AK 1

Theories of Light
Corpuscular model of light:

 It was proposed by Newton

 Light is regarded as a stream of minute particles called corpuscular ejected from a
luminous body.
 Travels with enormous speed moving along a straight line confirms the rectilinear
propagation of light.
 When these corpuscles incident on certain surface the particles experiences
repulsive force which confirms reflection of light.
 When the corpuscles incident on certain surfaces the particles experience an
attractive force.
 The velocity of light is more in rarer medium compared to denser medium.
 The different colors of light are due to size of the corpuscles.
 This theory fails to explain the phenomenon of interference, diffraction and
polarization which leads to the failure of this theory.

Wave Model of Light:

 It was proposed by Christian Huygens in 1670

 According to him light is in the form of Transverse Wave.
 To propagate these waves, he assumed that the presence hypothetical medium
called Aether.
 Every point in the wave front acts as secondary source of wave which produces
secondary wavelets (small wave of matter) to all directions, with the same speed
of as original wave.
 All wavelets which are in same phase forms a surface that is named as wave front.
 Michelson-Morley experiment (1887) proved that there is no such type of Aether
medium.
 This theory confirms the phenomenon of rectilinear propagation of light,
reflection, refraction,interference, and diffraction.
 But it fails to explain the polarization of light.
 Hence this theory is discarded.
 AK 2

Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory

 It was proposed by Maxwell
 According to this theory light waves are electromagnetic waves which consisting
of varying electric and magnetic fields.
 Both electric (�) and magnetic (�) fields are perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 The electromagnetic waves travel with a velocity
1
C= � � ��
= 3× 108 � � velocity of light.
 The energy associated by vibrating electric magnetic fields vibrates perpendicular
to the direction of propagation is termed as electromagnetic waves.
 This theory proves that light waves are transverse waves.
 The electromagnetic theory fails to explain the photo electric effect; hence this
theory is discarded.

Quantum theory of light

 It was proposed by Max plank

 The amount of light absorbed or emitted is not continuous, but it is discrete in the
form of small pockets of energy called Quanta or Photons
 The photons are travels with velocity of light.
 The rest mass of photon is Zero
 When the photons colloid both energy and momentum are conserved.
 Energy of the photon is E=h� .
ℎ�
 The mass of photons is m=�2 .
ℎ
 The momentum of the photon is �.
 Quantum theory explains the photoelectric effect and Compton effect, but it fails
to explain interference, diffractionand polarization.
 Hence this theory is discarded.
 AK 3

Wave particle Duality

 It was proposed by De-Broglie.

 The particle exhibiting wave nature called as dual nature.
 The wave is associated with every moving particle.
 The particles which are in motion exhibits wave nature of light.
ℎ
 The wave length of light is given bye � = called De-Broglie wavelength
�
 With this introduction of dual nature, it could explain photo electric effect,
Compton effect and optical phenomenon.

Interference on the surface of the water

The phenomenon of interference of light has proved the validity of the wave
theory of light. Thomas Young successfully demonstrated his experiment on
interference of light in 1802. When two or more wave trains act simultaneously on
any particle in a medium, the displacement of the particle at any instant is due to
the superposition of all the wave trains. Also, after the superposition, at the region
of cross over, the wave trains emerge as if they have not interfered at all. Each
wave train retains its individual characteristics. Each wave train behaves as if
others are absent. The principle was explained by Huygens in 1678.
 AK 4

The phenomenon of interference of light is due to the superposition of two

trains within the region of cross over. Let us consider the waves produced on the
surface of water. In Fig points A and B are the two sources which produce waves
of equal amplitude and constant phase difference. waves spread out on the surface
of water which are circular in shape. At any instant, the particle will be under the
action of the displacement due to both the waves. The points shown by circles in
the diagram will have minimum displacement because the crest of one wave falls
on the trough of the other and the resultant displacement is zero. The points shown
by crosses in the diagram will have maximum displacement because, either the
crest of one will combine with the crest of the other or the trough of one will
combine with the trough of the other. In such a case, the amplitude of the
displacement is twice the amplitude of either of the waves. Therefore, at these
points the waves reinforce with each other. As the intensity (energy) is directly
proportional to the square of the amplitude (l ��2 ) the intensity of these points is
four times the intensity due to one wave. It should be remembered that there is no
loss of energy due to interference.The energy is only transferred from the points of
minimum displacement to the points of maximum displacement
 AK 5

Interference
The modification in the redistribution of light energy due to the superposition of two
ormore waves results in the formation of Interference.

 Due to superposition of the light waves if the intensity of light is maximum than
it is said to be constructive interference.
 Due to superposition of the light waves if the intensity of light is minimum than it
is called as destructive interference.
 During constructive interference it produces a bright fringe of maximum intensity.
whereas during destructive interference it produces dark fringe of minimum
intensity.
 The interference based on the principle of law of conservation of energy
accordingly energy is either created by bright fringe or destroyed by dark fringe.
 Energy is transformed from bright to dark or dark to bright hence the principle of
conservation of energy.

Coherent Source:

 When the two sources which produces waves of same amplitude and frequency
with constant or zero phase difference is called as Coherent source.
 As such coherent source is not possible in practice, but for experimental purpose
two vertical sources can be produced by a single source of light.
 The coherent source can be produced by two methods namely.
a) Division Wavefront
b) Division of Amplitude

Division of Wavefront:

The incident wave is divided into two (or) more waves by reflection, refraction (or)
diffraction these divided waves travels through different optical medium their remit
together to produces interference pattern is called division of wavefronts

Eg: Fresnel Biprism and Young’s double slit experiment.

 AK 6

Young’s Double Slit Experiment:

The principle of Huygens wave theory of light is explained experimentally by Thomas
young, and it is called as young’s double slit experiment.

The apparatus consist of a pin hole S is pierced into a cardboard and another cardboard
consisting of two pin A and B closely space which behaves as the two vertical source and
screen as placed at a distance(D) to observe interference pattern. When a monochromatic
light is illuminated then the cylindrical waves and emerges through the slit S
simultaneously, they pass through the slits A and B.When the cylindrical waves emerge
from A and B the interference pattern is produces at a distanced (D) on the screen to
produce alternate bright and dark fringes are formed.

In other words, the two waves emerge reaches the screen in phase constructively to
produce a bright fringe at the same time when the two waves emerge reaches the screen
out of phase destructively to produce a dark fringe.As a result, an alternate bright and dark
fringe are produced on the screen. The width of bright fringe is same as width of dark
fringe because of law of conservation of energy hence young’s double slit experiment.

Note:Instead of pin hole if we replace linear slit then it produces bright or dark straight
lines.Thomas young in this experiment used a white light instead of monochromatic light
which produces a colored fringe pattern.
 AK 7

An expression for fringe width

The distance between any two consecutive bright (or) dark fringes is called as its fringe
width. Let ‘d’ the distance between the two slits and ‘D’ is the distance between the slit
and screen. When the waves emerge from the point A and B arrives in phase at the point
‘O’ to produce a central bright fringe.Let ‘O’ is a point, it is a midpoint between A and B.

Let ‘�’ is a point at a distance ‘x’ from ‘o’

The path difference of the waves reaching the point ‘�’ is � = �� − ��

From ∆le BNP

2 2
� 2
2 2
�� = �� + �� = � + � + …………(1)
2
From ∆le AMP

2 2
� 2
2 2
�� = �� + �� = � + � − ………. . (2)
2
2 2
2 2
�2 2
�
�� − �� = � + � + − � + �−
2 2
�2 � �2 �
= �2 + �2 + + 2� 2 − �2 + �2 + − 2� 2
4 4
 AK 8

��2 − ��2 = 2��

2��
�� − �� =
�� + ��
If the point ‘�’ is close to the point ‘o’ then

�� = �� = �

�� = �� = �

Therefore
2��
�� − �� =
2�
��
�=
�
For bright fringe, the path difference is

� = �� ��
�=
�
��
�� =
�
Or
���
�=
�

The distance of nthbright fringe from the point ‘o’ is

���
�� =
�

�ℎ
The distance of � − 1 bright fringe from the point ‘o’ is
 AK 9

(� − 1)��
��−1 =
�
The fringe width '�' = �� − ��−1
��� � − 1 ��
�= −
� �
��� ��� ��
�= − +
� � �

��
∴ �ℎ�����������ℎ, � =
�

NOTE:

 The fringe width is directly proportional to the distance b/w the slit & the screen.
 Fringe width varies directly as the wavelength of the given source.
 Fringe width varies inversely as the separation b/w the slits.
 The smaller the separation larger the fringe width
 AK 10

FRESNEL’S BIPRISM
Fresnel used a biprism to show interference phenomenon. The biprism abc consists of
two acute angled prisms placed base to base. Itis constructed as a single biprism of obtuse
angle of about 1790. The acute angle α on both sides is about 30' . The prism is placed with
its refracting edge parallel to the line source S (slit) such that Sa is normal to the face bc of
the prism.

When light falls from S on the lower portion of the biprism it is bent upwards and
appears to come from the virtual source B. similarly light falling from S on the upper
portion of the prism is bent downwards and appears to come from the virtual source A.
Therefore,A and B act as two coherent sources. Suppose the distance between A and B = d.
If a screen is placed at C, interference fringes of equal width are produced E and F but
beyond E and F fringes of large width are produced which are due to diffraction. MN is a
stop of limit the rays. To observe the fringes, the screen can be replaced by and eyepiece
or a low power microscope and fringes are seen in the field of view. If the point C is at the
principal focus of the eyepiece, the fringes are observed in the field of view.

THEORY: The point C is equidistant from A and B. Therefore, it has maximum intensity.
On both sides of C, alternately bright and dark fringes are produced. The width of the
��
bright fringe or dark fringe, � = �
. Moreover, any point on the screen will be at the centre
 AK 11

���
of a bright fringe if its distance from C is � = , where n=0,1,2,3 etc. The point will be
�
(2�+1)��
at the centre of a darks fringe if its distance from C is , where n=0,1,2,3 etc.
2�

Determination of wavelength of light: Fresnel’s biprism can be used to determine the

wavelength of a given source of monochromatic light.

A fine vertical slit S is adjusted just close to a source of light and the refracting edge is
also set parallel to the slit S such that bc is horizontal.

They are adjusted on an optical bench. A micrometer eyepiece is placed on the optical
bench at some distance from the prism to view the fringes in its focal plane (at its cross
wires). Suppose the distance between the source and the eyepiece = D and the distance
between the two virtual sources A and B = d. The eyepiece is moved horizontally
(perpendicular to the length of the bench) to determine the fringe width. Suppose for
crossing 20 bright fringes from the field of view, the eyepiece has moved through a
distance �.
�
Then the fringe width, � = 20

��
But the fringe width � =
�

��
∴�= ……. . (�)
�

In equation (i) � and D are known. if d is also known,� can be calculated.

Determination of the distance between the two virtual sources (d)

 AK 12

For this purpose, we make use of the displacement method. A convex lens is placed
between the biprism and the eyepiece in such a position, that the images of the virtual
sources A and B are seen in the field of view of the eyepiece. Suppose the lens is in the
position L1. Measure the distance between the images of A and B as seen in the eyepiece.
Let it be d1

In this case,
�1 � �
= = ………. (��)
� � �
Now move the lens towards the eyepiece and bring it to some other position L2, so that
again the images of A and B are seen clearly in thefield of the eyepiece.

Measure the distance b/w the two images in this case also. Let it be equal to d2.

Here,� = ����� = �,
�2 � �
∴ = = …………(���)
� � �
From equations (ii) and (iii),
 AK 13

�1 �2
=1
�2
(or)

�= �1 �2

Here d1, will be greater than d2, and d is the geometrical mean of d1, and d2. Therefore, d
can be calculated. Substituting the value of d,� and D in equation (i), the wavclength of
the given monochromatic light can be determined.

The second method to find d is to measure accurately the refracting angle � . As the
angle is small, the deviation produced � = (� − 1). Therefore, the total angle between Aa
and Ba is 2� = 2(� − 1)�. If the distance between the prism and the slit S is y1, then� =
2(� − 1)��1 . Therefore, d can be calculated.

Interference with white light

When the monochromatic light source in a young’s double slit experiment is replaced by
a white light. Since the white light consists innumerable wavelengths from red to violet,
when light is used, all wavelengths have their own fringes pattern and finally
superimposed on each other. Since the path difference for all colours at center point is
same then the waves of all colours reach at mid point without any path difference and we
observed a white fringe at centre point. This central fringe is called zero order fringe. After
central frige, we observed few coloured fringes with poor contrast. These friges are due to
superposition of different fringes of different colours. Thus the interference pattern is not
clear but the superposition of Many colours.

Interference by Division of Amplitude

The amplitude of incident wave is divided in to two or more waves by reflection or by

refraction after travelling through different optical medium their reunite together to
produce an interference pattern is called division of amplitude

Interference by a plane parallel film illuminated by a plane wave

(or)
 AK 14

Interference by thin film

Newton and Hook developed the interference phenomenon due to multiple reflection
from the surface of thin
transparent materials.

We are familiar with the

beautiful colors produced by
a thin film of oil on the
surface of water and also by
the thin film of a soap bubble.

Young was able to explain

the phenomenon on the basis
of interference between light
reflected from the top and the
bottom surface of a thin film.
It has been observed that interference in the case of thin films takes place due to Reflected
light and transmitted light.

Consider a transparent film of thickness t and refractive index �. A ray AB is incident

on the upper surface of the film is partly reflected along BQ and partly refracted or
transmitted along BC. At C part of light is reflected along CD and finally emerges out
along DR. The difference in path between the two rays BQ and DR can be calculated. MC
and BT are normal lines.

Draw DN normal to BQ

For reflected part

∆ = �� + �� � − �� since BC distance is equal to CD, BC=CD

∆ = (BC + BC)� − ��

∆ = 2��(�) − ��……… (1)

Consider the right angle triangle BCM

�� �
cos �= =
�� ��
 AK 15

�
BC= ………..(2)
cos �

In right angle triangle BND

��
sin � =
��
BN= �� sin � where BD=2BM

BN= 2BM sin �……….(3)

Consider right angle triangle BCM

�� ��
tan � = =
�� �

BM= t tan �……..(4)

Using snell’s law

sin �
� = sin � sin � = � sin �…….(5)

Substitute equation (4) and (5) in (3)

BN= (2t tan �) (� sin �)…….(6)

Substitute equation (2) and (6) in (1)

�
∆=2 � − 2� tan �. � sin �
cos �
� sin �
∆=2
cos �
� − 2�
cos �
.� sin �
�
∆=2 �(1 − ���2 r)
cos �

�
∆=2 � (���2 �)= 2�� cos �
cos �

∆ = 2�� cos �
 AK 16

When light is reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium a phase change �
�
equivalent to a path difference 2

Therefore, actual path difference or corrected path difference is given by

�
∆ = 2�� cos � −
2
1. If path difference ∆ = �� where n=0,1,2,3,……..etc, constructive interference takes
place and the film appears bright.
�
∴ 2�� cos � − = ��
2
�
2�� cos � = 2� + 1
2
�
2. If path difference ∆ = 2� + 1 2
where n=1,2,3…etc, destructive interference takes
and the film appears dark
� �
2�� cos � − = 2� + 1
2 2
2�� cos � = � + 1 �
n is an integer so (n+1) taken as n
2�� cos � = ��

For transmitted system as the rays are parallel it does not undergo any phase difference as
compared to reflected system.

For bright fringe the path difference is given by 2�� cos � = ��

For dark fringe the path difference is given by

�
2�� cos � = 2� + 1
2
Therefore, for a given phase difference if it produces a bright fringe for reflected system
then it produces the dark fringe for transmitted system

Hence the reflected and transmitted rays are complimentary.

 AK 17

Interference by a film with two non-parallel reflecting surfaces

(or)

Interference by Air Wedge

Consider two plane surfaces OA and OB inclined at an � and enclosing a wedge-shaped

air film. The thickness of the air film increases from O to A.

When the air film is viewed with reflected monochromatic light, a system of equidistant
interference fringes is observed which are parallel to the line of intersection of the two
surfaces. The effect is best observed when the angle of incidence is small.

When the monochromatic light is incident on a pair of glass plate inclined at an angle �
then the rays are reflected from the glass plates which are parallel and close to each other
to produce an interference pattern.

Consider a point p which is at a distance of x from the point A. when a ray of light is
incident along the normal a ray of light is reflected from the surface which are parallel to
each other to produce an interference pattern.

As one of the ray is reflected from optically denser medium undergoes a phase
λ
difference of π and path difference is 2 .

The actual path difference between the reflected rays is given by

�
∆ = 2�� ��� � − …….(1)
2
 AK 18

As the angle of incidence is smallcos r = 1

λ
The path difference ∆ = 2μt − 2

For bright fringe the path difference ∆ = nλ

λ
2μt − = nλ
2
λ
2μt = (2n + 1) …….(2)
2

(2n + 1)λ
t=
4μ
λ
Forn = 0 , t = 4μ

3λ
n = 1, t = 4μ

5λ
n= 1,t=
4μ

λ
For dark fringe the path difference ∆ = (2n + 1) 2

λ λ
2μt − = (2n + 1)
2 2
2μt = (n + 1) λ

For n is an integer so (n+1) is equal to n then

2μt = n λ…..(3)
nλ
t=
2μ

For n = 0, t = 0
λ
n = 1, t =
2μ

2λ
n = 2, t =
2μ
 AK 19

From fig consider the triangle OPQ

t
tan θ =
x
For small values of θ, tan θ ≈ θ

t = θx……(4)

Substituting equation (4) in (3)

2μθx = n λ
nλ
For xn xn = 2μθ

It is the distance of the corresponding n dark fringes

λ
For n = 1, x1 = 2μθ

2λ
n = 2 , x2 = 2μθ

Then the fringe width

2� � �
� = �2 − �1 = − =
2�� 2�� 2��
�
�=
2��

is the expression for the fringe width of a dark fringes.

Since the distance between alternative dark fringes and bright fringes is same as the
distance between consecutive bright fringes, hence the fringe width is same for both dark
and bright fringes, smaller the separation greater will be the fringe width
�
�=
2��

Colors of thin films

 AK 20

When the light from extended source is reflected by thin film of oil, mica, soap or coating
etc., different colors are shown due to interference of light. For interference, the optical
λ
path difference is ∆ = 2�� ��� � = 2� + 1 2
for bright fringes. If thickness t is constant
then for different wavelengths, angle of refraction r should be different. Therefore,
different colors are observed at different angle of incident. Sometime different colors are
over lopped on each other’s, and a mixed color may be observed.

NEWTONS’S RINGS
When a plano-convex lens oflong focal length is placed on a plane glass plate, a thin
film of air is enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the
plate. The thickness ofthe air film is very small at the point of contact and gradually
increases from the centeroutwards. Thefringes produced withmonochromaticlight are
circular.

The fringes are concentric circles, uniform in thickness and with the point of contact as the
center. When viewed with white light, the fringes are colored. With monochromatic light,
bright and dark circular fringes are produced in the air film. S is a Source of
monochromatic light at the focus of the lens L1. A horizontal beam of light falls on the
 AK 21

glass plate B at 450. The glass plate B reflects a part of the incident light towards the air
filmenclosed by the lens L and the plane glass plate G. The reflected beam from the air
film is viewedwith a microscope. Interference takes place and dark and bright circular
fringes are produced. This is due to the interference between the light reflected from the
lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the glass plate G.

Theory (i) Newton’s rings by reflected light: Suppose the radius of curvature of the lens
is R and the air film is of thickness t at a distance of OQ=r, from the point of contact

O.

Here, interference is due to reflected light. Therefore, for the bright rings
�
2������ = 2� − 1 ……. . (�)
2
Where n =1,2,3…etc.

Here, � is small, therefore ���� = 1

For air, � = 1
�
2� = 2� − 1 ………. . (��)
2
For the dark rings,

2������ = ��

Or 2� = ��

Where in figure
 AK 22

�� × �� = �� × (2� − ��)

But �� = �� = �, �� = �� = �

and 2� − � = 2� (�������������)

�2 = 2�. �
�2
Or �=
2�

Substituting the value of t in equation (ii) and (iii),

For bright rings,

2� − 1 ��
�2 = …………(��)
2

2� − 1 ��
�= …………. (�)
2

For dark rings,

�2 = ���………(��)

� = ���………. (���)
��
When n=0, the radius of the dark ring is 2
. Therefore, the centre is dark. Alternatively
dark and bright rings are produced.

Result: The radius of the dark ring is proportional to (i) � (ii) � and (iii) �. Similarly,
the radius of the bright ring is proportional to

2� − 1
� �� � ��� �
2
 AK 23

If D is the distance of the dark ring,

� = 2� = 2 ���…………. . (����)

For the central dark ring

�=0

� = 2 ��� = 0

This corresponds to the center of the Newton’s rings. While counting the order of the dark
rings 1,2,3 etc. the central ring is not counted.

Therefore, for the first dark ring,

�=1

� = 2 ��

For the second dark ring, � = 2,

�2 = 2 2��

And for the nth dark ring,

�� = 2 ���

Take the case of 16th and 9th rings,

�16 = 2 16�� = 8 ��

�9 = 2 9�� = 6 ��

The difference in diameters between the 16th and 9th rings,

�16 − �9 = 8 �� − 6 �� = 2 ��

Similarly, the difference in diameters between the 4th and 1st rings,

�4 − �1 = 2 4�� − 2 �� = 2 ��
 AK 24

Therefore, the fringe width decreases with the order of the fringe and the fringes got closer
with increase in their order,

For bright rings,

2� − 1 ��
�2 = ………(��)
2
Or �2 = 2 2� − 1 ��………. (�)

2� − 1 ��
�� = ………. (��)
2

In equation (ix), substituting n = 1,2,3 (number of the ring) the radii of the first, second,
third etc., bright rings can be obtained directly.

Determination of the wavelength of sodium light using Newton's ring.

The arrangement used is shown in figure. S is a source of sodium light. A parallel beam
of light from the lens L1is reflected by the glass plate B inclined at an angle of 45othe
horizontal. L is a plano-convex lens of the large focal length. Newton'srings are viewed
throughB by the travelling microscope M focused on the air film. Circular bright and dark
rings are seen with the centre dark. With the help of a travelling microscope, measure the
diameter of the nth dark ring.

Suppose the diameter of the nth ring = ��

�2� = ���

But,
��
�� =
2
(�� )2
∴ = ���
4
Or

�2� = 4���………. (�)

 AK 25

Measure the diameter of the � + � �ℎ dark ring.

Let it be ��+�

(��+� )2
∴ = (� + �)��
4
Or

(��+� )2 = 4 � + � ��……. . (��)

Subtracting (i) from (ii)

(��+� )2 − �2� = 4���

(��+� )2 − �2�
�= ……. . (���)
4��
Hence, � can be calculated. Suppose the diameters of the 5th ring and the 15th ring are
determined. Then, m = 15-5=10.

(�15 )2 − �5 2
∴ �= ………. . (��)
4 × 10�
The radius of curvature of the lower surface of the lens is determined with the help of a
spherometer but more accurately it is determined by Boy’s method. Hence the wavelength
of a given monochromatic source of light can be determined.

Michelson’s interferometer:
 AK 26

Principle: The amplitude of the incident wave is divided into two parts by
reflection and refraction. These divided beams are sent in two perpendicular
directions are brought together by the plane mirrors to produce interference fringes.

Apparatus: The instrument consisting of two mirrors M1 and M2. M1 and M2 are
front silvered mirrors mounted vertically on two arms perpendicular to each other
of width M2 is fixed and M1 is moving parallel to itself to produce interference.

G1 and G2 are two parallel glass plates of equal thickness which are mounted at an
angle 45° to the incident beam. The ray of light incident on G1 is partly reflected
and partly transmitted.Therefore, G1 is called as beam splitter and G2 is called
compensating plate.To equalize the optical path and S is the source. The light from
the source after refraction through the lens are held parallel when a ray of light is
incident on G1. A Part of light is reflected along AC and a part of light is
transmitted along AB.The reflected ray AC moves towards the mirror M1 and
retraces its path and transmitted along AT.

The transmitted ray AB is moving normal to the mirror M2 and retraces its path
and on G1(glass plate) a part of light is reflected along AC and a part of light is
transmitted along AT.

Since the two transmitted rays behave as coherent to produce interference.

 AK 27

Case 1: When two mirrors M1 andM2are perpendicular to each other than the
reflected ray incident on M1 produces image at M2¹. BetweenM1 and M2¹ a thin air
film is formed, and thickness of the film can be varied by moving the mirror
parallel to itself.The path difference b/w the two interfering waves is � = 2�����

For bright fringe the path difference is ���� = ��

2�−1 �
For dark fringe path difference is 2����� = 2

� �
When the mirror M1 moves by a distance of 4then the path difference changes by 2
then if the two waves interfere destructively to produce a dark fringe.
�
If the mirror M1 is further moved by a distance of 4then the path difference changes
�
by 2
now the two interfering waves interfere constructively to produce a bright
fringe.As a result, it produces successive bright and dark fringes are produced in
the medium.Now the fringes formed at infinity then focus the telescope at infinity
to observe the fringe pattern which are concentric circular fringes called as
Haidinger fringes.

The circular fringes are produced because the two mirrors M1 and M2 are
perpendicular to each other.

Case 2:If the two mirrors are not perpendicular, then between M1 and M2¹ wedge
shape film is formed to produce straight fringes.When a monochromatic light is
replaced by a white source then it produces central dark, and the remaining-colored
fringes are produced.The significance of colored fringes is to locate the zero-path
difference. The important of glass plate G2: Since the reflected ray AC passes
through the glass plate G1 thrice and the transmitted ray only once that is why one
more glass plate of same thickness as that of glass G1 is inclined at an angle 45° to
equalize to the optical path hence Michelson's interferometer.

Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light

The Michelson’s interferometer is set for circular fringes and the position of the
mirror M1 is adjusted to obtain a bright spot at the center of the field of view
 AK 28

Now set the telescope at the center of fringe and move the mirror M1 in any
direction, number of shifted in field of view of telescope is counted

Let on moving mirror M1 through x distance number of fringes shifted is N so the

path difference

2x =Nλ

λ = 2x/N

By using the equation we will calculate wavelength corresponding to distance and

number of fringes shifted through telescope