is its distractors.
As the name signifies, distractors are included to distract the
student who is not sure of the correct response (key) and is trying
to guess the correct response. Answer to some questions which the
constructor of MCQ has to find are:
(i) How many distractors should be used?

(ii) How should they be placed in a particular multiple choice item,
379
 i.e. A, B, C should be distractors and D the key or any other
permutation?
(iii) How permutation should be used for deciding percentage of the
key in a particular place, i.e. how many questions will have A, B,
C or D as the key and in what sequence?
 Same number of distractors should be used in all the items in a
given test paper.
 The key to the quality of a multiple choice item is the quality of
distractors used in the question. In an ideal MCQ, each distractor
should have equal power to distract the students.
Science: Physical Science

Let us consider the following example:

Which of the following has lowest liquification temperature?
(A) Helium
(B) Nitrogen
(C) Carbon dioxide
(D) Ice
In this item distractor ‘D’ will be opted only by those students who do
not know that substances found in liquid state at room temperature
have higher liquification temperature than those found in gaseous state.
Chances are that none or very few students will be distracted by this
alternative and though apparently there are three distractors, effectively
there are only two distractors. Moreover the student who is opting for
B or C and the student who is opting for D are not at the same level of
ignorance, although both are incorrect. Thus, it is imperative that all
distractors have the same distracting power.
of

 The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should

present a definite problem.
Pedagogy

A poor example
Latent heat
A. is a form of heat transfer.
B. does not depend on the nature of substance.
C. is so called, because it is hidden in the substance.
D. is the quantity of heat required to change one gram of substance at
its transition point.
A better example
Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to change
A. total mass of substance from one state to another.
B. total mass of substance from one state to another at its transition
point
C. unit mass of substance from one state to another at room temperature.
D. unit mass of substance from one state to another at its transition
 point.
380
 Tools
 All of the alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the
stem of the item.

and
A poor example
An electric transformer can be used

Techniques
A. for storing up electricity
B. to increase or decrease the AC voltage
C. to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
D. to change AC to DC
A better example
An electric transformer can be used to
A. store electricity
B. increase or decrease voltage of AC

of
C. convert electrical energy into mechanical energy
D. change AC to DC

Assessment
 The relative length of the alternative should not provide a clue to
the answer.
 In order to avoid guessing, alternatives should be arranged according
to some criteria. For example, if alternatives are numbers, arrange
them in descending or ascending order.
Constructing matching type items

for
As it has been stated above that in a matching type item for each entry
in column A, all entries in column B should be plausible alternatives.

Learning Physical Science

There should be an unequal number of entries in column A and B.
Further, there should not be a clue in the alternatives for a particular
entry in column A.
Poor example
Column A Column B
1. Formula for hydrochloric acid (a) ampere
2. Unit of electric current (b) Ammeter
3. Instrument which measures current (c) Voltmeter
4. Formula for sulphuric acid (d) HCl
5. Unit of potential difference (e) H2 SO4
(f) volt

As there are only two formulae in column B, there are only two
alternatives for entries 1 and 4 in column A. Similar is the case for
other entries in column A.
Drawing
Assessment of drawing may be part of any type of written questions or 
it may be assessed as a separate question. Students may be asked to :
381
 draw the diagram

correct the diagram

 complete the diagram
 label the diagram
so that their knowledge can be assessed, even if the students are poor
in language or communication. Diagrams can effectively test their
skills in drawing, labelling and practical knowledge. Drawing clear
and labelled diagrams facilitate understanding of many concepts.
For example, drawing ray diagrams, electric circuit diagrams help
in understanding a number of concepts of ray optics and current
Science: Physical Science

electricity, respectively. Drawings can effectively handle various social

problems like environmental problems and gender issues in an informal
way and reinforce such values without making any hue and cry.

Activity 11.9
Construct one poor example and one good example both for the following
types of questions (for any stage of learning, i.e. upper primary, secondary
or higher secondary stage):
 Supply type question.
 Selection type question (with two choices).
 Selection type question (with four choices).
 Matching type question.
Share your work with your friend and critically review each other’s work.

Activity 11.10
(i) Prepare blue prints for a chapter of your choice from Class X Science
of

textbook.
(ii) Construct test items according to the blue prints prepared in the above
Pedagogy

activity (i).

We know that in order to achieve all the learning objectives of science

that we have discussed in Chapter–4, classroom teaching-learning is
not enough. Paper-pencil test that we learnt to construct in this section
cannot be the only tool.
In the following sections, we describe some of the learning
experiences, which a science teacher can plan along with the classroom
activities for achieving those objectives. Further, the methods to assess
these learning experiences are also explained in some detail. Before
that, let us perform an activity.
Activity 11.11
Critically examine the exercise questions given in a textbook of Science/
 Physics/Chemistry in the light of discussion we had above. Do you think
382
 Tools
all questions are well constructed? If not, refine them and present a report
of your analysis.

and
11.4(C).(2) Project work

Techniques
What is a project work?
Mr. Atul was discussing Rusting of iron in Class VII. He said, “Moist air
is necessary for rusting of an iron nail.” One of the students asked him,
“Would iron nail rust, if kept in boiled water?”
How should Mr. Atul respond to the student’s question? Should the
teacher tell the answer to the question immediately or he should provide
the student the opportunity to investigate the answer to his question on

of
his own? The obvious solution to this situation is the science project.
Mr. Atul assisted the student in the design and use of apparatus for this

Assessment
investigation at a convenient time of regular period.
They took three bottles with wide mouth and labelled them as A, B and
C. They filled bottle A with ordinary tap water, bottle B with water which
they have boiled for several minutes and bottle C with the same boiled water
and a teaspoonful of cooking oil added to it. In each bottle they put a few
similar iron nails, so that they were completely dipped in the water. All the
three bottles contained equal amount of liquid. They placed these bottles

for
away for a few days. After a few days they took out nails from each bottle
and observed them. At the end, the teacher however, planned a special
period during which the student could present his findings in the class.

Learning Physical Science

If we analyse the above given example, we find that:
 the teacher has been able to provide a learning experience to a student’s
individual interest.
 The student was given an opportunity to present his findings to the class.
 The student’s search for knowledge has not been cut short due to time
restrictions.

Usually children of this age hesitate or feel shy while giving oral
presentation of their project reports. Science teacher can provide
extensive practice in oral presentations. Teacher can set aside time
at the beginning or end of periods for oral presentations. Students
should always be ready to answer questions asked by teachers and
other members of the class. By facing their audience, students can
develop self-confidence and communication skills. Teacher should
also encourage students to use as much visual materials as possible
while presenting orally. Visual materials give a sense of confidence to
the speaker and also hold attention of the class.
After going through the above example, we can say, a project work
is a planned and definitely formulated piece of study involving a 
383
 task or problem taken up by the learner either individually or in a
group, to supplement and apply classroom and laboratory learning.
It follows the approach of Learning by Doing and Learning by Living.
Project work attempts to promote problem solving, creativity and
spirit of inquiry in science.
Project work is a more or less open-ended activity and its type depends
on the nature of the task.
Science: Physical Science

Students can do project work individually or in group

Selecting a project
 Students may choose a project depending on their abilities,
enthusiasm and interests. However, the complexity of the project,
of

availability of the material resources, and time available to finish

the project shall always influence the selection of task.
Pedagogy

 The situations which can raise suitable questions amongst the

students are identified. Such situations may be arrived at through
libraries, laboratories, magazines, discussions, field trips, print and
electronic media, internet, science journals, etc.
 The working on a chosen project must first include the tentative
objectives that might be attained. The execution of the task must
be properly planned. It is advised that the project team keeps a
complete record of work including the choice of project, planning,
discussions held, distribution of work assigned to different team
members, references and books consulted, observations, difficulties
faced, guidance sought, etc.
Types of project
The nature of a project work may be categorised on the basis of tasks
 involved.
384
 Tools
 Practical tasks: In which the emphasis is given on actual construction
of material such as model making.

and
 Appreciation: In this type various direct experiences, such as reading
or listening stories, etc. are involved.

Techniques
 Problem solving: In which the purpose is to solve a problem involving
the intellectual processes.
 Acquisition of a skill: In which the emphasis is aimed to attain
a certain degree of skill, such as designing and performing
experiments, and activities.
Following approaches may be adopted in taking up a project work:
 building apparatus/model;
 performing experiments;

of
 carrying out survey;

Assessment
 observing nature;
 using and interpreting available data;
 doing field work;
 engagement in exploration; and
 generation of information, etc.

Activity 11.12
Give example of each of the above approach of taking up a project using a

for
textbook at upper primary/secondary/higher secondary stage.

Learning Physical Science

Technical and academic guidance
 This is an important factor for smooth running of the project work.
Students should plan for the project well in advance and discuss
its design with the teacher. If improvisation of the apparatus or
some instruments is needed or a chemical is not available in the
laboratory, the help of teacher may be taken.
 If some academic guidance is required, help may be taken not only
from concerned subject teacher but also from other science teachers
as well.
 If a project work is carried out in the laboratory, the arrangements
should be made in such a way that at a given time all students
of the class are not involved in doing the laboratory work. Some
students may be engaged in collecting references in the library or
doing calculation while others may design experiments.
 Problem may arise in carrying out the long-term experiments such as
corrosion, fermentation, etc. in the laboratory. It is suggested to have
a separate bench in the laboratory, where long-term experiments
can best be set up for storing the samples of certain chemicals and 
385
 apparatuses relevant to the project work or cardboard boxes, with
student’s name written on them.
 Many students work at home. If parents understand the importance
of project work, they sometimes help their children with the required
facilities. Many students attend summer camps or attend some
camps orgainsed by science centres during vacation time.
Reporting and recording of the project work
Some form of reporting on project is needed so that entire class can
Science: Physical Science

benefit from the experiences of those who has worked on the project.
It is also essential to record the actual observation in the project work.
Students should be encouraged to record the negative results also. A
general format for writing the project report is suggested below.
 Title of project reflecting objectives
 Principles used for investigation
 Apparatus and materials required.
 Improvisation, if any
 Procedure
 Observations and calculations
 Conclusion
 Precautions
 Result and discussion
 Suggestions for further investigations
 References
of

To illustrate the format outlined above, sample project reports are

Pedagogy

presented for upper primary, secondary and higher secondary stages.

Example: Project Work At Upper Primary Stage

Collect weather reports of seven successive days in the winter months
(preferably December). Collect similar reports for the summer months
(preferably June). Now, collect the data for sunrise and sunset time as
shown in Table 11.12.

Table 11.12 Observation of sunrise and sunset time

December June
Date Sunrise Sunset Date Sunrise Sunset
time time time time
....
 ....

386
 Tools
Example : A Project at Secondary Stage

and
Objective
To identify biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials (wastes) in the
environment.

Techniques
Theory
It is important to recognise that the terms like biodegradable and non-
biodegradable materials referred herein pertain to ‘wastes’ produced by
human activities. These ‘wastes’ if not disposed of efficiently will cause
excessive accumulation and pollute water, land and soil. The wastes range
from human and farm excreta, industrial sewage, pesticides and herbicides,
empty cans, bottles and jars, metal and plastic cups, polyethyene bags and

of
jars, paper, discarded machinery parts, etc. Wastes also accumulate in the
form of refuse from kitchen and vegetable markets, gardens, agricultural

Assessment
and farmlands, etc. The list is very long, but for the sake of convenience and
from ecosystem point of view, wastes are categorised into biodegradable and
non-biodegradable. In an ecosystem apart from producers and consumers,
there is another group of heterotrophic organism collectively referred to
as decomposers that consist chiefly of bacteria and fungi which degrade
and digest dead plants and animal material. All such materials which
are degraded and decomposed by decomposers are called biodegradable
wastes. Such wastes are easily manageable by a natural process or in waste

for
treatment plants and can be turned into useful resources ( for example,
biogas plants, etc.). A large variety of waste materials produced by man and

Learning Physical Science

industry, either, do not degrade (polythene, plastic, glass etc.) or degrade
very slowly only by decomposers (for example, DDT). Such wastes are called
as non-biodegradable materials. Their constant accumulation especially in
highly populated urban areas is proving to be a great health hazard and
the biggest obstacle for clean living. This study is aimed to distinguish
between the two types of materials.
Materials required
Sample of waste materials available in the garden, kitchen market, cowshed,
etc. A spring balance, a pair of hand gloves, two plastic bags (10" x 6") and
nylon thread.
Procedure
1. Collect a handful of following samples from your nearby surroundings.
Use a pair of gloves while handling the samples to prevent injury or
infection. The samples could be vegetable matter, animal and fish
remnants, bamboo pieces, cardboard pieces, straw, paper, leaves,
pieces of glass, cowdung, pieces of cloth, food leftovers, twigs, bark,
thermoplastic wastes, fruit peelings, pieces of plastic plates, rubber
and plastic tubing, small pieces of ceramic pot, DDT powder, etc.

387
 2. Sort out small samples (5g each) of waste from plant and animal sources
(for example, vegetable matter, leaves, twigs, cardboard pieces, paper,
cowdung, etc.).
3. Likewise sort out small samples (5g each) of waste materials from other
than plant and animal sources (for example, plastic caps, pieces of
plastic tubes, polythene, glass, metal can, ceramic pieces, etc).
4. With the help of a sharp knife, cut all the samples into very small
fragments and mix them thoroughly into separate heaps ‘A’ (of samples
in step 2) and ‘B’ ( of samples in step 3).
5. Mark the polythene bags ‘A’ and ‘B’ with waterproof ink.
Science: Physical Science

6. With the help of a nail, pierce several small holes in each polythene
bag. Fill the two samples ‘A’ and ‘B’ in their respective bags marked
‘A’ and ‘B’. Tie their mouths firmly with nylon thread.
7. Using a spring balance, weigh each bag separately and note their initial
weight.
8. Now bury the two sample bags in a shallow pit of appropriate size dug
out in the corner of a garden. Fill the pit with soil.
9. After three or four weeks, remove the bags intact from the pit, clean
them thoroughly to remove any soil from the surface of the bags (don’t
use water for cleaning).
10. Dry the bags in open sunlight.
11. Weigh the two bags again and find the difference between their initial
and final weight. Record your observations in the Table 11.13.

Table 11.13 Weights of the Samples

Initial weight Final weight Loss of weight
Sample A
of

Sample B
Pedagogy

12. Open the bags and transfer the contents separately on two sheets
of paper and observe the physical changes in the samples that have
occurred during the period of their burial in the pit.
Observations
At the end of the study determine
1. Which sample has substantial loss of weight?
2. Can various components in bags containing samples ‘A’ and ‘B’ be easily
identified?
3. Has the colour and texture of the components of samples ‘A’ and ‘B’
changed?
Discussion
Sample ‘A’ contained waste materials of plant and animal origin. When
 buried they were subjected to decomposition by soil microorganisms.

388
 Tools
The complex organic matter was decomposed to simpler compounds
some of which leaked out through the pores into the soil. Some material

and
were partially decomposed (like twigs, bark, petioles and veins) while the
soft tissues of leaves and dead animals were completely decomposed. It
is because of this reason that a substantial loss of weight had occurred

Techniques
in sample ‘A.' The weight of sample ‘B’ remains unchanged, because no
component in the sample could be decomposed by the microorganisms.
Conclusion
It is concluded that all the different types of material in bag ‘A’ were bio-
degradable while in bag ‘B’ the samples were non biodegradable.

of
Example : A Project at Higher Secondary Stage
Objective

Assessment
To estimate the concentration of acids present in different tea samples and
the effect of addition of acids or bases on the colour of tea extract.
procedure
1. Estimation of concentration of acids present in tea
Weigh 10 g of the sample tea leaves (say 8 samples) and prepare the
extract of each sample separately in 200 mL of distilled water. For this,
boil different samples of tea leaves with distilled water for a fixed time

for
period.
Take 5mL of tea extract in a conical flask and dilute it with 20mL

Learning Physical Science

of distilled water. Shake the solution well for homogeneous mixing and
then titrate it against M/50 NaOH solution using phenolphthalein as an
indicator. Similarly titrate other tea extracts with M/50 NaOH solution.
Calculate the concentration of acids present in different samples of tea
leaves in terms of molarity. If colour of the extract causes problem, then
tea extract can be taken in the burette and sodium hydroxide solution
in the conical flask. Phenolphthalein may be used as an indicator if
sodium hydroxide solution is taken in flask. The colour change will be
from pink to colourless.
2. Effect of acids and bases on the colour of tea extract
Take five filter paper strips and mark them as A,B,C,D and E. Dip all
the strips in any sample of tea extract and then take them out. Now
put two drops of dilute HCl, acetic acid solution, NaOH solution and
NH4OH solution on the strips A, B, C and D, respectively. Compare
the change in colour of these strips with reference to the colour of the
strip E. Repeat the experiment with other samples of tea extract.
Discussion: The extracts of different tea samples contain different
amount of acids. The quantity of NaOH solution required for
neutralisation will depend upon the acid present in the tea extract. The 
389
 tritration of various extract samples with standard solution NaOH gives
the amount of acids present in the given sample in terms of molarity.

It may be noted that sample reports given above serve merely as a

guidelines while writing the projects. By no means, it is exhaustive
and is open to further improvements.
Recognition of the projects
After completing the project, usually students want a few words of
praise from the teacher. Recognition means enhanced status in the
Science: Physical Science

eyes of classmates, parents, other teachers and society.

Report of this project can be displayed in the class using a chart.
Projects which are of general interest can be displayed during school
assembly where parents can also be invited. Sometimes radio and
television reporters visit schools to record the activities of the students.
They also invite students to bring their projects to the stations for
interviews.
Superior or outstanding or innovative projects should get a chance
to enter regional, state and national competitions, where they talk to
experts who point out strengths and weaknesses of their work. Students
should be encouraged to publish the write-up of their project in school
newspaper/newsletter/journal.
Assessing the project work
Generally, following set of learning indicators is used to assess a science
project (see Table 11.14).
of

Table 11.14 Assessment of project work

Pedagogy

Learning Indicators (LI) Tasks specific to indicators

Creativity  How unique is the project?
 Is the project age appropriate
and within the cognitive level
of the child?
 Is it student’s original idea or
suggested by parent or a
teacher or a senior student.
Understanding of the topic  Understanding of the objectives
of the project.
 Investigation of the literature
for the project.
 Mention of references/

390
 Tools
bibliography used in the
project.

and
Investigative procedure  Suitable answers to the original
questions.

Techniques
 Appropriateness of the
procedure.
 Completeness of information
collected.
 Accuracy of the conclusions.
Quality of the project  How organised is the display
display of the project?
Are Tables, graphs and

of

illustrations used effectively in
interpreting data?

Assessment
 Are conclusions justified on the
basis of experimental data?
 Is the help of the group
members, teachers, parents
and others acknowledged?
Presentation  Is there clarity in the written
and oral presentation regarding

for
their investigation?
 Were they able to communicate
clearly the nature of problem

Learning Physical Science

and how they could arrive at
the conclusion.
 How did they respond to the
answers and questions raised
by the class and the teacher
related to their project?

Each project should be evaluated on its own merits and not in

competition with other projects. Ability, interest and background of the
student should be given full consideration while evaluating the project.
Teacher should write comments and suggestions about each project
while evaluating it. It encourages students to further improve quality
of their projects.

Activity 11.13
What criteria would you keep in mind in the identification of a project?
Identify the concepts from the textbook of science/physics/chemistry
that you would like to transact through project work. Make a list of those 
391
 projects. Discuss in a group how will you assess those project works on
the basis of tasks specific to learning indicators?

11.4(C).(3) Field trips and field diary

This was my first experience when I told my students of Class VII that “Today
weather is pleasant and we can plan an outdoor class”. I took them to a
nearby farmland in Gurgaon and told them to collect the soil samples. I also
told them to collect the flowers such as China rose, Petunia, Hydrangea, etc.
from the nearby garden. I gave them an opportunity to talk to the farmers,
Science: Physical Science

regarding the issues related with treatment of the soil in any manner. They
noted down all the information in their field diary, which they had taken
along with them. On coming back to school, they tested the nature of the
soil samples by using different natural and manmade indicators and noted
down their observations in the field dairy. Later on, there was discussion
in the classroom about the observations recorded by the students.
Same kind of field trip I planned with Class X students. They also
collected soil samples and they found the pH of these soil samples by using
universal indicator.
I raised following questions to evaluate the students:
1. Which natural indicators did you use to test the nature of soil samples?
2. Was the nature of soil acidic/basic/neutral?
3. Was the pH of the soil above 7 or below 7?
4. What can you conclude about the ideal soil pH for the growth of the
plants in that region?
I observed that students were actively involved in learning.
– Experience of a teacher
of

Field trips are actually the first-hand study of many things which
cannot be brought into the classroom.
Pedagogy

A well planned field experience can be the most powerful educational

tool for the teacher as we have discussed in Chapter 9 Community
Resources and Laboratory (section 9.3.2). A field visit should be viewed
as innovative activity. A well organised field trip enriches educational
experiences of all students learning with different paces and styles.
Students should know well in advance that where they are going; why
are they going; and what are they going to do, etc.
Mr. Rampal showed Class VIII students operation of fire extinguisher in
the school ground because the activity was too messy a to be performed
in the classroom.

Some field experiences need only a few minutes for completion and
can be done within the limit of a class period. Like in the above
 example, the activity was conducted in the school ground. Usually less
392
 Tools
preparation and planning are required if visits are arranged within
school boundaries.

and
Some schools arrange field trips that can be as short as a few hours.
Most commonly, students are taken to zoos, planetariums, museums,

Techniques
botanical gardens, hospitals and factories.
While evaluating, the teacher should:
 see whether the students are able to relate the field experience
to the concept that had already been discussed in the classroom.
Teacher should set problems, experiments, review content on the
basis of field trip;
 check the observations written by the students in their field diary;
and

of
 initiate the discussion about what all they have noted in their field

Assessment
diary and what all they have learnt from the field trip.

Activity 11.14
(i) Take any textbook of science/physics/chemistry. Identify the concept
for the transaction of which you would like to take your students to field
visit. (ii) Do you think you need to make a plan to keep their observation
focused only on the relevant learning concepts? Discuss in the class.

for
Activity 11.15

Learning Physical Science

Identify the learning indicators for the assessment of field diary of your
students. Think–pair–share it with your classmates.

11.4.(C).(4) Laboratory work

What is Laboratory work?
Experiments play a crucial role in the progress of science. A large
number of path-breaking discoveries and inventions have been possible
through investigations done usually in laboratories. The experimental
work is, therefore, an essential component of any course in science. A
course on practical work in science curricula in schools at the secondary
stage is essentially designed to acquaint the learner with the basic tools
and techniques used in a science laboratory. It also envisages developing
problem solving skills. These skills help the learner to acquire ability
to identify a problem, to design and to set up an experiment, to collect
and analyse data through experiment. These are long-term objectives
of laboratory work and play a major role in the learner’s construction
of knowledge. 
393
 Approaches to laboratory work
Some laboratory exercises focus onto verify a concept already transacted
in the class, some can be used to achieve various learning experiences,
other types of laboratory exercises might be used to develop a particular
manipulative skill that is needed for a particular experimental work.
You may revisit Chapter 9, (section 9.8.1) for various approaches to
laboratory work.
Deductive laboratory work
Ms Rita began her discussion on corrosion by raising some questions related
Science: Physical Science

to the daily life experiences of the students in the class.

The questions were:
 Why do silver articles when exposed to air become black after sometime?
 Why does copper lose shiny brown surface slowly and gains a green
coat when exposed to moist air?
 Why do iron articles when exposed to moist air for a long time acquire
a coating of a brown flabby substance?
She discussed the concept of corrosion thoroughly in the class. She then
involved students in the laboratory to work on this topic. Students worked
in groups to check that iron articles when exposed to moist air get rusted.
The students had a pretty good idea of what to expect as a result of their
classroom discussions. Students were excited on confirming their results.
Laws, principles and concepts when transacted in science
classroom through discussion and then followed by laboratory work/
activity/experiment is called deductive laboratory work. In deductive
laboratory work, students have some idea of what they are expected
of

to find out. Many laws of physics and chemistry can be illustrated by

deductive laboratory work which reinforce the concepts transacted.
Pedagogy

Inductive laboratory work

Shyam, a teacher at higher secondary stage facilitated students to perform
following activity:
 Collect the following samples from the science laboratory– hydrochloric
acid (HCI), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), acetic acid
(CH3COOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2],
potassium hydroxide (KOH), magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], and
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH).
 Put a drop of each of the above solutions on a watch glass and test
with a drop of the following indicators as shown in Table 11.15.
 What change in colour did you observe with red litmus, blue litmus,
phenolphthalein and methyl orange solutions for each of the solutions
taken?
  Tabulate your observations in the Table 11.15.

394
 Tools
Table 11.15 Acid bases and indicators
Sample Red Blue Phenolph- Methyl

and
Solution Litmus Litmus -thalein Orange
Solution Solution Solution Solution

Techniques
After completing the activity, the discussion of the results began. Shyam
placed the data recorded by students on the blackboard and discussed the
concepts of acids, bases and indicators.

When students get an opportunity to develop concepts, principle and

laws through first-hand experiences before concepts are discussed in

of
the classroom, it is called inductive laboratory work. It is opposite of
the deductive laboratory work. This approach provides students with

Assessment
a better understanding.
Technical skills of laboratory
To conduct laboratory activities and experiments successfully, one
should have good technical skills. These basic laboratory skills may
be part of learners’ first laboratory work and can be kept in mind
while developing various learning indicators. Examples of some of the

for
techniques and manipulative skills for science laboratory are:
 Using an analytical balance.
Cutting and bending of a glass rod/glass tube.

Learning Physical Science


 Heating liquid in the test tube.
 Folding filter paper for filtering solutions.
 Boiling liquid in a beaker.
 Pouring liquid from a reagent bottle.
 Transferring powders and crystals.
 Smelling a chemical/boiling liquid.
 Preparing solution of a given concentration.
 Titrating with a burette.
 Taking solution with the help of a pipette.
 Using paper chromatography to separate chemicals.
 Measuring solution using measuring cylinder.
 Connecting electrical devices in parallel and series.
 Measuring weight with a spring balance.
 Measuring temperature with a thermometer.
 Measuring various other quantities with suitable measuring
devices.
 Determining the focal length of mirrors and lenses.

 Locating images in mirrors.
395
  Using and taking care of microscope.
 Washing of glassware, etc.
Assessment of laboratory work
Following points must be kept in mind while assessing the students
regarding laboratory work:
 Collecting and using right apparatus/equipment.
 Drawing ray diagram/cir cuit diagram and planning
appropriate procedure.
Science: Physical Science

 Observing and collecting data systematically.

 Calculating the physical quantity using proper unit and
significant figure.
 Interpreting the data and deriving the conclusion.
 Building up essential technical and process skills.
 Recording and reporting data honestly and supported
with graph(s) and figure(s).
 Posing inquiry-based questions.
 Observing the laboratory rules including safety rules
properly.
 Behaving properly in the laboratory.
In addition to oral questions, laboratory notebooks are also used by
the teacher to assess learners’ experimental work. Oral and written
questions can be designed based on the activities, experiments and
of

technological modules for testing students’ critical understanding,

problem solving and inquiry skills. Their performance in these activities
Pedagogy

should be assessed as an ongoing process.

Activity 11.16
You are given a concept What happens when metals react with cold and
hot water?/Ohm’s law to transact to Class X students. State whether you
will follow inductive or deductive approach? Justify your choice. Make
outlines of your plan. Also discuss the learning indicators and tasks specific
to learning indicators to assess performance of your students in groups.

Activity 11.17
Talk to a practising science teacher to know the tasks specific to learning
indicators which she uses for the assessment of the laboratory work and
the record book of experiments. Present your findings in the class.

396
 Tools
11.4.(C).5 Interview/Oral test
Interview/oral test is a useful tool of assessment particularly for group

and
work, project work and laboratory work. It can also be used as a follow
up of other tools of assessment. It could be a personalised interview

Techniques
which helps to develop better rapport with student and get an insight
into the process of work, the student has done/contributed. Many a
times it becomes difficult to find out the individual’s contribution in a
group work or project. Interview may be even recorded, so that it can
be analysed and applied to other findings.
11.4.(C).6 Journal writing

of
Journals could be similar to a student’s diary where she can record
details of her work and learning on a day-to-day basis. This can enable

Assessment
the teacher to assess the extent of her learning and help the students
in better learning.
Students can reflect on their thoughts about new concepts without
being conscious of assessment. Teacher can use journals as a kind
of window to know what students are thinking about what they are
learning. Students’ journal can be an important source of information
about their learning difficulties, misconceptions, and naive concepts,

for
strengths and challenges and self-assessment. The act of transferring
thoughts, ideas and feelings into written words also encourages
students to examine their own thought process. In order to set clear

Learning Physical Science

expectations and procedures for journal writing, teachers must plan
how often students will write in their journals; when; for how long and
for what purpose. The teacher must provide feedbacks in the form of
a written observation, questions or notes in the margin to encourage
students.

ACTIVITY 11.18
Search in the library the research work done on journal writing by school
students. Present a review of any one paper in the class.

11.4.(C).7 Concept Mapping

We have discussed concept map in Chapter 8 (section 8.9) in detail.
Concept mapping which is used as a strategy of teaching-learning can
also be used as an assessment tool. After learning a unit, students
may draw a concept map. Students’ understanding about hierarchy,
relationships, branching and cross-linkages of various concepts may
be tested. Alternatively, a partially written concept map may be asked
to be completed.

397
 Concept map of the topic Changes Around Us has been shown in
Fig. 11.6.

Changes around us
can be

Physical Change Chemical Change

do ad

to
es to
Science: Physical Science

le

s
no

ad
e.g. e.g.

t
no
ar

le
e

1. Melting of ice 1. Burning of Coal

e
• Formation of new

ar
2. ....... can lead substance 2. .......
3. ....... to change 3. .......
in • Generally reversible

Shape Size Colour State

e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g.

1. Breaking a 1. Tearing 1. Drying grapes 1. Melting ice/
stone/chalk paper to get raisins Boiling water
2. ....... 2. ....... 2. ....... 2. Freezing of water
3. ....... 3. ....... 3. ....... 3. .......

Fig. 11.6 A partially written concept map can be used for assessment

Concept maps as assessment devices

Concept maps have proved to serve as useful tools for assessing the
attainment of certain learning objectives reliably and objectively.
of

Students may be provided with a set of unlinked concepts with which

they have to construct a map or they may be asked to construct a
Pedagogy

concept map after the teacher has transacted a topic in order to assess
their conceptual comprehension. Scoring can be based on several
criteria, such as.
 Validity of propositions and relationships connecting the concepts.
 Correctness of the hierarchical level.
 The validity of cross-links.
 Extent of latitudinal and longitudinal branching.
 Appropriateness of general and specific examples.

Activity 11.19
Recal l how you were assessed in physical science at secondary and higher
secondary stages. What tools and techniques were used? Share your
experiences regarding those tools and techniques with the class.

398
 Tools
11.4.(D) Recording and Reporting
Recording and reporting of learning evidences are crucial components

and
of assessment and evaluation. These should be carried out in holistic
manner, so that these:

Techniques
 convey a feeling of individual attention;
 reaffirm a positive self-image of the students;
 communicate personal goal for students to work towards its
achievment; and
 qualitative statements support the assessment.

Providing feedback to the students and parents is of paramount

importance as it goes a long way in enhancing students’ performance.

of
Students’ self-growth as well as development needs to be assessed
and reported. Giving rank to the students should be avoided. The

Assessment
feedback regarding students given to their parents in the form of marks
or grades fail to inform the scope of improvement in each subject. It
is better to give qualitative feedback on the work done in each subject
on continuous basis.
Position paper on Examination Reform NCERT 2006, recommends
that the word ‘Fail’ should not appear on marksheet. It can be
represented by phrases such as ‘unsatisfactory’ or better ‘needs more

for
work to attain desired standards’. The word ‘Fail’ carries social
stigma and often victimises a student for systematic deficiencies

Learning Physical Science

in teaching, textbook availability, etc.
Finally, students’ progress in learning science needs to be
consolidated on the report card. Each student can also assess herself
and include this as self-assessment in the report card. Analysis of
various areas of learning, such as process skills of science and scientific
attitude, interest and inquiry can also be included on the report card.
This would assist students by pointing out the areas of study that they
need to focus on, and also help them by providing a basis for further
choices that they make regarding what to study further.
The analysis of the performance of students, whether it is of
Continues and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) or public examination
is a very important activity. CCE has many advantages. Its feedback
helps students immediately. The feedback to the students should
be provided with positive suggestions, so that they feel a sense of
achievement.
11.4(D).(1) Measurement of students’ achievements
The achievement of the students is mostly measured and recorded in
terms of marks. This is being carried out by way of awarding numerical

399
 marks on an interval scale that runs from 0 to 100. The comparison of
students’ performance from subject to subject and from year to year is
not possible. It is because neither the zero, nor the 100 are absolute.
Zero does not indicate nothingness and 100 does not indicate the
perfection in achievement. This limitation results in variations in spread
of scores in different subjects. Further, the measurement error may
vary and as such comparison on the basis of variation of 1 or 2 marks
is not justified. This shortcoming can be overcome if the students are
placed in ability bands that represent ranges of scores. The National
Policy on Education (1986) recommended the introduction of Grade
Science: Physical Science

system for assessment of achievement of the students.

11.4.(D).(2) What is grading system?
The word ‘grade’ is derived from the Latin word Gradus which means
‘step.’ In educational measurement, grading involves the use of a set
of symbols to communicate the level of achievement of the students.
Types of grading
(a) Direct Grading: In direct grading, the performance exhibited by
an individual is assessed in qualitative terms and the impression so
obtained by the examiner is directly expressed in terms of letter grades.
The advantage of direct grading is that it minimises the inter-examiner
variability. Moreover, it is easier to use in comparison to indirect
grading. Direct grading, however,may lack transparency.
(b) Indirect Grading: In this method, the performance of an examinee
of

is first assessed in terms of marks and subsequently transformed into

letter grades by using different modes. This transformation may be
Pedagogy

carried out in terms of both ‘absolute grading’ and ‘relative grading’

as discussed below:
(i) Absolute Grading: Absolute grading is based on a pre-determined
standard that becomes a reference point for assessment of students’
performance. It involves direct conversion of marks into grades,
irrespective of the distribution of marks in a subject. It is just like
categorisation of students into five groups, namely, distinction (75%
and above), first division (60% and less than 75%), second division
(45% and less than 60%), third division (33% and less than 45%) and
unsatisfactory (Below 33%).
It is possible to divide the absolute grading into any number of
categories. Though, the range of marks may be the same in different
subjects in each of the category, the grades so awarded are not
 comparable as the marks themselves are not comparable. The number
400
 Tools
of students placed in different categories will differ from subject to
subject and from year to year making them incomparable. An example

and
of absolute grading is given below.
Table 11.16 Absolute Grading

Techniques
S.No­ Letter of Grade­ Range of Marks­ Description­
1­. A­ 90% and above­ Outstanding­
2­. B­ 80% to 89%­ Excellent­
3­. C­ 70% to 79%­ Very Good­
4­. D­ 60% to 69%­ Good­

of
5­. E ­ 50% to 59%­ Above Average­

Assessment
6­. F­ 40% to 49%­ Average­
7­. G­ 30% to 39%­ Below Average­
8­. H­ 20% to 29%­ Marginal­
9­. I­ Below 20%­ Unsatisfactory­
This method is simple and straight forward. Meaning of each grade
is distinctly understandable. Each student has the freedom to strive

for
for the attainment of the highest possible grade, as the classification
of grades is pre-announced. The limitation of this method is that the

Learning Physical Science

distribution of scores is taken on its face value regardless of the errors
of measurement creeping in due to various types of subjectivity.
(ii) Relative Grading: Relative grading is generally used in public
examination. In this system, grade of a student is decided not by her
performance alone rather than performance of the group. This type
of grading is popularly known as ‘grading on the curve.' The curve
refers to the normal distribution curve or some symmetric variant of
it. This method amounts to determine in advance approximately what
percentage of students can be expected to receive different grades,
namely, A, B, C and so on with reference to a specific group.
If the perceived curve is transformed into a normal curve, it allows
us to categorise the obtained scores into any desired number of grades
in a scientific manner. If we decide to use a nine point grade system,
we may simply divide the entire measurement scale into nine (5 or 7
or 11) equal parts.
The advantages of relative grading are as follows:
 Performance of individual student is rated in terms of grades and
no grade signifies the failure of students, thereby eliminating the 
negative effect of pass/fail.
401
  Grades indicate the relative position of an individual with reference
to her peer group, serving the purpose of norm-referencing, i.e.
whether the individual student has performed better or worse than
other students.
 Test difficulty does not affect the distribution of grades.
11.4.(D).(3) Measurement of process skills
For measurement of process skills, checklist or rating scales can be
developed. For example, if the following tasks specific to the learning
indicators of process skills, are to be assessed; we can mark Yes/No
Science: Physical Science

against each task.

Tasks specific to learning indicator
 Assembles the apparatus correctly. (Yes/No)
 Handles apparatus correctly. (Yes/No)
 Measures with precision. (Yes/No)
 Interprets data correctly. (Yes/No)
If rating scale is followed, five point scale 1,2,3,4,5 (Below average,
Average, Good, Very good, Excellent) according to the task present, can
be used. Tick mark can be put on the relevant point value.
Tasks
 Setting up of the apparatus. 1 2 3 4 5
 Observation of the changes. 1 2 3 4 5
 Measurement of the data. 1 2 3 4 5
 Reporting of the data. 1 2 3 4 5
 Interpretation of the data. 1 2 3 4 5
of

 Drawing of the conclusion. 1 2 3 4 5

11.4.(D).(4) Measurement of attitudes
Pedagogy

A rating scale or practical test can be used for this purpose. Students’
honesty, cooperation, objectivity, etc. can be measured on pre-defined
rating scale. For example, point values can be assigned to each attitude
item as given in Table 11.17.
Table 11.17 Measurement of attitude
Rating scale point Positive Negative
indicators Attitude Attitude
Items­ Items­
Strongly agree­ 5­ 1­
Mildly agree­ 4­ 2­
Neutral/Undecided­ 3­ 3­
 Mildly disagree­ 2­ 4­
Strongly disagree­ 1­ 5­
402
 Tools
It is often argued that the marks and grades carry little meaning and
therefore should be substituted by verbal qualitative assessment.

and
Undoubtedly verbal assessments that identify strengths and challenges
may be very useful, especially to the students and parents. However,

Techniques
this kind of assessment can be carried out on the basis of learning
indicators. Quantification has limitations, but at the same time carries
advantages such as brevity and ease of communication.
A summary of measurement of students’ achievement is shown in Fig.
11.8 below.
Measurement of
achievement of students

of
Assessment
Marks (0-100) Grading

Direct Indirect
on 3 or 5 point scale

for
Absolute Grading Relative Grading

Learning Physical Science

on 5, 7 or 9 point scales on 5, 7 or 9 point scales
Measurement of process
skills and attitudes

Process skills Attitudes

(Rating scales)

Checklist Rating scales

Fig. 11.8 Summary of measurement of students’ achievements

Activity 11.20
Lata collected the notebooks of students in which there was a collection of
notes copied by students which she wrote on the blackboard. It was not
original work produced by the students. She graded the notebooks on the
basis of neatness and content accuracy. Do you think that the teacher who
carried out this form of activity was imaginative? Discuss. 
403
 Activity 11.21
Discuss how you can maintain record of assessment of activities,
experiments and textbook exercises showing various learning indicators
for each student of a class in hard copy form. Think about using computer
for this purpose.

Activity 11.22
Find out the information about learning evidences of students given on the
Science: Physical Science

report card of various schools. Do these cards show quantitative as well

as qualitative assessment and evaluation? Collect a few sample of it and
discuss on it in the class.

11.4.(D).(5) Por tf ol io: Its r ol e in evaluating students’

performance
Meena, a science teacher suggested students of secondary stage to maintain
a science portfolio comprising learning evidences collected throughout the
year. She discussed over this issue with her students and together with
them arrived at a consensus to include best performances in the following
learning experiences in the portfolio:
 Collection of their own science work which included reports of laboratory
work done either alone or with a partner or in a group and all the
completed home and class assignments.
 Test and weekly quizzes conducted in the classroom.
 Classwork records.
of

 The report of the article they selected from a newspaper or magazine

which they had critically analysed.
Pedagogy

 Reports of field trips/visit to any industry.

 Reports of the projects that involved scientific investigations and the
projects that were entered in science exhibitions.
Meena also suggested them to write few lines about their learning products,
why did they consider that particular item as their best. She also explained
that it is expected from the students to organise their portfolios properly so
that materials included could easily be found and identified. After four to
five months, students volunteered in many different activities that were not
associated with regular classwork. They carried out their science project
work during and after school hours. A group of students decided to conduct
a survey to find out how the sewage in their locality was treated. The report
was presented orally in the class and later placed in the students' portfolios.
Another group of students designed a series of safety posters illustrating
the safety rules to be followed in chemistry and physics laboratories. These
 posters were placed in the laboratories and classroom. They also maintained

404
 Tools
a list of activities that were carried out in the science class to be included
in the portfolio.

and
The students included the quizzes that had already been evaluated. The
teacher considered the original work for evaluation during the entire
academic year. So, the performance of the student could be judged by the

Techniques
quality of materials present in the portfolio of an individual who developed it.

Portfolio can be used as a way of collecting, recording, monitoring

and communicating about learning evidences to the administrators
and community. Students can be actively involved in this process.
It provides them opportunity of self-assessment, reflection on their
work, and setting goals of their learning.

of
The portfolio should contain the materials that show different
aspects of a student’s abilities. It shows that the student has learnt

Assessment
about writing reports, performing experiments, conducting discussions,
giving presentation on a science topic, designing posters, etc. The
portfolios can be evaluated by the teachers as explained below.
Evaluation of Portfolios
It can be done in the following ways:
• Self evaluation: Students can evaluate their own portfolios. The
diversity of products in different portfolios can be so much that

for
identification of evaluation criteria will not be a simple task.
Teachers will have to work cooperatively with students and design

Learning Physical Science

a set of criteria by which both teachers and students can judge the
quality of their portfolio products. By using the negotiated criteria,
students can evaluate their own work. Students can identify their
major strengths and challenges of a given product and then reflect
on how the product could be improved.
• Conduct portfolio conferences: These conferences not only help
in evaluating student’s learning product but also help them in
improving their self-evaluation abilities. Conferences can be
planned in advance so that students can start preparing for
these conferences well in time. Community can be invited in the
conference. Students can also give presentation.
• Involvement of parents in the process of portfolio evaluation: In
the beginning of the session, students’ parents/guardians can be
encouraged to keep reviewing their children’s learning evidences
and products.
Portfolio assessment can provide a way of documenting and evaluating
growth of students’ work that is happening in the classroom.
Thus, there are various ways of systematic collection of learning 
evidences of the learners. Teacher can use various modes of Information
405
 and communication (ICT) technology for maintaining record and
reporting.
Project 11.1
Find out how recording and reporting of the learning evidences of various
curricular activities of students in physical science are done in the school
you went for practice teaching. What is your own view regarding this?
Prepare a report on it. Share your findings in the class.

11.4(E) Reflecting process

Science: Physical Science

Let us see how did a teacher get feedback from students and used it
for the improvement of the assessment process.
Iqbal, a teacher at secondary stage, after completing the Chapters Chemical
Reactions; Acids, Bases and Salts, and Metals and Non-metals gave a test to
Class X students. He was disappointed by observing some of his students’
performance. During teaching-learning process in the class, students were
able to answer his questions which indicated that they have understood
the concepts. Confused Iqbal asked children to write on a piece of paper,
why they got such poor grades in the test.
Following responses he got from his students.
Rita : You did not ask the question which was asked in the class.
Ali : No question was asked from the topic Metals and non-Metals,
which I had learnt.
Sophia : I cannot remember so many concepts/topics at a time.
Raja : I was not able to understand some of the questions.
Ritu : Some of the questions confused me because they were too tricky.
Mary : I could not write the answers to all questions because there were
of

too many questions and less time was given.

After reading the responses of his students, Iqbal decided to test his
Pedagogy

students more frequently, but on fewer concepts during the course of

teaching-learning. He also decided to give appropriate number of questions
that could be answered in the allotted time.

Assessment is both a reflected process (students’ performance)

and reflecting process (teacher’s performance).
11.4(E).(1) Assessment as a reflected process
(i) During teaching-learning of science, it is very important to observe
and identify misconceptions and naive concepts of students and
facilitates them to construct and reconstruct their concepts. This
can be done by interacting with them in various teaching-learning
situations as discussed in Chapter 5 Exploring Learner.
Teacher should provide them feedback to draw their attention on
 how their concepts are inconsonant with scientific explanation of the
406
 Tools
concepts. Dealing with students’ misconceptions and naive concepts
at early time is important, as studies show that once they are deep-

and
rooted, it is very difficult to remove them, and such concepts become
hindrance to further learning.

Techniques
(ii) Reflective Prompts
Reflective prompts is a technique in which teacher provides a set of
flexible questions to the students that prompt them to reflect on their
own learning. In this technique, each student answers some questions
such as given below after completion of a lesson/unit by the teacher.
 What did you enjoy about the lesson/unit?

of
 What was difficult and what was easy in the lesson/unit?
Can you explore the ideas of the lesson/unit further?

Assessment

 What help you want from me?
The teacher can use this feedback for improving teaching-learning
process.

Activity 11.23
Use these questions to reflect on the teaching-learning of this Chapter Tools
and Techniques of Assessment for Learning Physical Science and discuss

for
with your teacher-educator.

Learning Physical Science

(iii) Self-assessment
Students can be encouraged to get engaged in self-assessment after any
process of assessment in the class. They may think on the following
(suggested) questions:
 What I liked/did not like about the test?
 How can I improve my performance?
 Did I know the answers to all questions?
 Was time limit less for me?
 Could I share my ideas clearly with the class during discussion?
 Could I demonstrate positive and responsible attitude towards
learning?
 How will I do this work (written/oral test, activity/experiment etc.)
differently next time?

Activity 11.24
As a B.Ed. student of physical science you might have assessed your own
performances several times. Share your experiences with your classmates. 
407
 11.4(E).(2) Assessment as a reflecting process
Teacher can look back to the lesson/unit and think about overall
progress of students. She can investigate the following (suggested)
questions:
 What went well?
 What misconceptions and naive concepts students had/still have?
 How can I improve on the content and pedagogy of the lesson/unit?
 What would I change, if I did the lesson again?
Analysing her own performance helps the teacher to provide additional
Science: Physical Science

inputs, look into innovative approaches of teaching-learning, select

suitable tools and techniques of assessment and change the direction
of work when needed. We shall discuss the teacher as a reflective
practitioner in Chapter 14 in detail.
11.5 Assessment of Learning of Students with
Special Needs
 The assessment criteria should be formulated as a teamwork
following a discussion and consent of experts, parents and the
students, while conducting assessment of students with Special
Educational Needs (SEN, arising from physical, sensory and
intellectual disabilities). Individual student’s case profile and
Individualised Education Programme (IEP) should be incorporated
in methodological approach of assessment conducted for SEN.
 The students’ performances should be evaluated against
their own previous performances continuously in subsequent
of

evaluations. The evaluations should be conducted comprehensively

by a team of professionals including therapists to cover all areas of
Pedagogy

development. There should also be components where evaluations

should be done by peers, parents, siblings and the student himself.
Self assessment of the students with re-evaluation by other may also
be included in case of SEN. To ensure that they try to achieve as per
standards expected in a class, evaluation may also be quantitative
and comparative on some units.
 The specific needs and requirements, the strengths and challenges
of these students should be taken care of. When the students are
in group activity or individual activity, individualised assessment of
the students is recommended for their comprehensive assessment
and evaluation,
 There are a number of teaching aids and functional aids required
by SEN to carry out their day-to-day school-based activities such
 as Braille equipments, hearing aids, communication boards, etc.
408
 Tools
Prior to assessing these students, it should be ensured that the
applicable aids are accessible to the students.

and
 While conducting assessment, the quality and applicability of the
tools and procedures for assessment with respect to the particular

Techniques
SEN should be taken care of. The activities should be selected as
per the individualised strengths and needs of the student. The need,
use and comfort level of assistive and adaptive devices such as
mobility aids, communication devices, technological aids, etc. either
in the form of teaching aids and/or functional aids with regard to
the students concerned should not be ignored. The SEN should be
given the opportunities to improve in different evaluation procedures
such as assignment, projects, etc. and may be re-evaluated.

of
 Curricular areas like Braille reading and writing, orientation and

Assessment
mobility skills, communication skills, daily living activities, social
skills, pre-vocational skills, etc. should also be assessed along with
other areas of the curriculum. For conducting assessment in these
areas experts from the specific disability area should be included
in the team.
 Students’ anecdotes, class teacher’s and science teacher’s
observations, specialists’ reports, parental reports and peers’

for
comments should be consolidated to make the assessment profile
of the SEN.
 The suggestive assessment process for students with special

Learning Physical Science

educational needs are more objective items; frequent short quizzes
in lieu of long examination; provision of extra time, special aids;
simplifying the instruction to facilitate students to comprehend;
reduction in number of questions and subject papers; alternative


409
 measures like tape recording the answers; etc. Modalities may be
negotiated with them by giving extra time to complete the tasks,
and assistance of scribes wheres essential. Their evaluation can
be done by inviting experts in respective disabilities, shortening
assignments, breaking evaluation materials into smaller segments
and permitting them to use technology, etc. to give responses that
are understandable.

11.6 Summary
Science: Physical Science

The need for assessment and evaluation is to reconstruct naive concepts

of the learners and to give
 periodic reports to the guardians, administrator, and community
about the quality and level of the learners’ progress,
 certificate of completion of a course and,
 a meaningful report for interschool transfer of the learner.
It is not a means to encourage competition among the learners. We
have discussed that assessment and evaluation needs to be learner-
centred and it should be integrated with the process of teaching-
learning to enhance the quality of teaching and learning. It should
facilitate all-round development of a child. We should comprehensively
assess the performance of the students on a continuous basis by
assessing the student’s progress with reference to their own self,
with reference to the criteria set by the teacher and the learners.
In order to successfully implement the process of comprehensive
of

evaluation, we need to first identify various learning indicators related

to the said curricular area of physical science by involving the learners,
Pedagogy

then construct and implement the tools suitable to measure the

indicators. Various tools and techniques can be used for assessing
performance of the students and their attitudes, interest and capability
of independent learning. There should be flexibility in it. At upper
primary and secondary stages, focus can be given on observation,
inquiry and description. At the higher secondary stage the focus should
be more on reasoning, inquiry and application.
In the modern times, where creativity, innovativeness, and the
development of the entire personality are the hallmarks, we need to
redefine and search for new ways of assessment and feedback. There is
a need to shift from teacher-centred assessment to learner-centred
assessment and from assessment of learning to assessment for
learning. Teacher may choose most suitable approach depending upon
 learning needs of the learner and teaching-learning process.
410