Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.

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Unit
d.c circuits

1 SIA GROUP

Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. What is a circuit?
Ans:
A circuit is defined as a closed path that transfers energy from source to load. In general, a circuit comprises of energy
sources, connecting wires and loads usually. The energy sources are batteries, generators (or) any current supplying elements
and the loads may be lights (or) lamps (or) motors (or) any current absorbing elements. The circuit is shown in figure.

Figure
Q2. Define the following terms:
(i) Resistor
(ii) Inductor
(iii) Capacitor.
Ans:
(i) Resistor
Resistor is a passive element which absorbs energy whenever a current is passed through it. It is denoted by ‘R’. The
symbolic representation of a resistor is shown in figure (1).

Figure (1)
(ii) Inductor
Inductor is a passive element which stores the energy in the form of magnetic field whenever a current is passed through
it. It is denoted by ‘L’ and its symbolic representation is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2)
(iii) Capacitor
Capacitor is a passive element which stores the energy in the form of electric field whenever a current is passed through
it. It is denoted by ‘C’ and its symbolic representation is shown in figure (3).

Figure (3)
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1.2 Basic electrical Engineering
Q3. Classify all the different types of voltage and Two operations can be performed using source
current sources. transformation technique.
Ans: 1. Converting a given voltage source to a current source.
When ideal source and practical source are considered, 2. Converting a given current source to a voltage source.
then the sources are classified as shown in figure (1). Q5. Give the statements of KCL and KVL.
Ans:
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that, the sum of
the currents entering any node is equal to the sum of currents
leaving that node.
OR
The algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving the
node is zero.

Figure (1)
When independent source and dependent source
are considered, then the sources are classified as shown
in figure (2). Figure (1)
From figure (1),
Current, I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 Þ I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 – I = 0
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) sates that, the algebraic
sum of all branch voltages around any closed path in a circuit
is always zero at all instants of time.

Figure (2)
From figure (2),
Figure (2) V = V1 + V2
Q4. What is source transformation?
Q6. Write down the expressions used in conversion
Ans: of Y to ∆ transformations.
Source Transformation Ans:
Source transformation is a network reduction technique, Expression Used in Y to ∆ (Star to Delta) Transformation
in which one form of source is replaced with its another Let the resistance in star connected network be RA, RB
equivalent form. Using this technique, a complicated network and RC and the resistances in delta connected network be R1,
can be converted into a simple form and hence, calculation can R2 and R3 as shown in figure.
be made easier.
Basically, there are two types of sources i.e., the voltage
source and the current source. A practical voltage source
always have a resistor in series with it and a practical current
source will have a resistor in parallel with it. Using the source
transformation technique, a voltage source in series with a
resistor can be converted to a current source in parallel with
the same resistor. Figure
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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.3
The expressions used in Y to ∆ transformation are as 3. It cannot be applied for networks which contain depend-
figure follows, ent sources.
R A RB + RB RC + RC R A 4. If the network contains non-linear elements like tran-
R1 = sistors, diodes etc, then, superposition theorem is not
RB
applicable.
R A RC Q10. State Thevenin’s theorem.
= RA + RC +
RB Ans:
R R + RB RC + RC R A Any linear network having an active voltage and current
R2 = A B
RA sources with two terminals A and B can be replaced by an
equivalent voltage source (VTh) and equivalent resistance (RTh)
RB RC
= RB + RC + in series combination forming a simple equivalent circuit.
RA
Where, VTh is the open circuit voltage across the ter-
R A RB + RB RC + RC R A minals A and B and RTh is the equivalent resistance as seen
R3 =
RC from the terminals A and B when the independent sources are
R A RB deactivated.
= RA + RB + RTh
RC A
Q7. Write short note on following,
(i) Mesh analysis VTh –+ RL
(ii) Nodal analysis.
Ans: B
Figure: Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
(i) Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis. It is used Q11. What are the limitations of Thevenin’s theorem?
to determine voltage and currents of planar electrical Ans:
circuits. This method uses Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law The following are the limitations of Thevenin’s theorem,
(KVL). 1. Thevenin’s theorem is applicable only for linear circuits.
(ii) Nodal Analysis But we know that practically no circuit is 100% linear.
Nodal analysis is also known as node-voltage analysis It is linear only for a specified range of values. Hence,
(or) branch current method. It is used to find the potential Thevenin’s theorem is applicable only for a limited range
difference between the nodes in terms of branch currents. of values.
This analysis uses the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). 2. The power calculated using Thevenin’s equivalent cir-
Q8. State superposition theorem. cuit is not same as that calculated by taking the original
network. This is so because the power of any element
Ans:
is proportional to square of current or square of voltage
“This theorem states that in a linear network comprising but not linearly dependent.
of number of independent sources, the total response in any
3. The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit has an equivalent V-I
branch of the network is equal to the algebraic sum of individual
characteristic with respect to load only.
response acting alone i.e., considering only one source at a time
Q12. State Norton’s theorem.
and making all other independent sources to zero”. However,
the dependent sources must be retained in the network. Ans:

Q9. State superposition theorem limitations. The Norton’s theorem states that any two terminals linear
network with current sources, voltage sources and resistances
Ans:
(impedances) can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
1. The first and the foremost drawback of superposition of a current source in parallel with a resistance (impedance),
theorem is that it fails to apply if the network contains where the value of the current source is equal to the current
less than two independent sources. passing through the short-circuited terminals and the resistance
2. Calculation of power is not possible using superposi- is equal to the resistance measured between the terminals of the
tion theorem as power (which is non-linear quantity) is network with all the energy sources replaced by their internal
proportional to the square of current (or) voltage. resistance. The Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in figure,
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1.4 Basic electrical Engineering
By using the following relation, the Thevenin’s voltage
source can be converted into Norton’s current source.
VTh
IN =
RTh
This Norton’s current source will be in parallel with
resistance RN as shown in figure.
Figure

Q13. List the limitations of Norton’s theorem.

Ans:
1. Efficiency of the network cannot be determined by this Figure (ii)
theorem. The network in figure (ii) represents the Norton’s equiva-
2. It is not applicable for magnetically coupled circuits. lent circuit.
3. Non-linear and unilateral circuits cannot be simplified
by Norton’s theorem.
4. Also it is not applicable to the circuits containing active
load.
Q14. List any three advantages of Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems.

Ans:
The following are the advantages for both Thevenin’s
and Norton’s theorems:
1. Reduces the complex networks to simple networks.
2. Both the theorems are applicable to linear networks.
3. Both active and bilateral networks can be solved by these
theorems.
4. In impedance-matching problems, both the theorems are
very much useful for determination of load resistance.
Q15. How to convert Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to
Norton’s equivalent circuit?
Ans:
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in figure (i).

Figure (i)
Where,
VTh is the Thevenin’s voltage
RTh is the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance
The internal resistance will be same for both Thevenin’s
and Norton’s theorem i.e.,
RTh = RN

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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.5

Part-b
Essay Questions with Solutions
1.1 Electrical circuit elements (r, l and c), voltage and current sources
Q16. What are active and passive elements? Explain in detail.
Ans:
The elements of a network are classified into two types as follows,
1. Active elements
2. Passive elements.
1. Active Elements
The elements which are capable of delivering energy to the devices or networks connected across them are known as
active elements. Basically, there are two kinds of active elements as follows,
(i) Independent voltage source
(ii) Independent current source.
(i) An independent voltage source is a source in which the voltage across the terminals is independent of current passing
through it.

Figure (1)
Figure (1) shows the circuit representation and V-I characteristics of an ideal source. The voltage source is termed as a
D.C voltage source if it has a constant voltage and is represented as in figure (2).

Figure (2)
The V- I characteristics of a practical voltage source is shown in figure (3).

I
Figure (3)
(ii) An independent current source is a source which can deliver a constant current independent of the voltage across its
terminals. The circuit representation and the V- I characteristics of an ideal current source are shown in figure (4).

Figure (4)
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1.6 Basic electrical Engineering
Practically, the current sources does not possess an ideal Pure inductor (zero internal resistance) is a non-dissi-
behaviour. The V- I characteristics of a practical current pative passive element which only stores the energy,
source is shown in figure (5). but a practical inductor (with some internal resistance)
partially stores energy and partially dissipates it.
It is denoted by L and the units of inductance is Henry
(H).
Consider an inductor shown in figure (7).

Figure (5)
2. Passive Elements
The elements which cannot deliver power and can only Figure (7)
receive the power are known as passive elements.
Let ‘V’ be the voltage across it and i be the current
Basically, there are three kinds of passive elements as through it. The voltage across the inductor is given by,
follows,
(i) Resistor V=
(ii) Inductor
From above equation we can see that the voltage across
(iii) Capacitor.
the inductor is a function of time. Hence, the voltage
(i) Resistor across the inductor cannot change instantaneously.
Resistor is a passive element which absorbs energy
Whenever a D.C supply is given across the inductor, it
whenever a current is passed through it. It is denoted
acts as short circuit.
by ‘R’. The unit of resistor is Ohm (W). Resistance is
defined as the opposition offered by the element for the (iii) Capacitor
flow of current through it.
Capacitor is a passive element which stores the energy
The resistance of any material is given by,
in the form of electric field whenever a current is passed
ρl through it.
R=
A
Where, It is denoted by C and the units of capacitance is Farads
ρ = Specific resistance (F). Pure capacitor (with zero internal resistance) is a non-
l = Length of the material dissipative passive element which only stores the energy,
but a practical capacitor (with some internal resistance)
A = Area of cross-section.
partially stores it and partially dissipates it.
Consider resistor shown in figure (6).
Consider a capacitor as shown in figure (8).
C

Figure (6)
Let ‘V ’ be the voltage applied across it and I be the
current through it. Then according to Ohm’s law, Figure (8)
V ∝I
Let V be the voltage across it and i be the current through
V = IR it. Then the current through the capacitor is given by,
V dV
R= Ω i = C
I dt
Whenever a current is passed through a resistor there is, From the above equation we can say that the current
(a) A voltage drop across it given by, through a capacitor is a function of time. Hence, the cur-
V = IR rent through the capacitor can’t change instantaneously.
(b) A power loss in the form of heat given by, Whenever a D.C supply is given across a capacitor, it
P = I 2R acts as open circuit.
(ii) Inductor
Voltage Current Relation of Passive Elements
Inductor is a passive element which stores the energy in
the form of magnetic field whenever a current is passed For answer refer Unit-I, Q18, Topic: Voltage-Current
through it. Relationship of Passive Elements.

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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.7
Q17. Distinguish between active and passive elements with suitable examples.
Ans:
Active Elements Passive Elements
1. Active element is an element which can energize a 1. A passive element is an element which consume the
circuit or network, i.e., it delivers a net amount of energy being delivered by an active element. Some
energy. passive elements stores energy.
2. Active elements supply energy. 2. Passive elements utilize electrical energy either by
converting or storing it.
3. Active elements can supply an average power for an 3. Passive elements cannot supply average power
infinite time to external circuit. greater than zero for an infinite time to external circuit.
4. Examples of active elements are, 4. Examples of passive elements are,
(i) Voltage source and (i) Resistor
(ii) Current source. (ii) Inductor and (iii) Capacitor.
(i) Voltage Source
(i) Resistor
Voltage source is one which maintains constant Resistor converts electrical energy into heat
voltage at its terminal irrespective of the load. energy. Unit of resistor is Ohm (W) and it is
Units are volts (V). denoted by R.

(ii) Current Source (ii) Inductor
Current source is one which delivers a current Units of inductor is Henry (H) and it denoted by L.
with respect to load. Units are Ampere (A). It stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.

(iii) Capacitor
Units of capacitor is Farad (F) and it is denoted by C.
It stores electrical energy in the form electric field.

Q18. Explain voltage-current relationship for passive elements.

Ans:
Voltage-Current Relationship of Passive Elements
The passive elements R, L, C are defined by the way in which the current and voltage are related for an individual element.
(i) If the current i and voltage V are related by a constant for a single element, then the element is a resistance R. The resistance
R represents the constant of proportionality.
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1.8 Basic electrical Engineering

dV
∴ Current, i = C
dt
1
Voltage, V =
C ∫ idt + K 2 [ K 2 = Constant]
Power, P = Vi = VC dV
dt
Figure (1)
The units of capacitance C is Farad (F).
∴ Voltage, V = Ri (Ohm’s law)
Q19. What is the difference between an ideal source
V and a practical source? Draw the relevant
Current, i =
R characteristics of the above sources.
Power, P = Vi = i 2 R Ans:
The units of resistance R is Ohm (Ω). An energy source can be divided into two types as
follows,
(ii) If the current and voltage are related, such that the
voltage is the time derivative of current, then the element 1. Ideal source
is an inductance L. The inductance L represents the
2. Practical source.
constant of proportionality.
Ideal and practical sources are further subdivided into
four types. They are as follows,
(i) Ideal voltage source
(ii) Practical voltage source
(iii) Ideal current source
(iv) Practical current source.
(i) Ideal Voltage Source
Figure (2) An ideal voltage source is shown in figures.

di
∴ Voltage, V = L
dt
1
Current, i = ∫ Vdt + K 1 [ K1 = Constant]
L
di
Power, P = Vi = Li Figure (1)
dt
The units of inductance L is Henry (H).
V'
(iii) If the voltage and current are related such that, the current
is the time derivative of the voltage, then the element
is a capacitance C. The capacitance C is the constant of
proportionality.
Figure (2) Figure (3)
In an ideal voltage source, the voltage across its terminals
is constant always i.e., it is independent of current i.
The characteristics are shown in figure (3). In the volt-
age source, the voltage may vary depending on the time. This
is shown in figure (2) as V(t).
(ii) Practical Voltage Source
In a practical voltage source, the voltage at the terminals
depends on the current. The characteristics of practical voltage
Figure (3) source are shown in figure (4).

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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.9
(i) Independent Voltage Source
A voltage source which maintains a constant voltage
that does not change, when changes takes place in an electric
network.
(a) In ideal independent voltage source, voltage (V) is
independent of current (I) through the source. It should
have zero internal resistance.
Figure (4)
(b) Ideal independent voltage source does not exist. In
(iii) Ideal Current Source practice, independent voltage source have some internal
In an ideal current source, the current is independent of resistance due to which voltage decreases with an
voltage across terminals. increase in current.
(c) Practical voltage source should possess minimum
internal resistance.

Figure (5)
The current in an ideal current source may vary Figure (2)
according to time.
(ii) Independent Current Source
(iv) Practical Current Source
A current source which gives constant current that does
In practical current source, the current depends on the not change when changes takes place in an electric network.
terminal voltage. (a) In ideal independent current source, current (I) is
independent of voltage (V) across the source. It has
infinite internal resistance.
(b) Ideal independent current sources does not exist.
In practice, independent current sources have some
internal resistance due to which current decreases with
an increase in voltage.
Figure (6)
The magnitude of current decreases as voltage across
terminals increases.
Q20. Differentiate between independent and
dependent sources. What is their circuit
representation?
Figure (3)
Ans:
Independent Sources
Independent sources are of two types as follows,
(i) Independent voltage source
(ii) Independent current source.
Examples of Independent sources are D.C (or) A.C Figure (4)
generators, batteries. (c) In practical current sources internal resistance should
be maximum.
Dependent Sources
In case of dependent sources, the value of the source
depends on some parameter existing in the same circuit. The
parameter on which the value of source depends can be either
a voltage across any element or a current through an element
Figure (1) in the same circuit.
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1.10 Basic electrical Engineering
Examples of dependent sources are operational amplifiers Figure (7) shows a voltage dependent current source.
and transistors. Hence, based on the type of dependent variable, Vx is the dependent variable and k3 is a scaling constant having
dependent sources are classified as, units ampere/volts.
(i) Voltage dependent voltage source
(ii) Current dependent voltage source
(iii) Voltage dependent current source
(iv) Current dependent current source.
(i) Voltage Dependent Voltage Source
In this type of dependent source, the value of the source
is dependent on the voltage across an element i.e., the value of
the voltage source is a function of voltage.
Figure (5) shows a voltage dependent voltage source. Figure (7)
Vx is the dependent variable and k1 is a constant. The variable Vx will be clearly defined in the network.
If due to some reason, Vx is zero, then the value of the source
will be zero and hence the current supplied by it will be zero
and now it has to be replaced with an open circuit.
(iv) Current Dependent Current Source
In this type, the value of the dependent source depends
on the current through an element i.e., the value of the current
source is a function of current.

Figure (5)
The variable Vx will be clearly defined in the network.
If due to some reason, Vx is zero then the value of dependent
source will also be zero and hence the voltage supplied by the
source will be zero and it has to be replaced with a short circuit.
(ii) Current Dependent Voltage Source
In this type, the value of the dependent source depends
on the current through an element i.e., the value of the voltage Figure (8)
source is a function of current.
Figure (8) shows a current dependent current source. ix
Figure (6) shows a current dependent voltage source. ix is the dependent variable and k4 is a dimensionless constant.
is the dependent variable and k2 is a scaling factor having units
The variable ix will be clearly defined in the network. If due to
volts/ampere.
some reason, ix is zero, then the current supplied by the source
will be zero and hence it has to be replaced with an open circuit.
Q21. Explain source transformation with suitable
examples.
Ans:
Source Transformation
For answer refer Unit-I, Q4.
1. Converting a Given Voltage Source to a Current
Source
Figure (6) Consider a given voltage source with magnitude V volts
The variable ix will be clearly defined in the network. having a resistor ‘R’ in series as shown in figure (a).
If due to some reason, ix is zero, then the value of dependent
source will be zero and hence the voltage supplied by it will
be zero and it has to be replaced with a short circuit.
(iii) Voltage Dependent Current Source
In this type, the value of the dependent source depends
on the voltage across an element i.e., the current supplied by it
will be a function of voltage. Figure (a) Figure (b)
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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.11
The voltage source can be converted into a current source
in parallel with the same resistor ‘R’ as shown in figure
(b). The value of current source is given by,
V
I= amp
R
2. Converting a Given Current Source to a Voltage
Source
Consider a given current source with magnitude I amperes Figure (2)
having a resistor ‘R’ in parallel as shown in figure (c). V −20
∴ I= = =–4A
R 5

Figure (c) Figure (d)

The current source can be converted into a voltage source
in series with the same resistor R as shown in figure (d).
The value of voltage source is given by, V = IR. Figure (3)

Q22. Find the equivalent voltage source across a, b 100

∴ I= = 5A
terminals of the following figure. 20
Now, the circuit shown in figure (1) can be redrawn as
shown as figure (4).

Figure (4)

Figure Now, replacing 4 A, 5 A and 5A current source with a

single current source and single equivalent resistance in parallel.
Ans:
The value of equivalent current source is given by,
The given circuit is shown in figure (1),
I= 5 – 4 – 5
=–4A
= 4 A (downwards)
The value of equivalent resistance is given by,
1 1 1 1
= + +
Req 5 10 20

1
= 0.35
Req
Figure (1)
1
To find the equivalent voltage source, replacing the ⇒ Req =
0.35
voltage sources by their respective equivalent current sources
as shown in figures (2) and (3). ∴ Req = 2.85 Ω

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1.12 Basic electrical Engineering
Now, the circuit reduces as shown in figure (5).

Figure (2)
∴ V 4
I= = =2A
R 2
Figure (5) Now, the circuit can be redrawn as shown in figure (3).
∴ Equivalent voltage source,
V = IR
= 4 × 2.85
= 11.4 V
Equivalent voltage source representation of the original
network is shown in figure (6),
Figure (3)
Combining the 2 A and 2 A current sources into a single
current source.
2A+2A=4A
Combining the resistances into a single resistance i.e.,
2×2
2 Ω || 2 Ω = =1Ω
2+2
Now, the circuit reduces to as shown in figure (4).
Figure (6)
Q23. Find the voltage and current source equivalent
representation of the following network across
ab, as shown in figure.

Figure (4): Equivalent Current Source Representation

This is the equivalent current source representation of
the original network of figure (1).
Figure
To obtain the equivalent voltage source representation,
Ans: replace the current source in figure (4) by its equivalent voltage
The circuit diagram is shown in figure (1). source as shown in figure (5).

Figure (1) Figure (5)

To find the voltage and current source equivalent, re- ∴ V = IR = 4 × 1 = 4 V
placing the voltage source by its equivalent current source as Equivalent voltage source representation of the original
shown in figure (2). network is shown in figure (6).
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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.13

Figure (6)
Q24. Find the voltage across terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ of the circuit as shown in figure using source transformation.
2W a 1W

+
1V 2W 3A
–

b
Figure
Ans:
The given circuit is as shown in figure (1).
2W a 1W

+
1V 2W 3A
–

b
Figure (1)
To find,
The voltage across a b terminals, Vab = ?
To find the voltage across a b terminals, replacing the voltage source by its respective current source as shown in
figure (2).
2W

0.5 A

1V Þ 2W

Figure (2)
V
\ I = R
1
= 2 = 0.5 A
The circuit shown in figure (1) is redrawn as shown in figure (3).
a 1W

0.5 A 2 2 3A

Figure (3)
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1.14 Basic electrical Engineering
In figure (3), the resistances 2 W and 2 W are in parallel.
Hence, the equivalent resistance is given by,
1.2 kIRCHHOFF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
LAWs, analysis of simple circuits
2×2 with d.c excitation
Req = 2 + 2
4 Q25. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws.
= 4
Ans:
= 1W Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Thus, the circuit can be represented as shown in figure (4). This law states that “the sum of the currents entering
a 1W into any node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that
node”. When two or more branches are interconnected in any
parallel circuit, the junction point is called the node.
Consider the circuit shown in figure (1).
0.5 A 1W 3A

Figure (4)
Replacing 0.5 A, 3 A current source with a single current
source, we get,
I = 0.5 + 3
= 3.5 A
Figure (1)
Hence, the circuit can be modified as shown in figure (5).
1W The current I entering the node P is divided into currents
a
I1, I2, I3 and I4 which flows out of node P. Therefore, with the
Kirchhoff’s current law, we have,
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 i.e., current in node P is equal to total
3.5 A 1W
current leaving node P.
If node Q is considered, Kirchhoff’s current law will be
b same as applied to node P.
Figure (5) ∴ I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = I
The current source can be replaced by its equivalent Consider the following figure (2).
voltage source as shown in figure (6).
1W 1W
a

3.5 V +
–

b
Figure (6)
Applying KVL to the circuit, we get,
–1(I) – 1(I) + 3.5 = 0 Figure (2)
–2(I) = –3.5 Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to figure (2), we have,
3.5 I1 + I3 + I2 = I4 + I5 + I6
I = 2
I1 + I3 + I2 – I4 – I5 – I6 = 0
= 1.75 A Therefore, from the above relation it is clear that the
Voltage across a-b terminals, algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a node is zero.
Vab = I × R Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
This law states that “the algebraic sum of all branch
= 1.75 × 2
voltages around any closed path in a circuit is always zero at
= 3.5 V all instants of time”.
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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.15
A voltage drop occurs due to the loss of energy whenever In an electrical circuit containing P nodes, B branches,
the current passes through a resistor. The direction of current I the number of independent mesh equations is given by,
should be taken such that it leaves the positive terminal of the e = B – (P – 1)
voltage source and enters the negative terminal as the current Þ e=B–P+1
always flows from higher to lower potential.
The number of mesh currents is equal to the number of
Consider the following circuit diagram. mesh equations.
Steps Involved in Mesh Analysis
1. Identify whether the given electrical circuit is planar (a
circuit without having crossovers) or not.
2. If the given circuit is planar, then identify the number
of meshes. (A mesh is a loop or closed path without any
other loops within it).
3. Assign mesh currents arbitrarily for the meshes identi-
fied.
4. Apply KVL to the meshes identified.
Figure (3) 5. Solve the system of simultaneous equations which
The voltage drop occurs across each resistor as the are obtained by the application of KVL at each of the
current passes through the circuit. The sum of the voltage drop meshes.
around the loop will be equal to the total voltage in that loop. Example
The voltages at points 1, 3, 5, 7 will be more as compared to Using mesh analysis write the mesh current equations and
points 2, 4, 6, 8. determine the currents for the circuit shown in the figure (1).
Therefore, from the Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we have,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
The current supplied by the voltage source can be
obtained through Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Using Ohm’s law, the voltage across each resistor is
given by,
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3, V4 = IR4 Figure (1)
Then from Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we have, Step I
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 The given electrical circuit is planar. Hence, mesh
analysis can be applied to it.
∴ V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4
Step II
V
∴ I = Two meshes M1, M2 are present in the given electrical
R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
circuit.
Q26. What is mesh analysis? Explain the steps Step III
involved in it with an example.
Assign mesh currents I1 and I2 for the meshes that are
Ans: identified.

Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis is also called as “loop analysis” or “mesh
current method”. This method is carried out using Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law (KVL). Mesh analysis is applicable only for planar
networks.
Mesh analysis is used to determine the voltages and cur-
rents of the given electrical circuit. KVL is applied for each of
the meshes and unknown voltages and currents are determined. Figure (2)

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1.16 Basic electrical Engineering
Step IV
Applying KVL for mesh 1, we get,
10 = 5I1 + 2(I1 – I2) ⇒ 7I1 – 2I2 = 10 ... (1)
Applying KVL for mesh 2, we get,
2(I2 – I1) + 10I2 = –50 ⇒ –2I1 + 12I2 = – 50 ... (2)
Step V
Solving the equations (1) and (2), we get,

Q27. What is nodal analysis? Explain it with an example.
Ans:
Nodal analysis is also called as “node-voltage analysis” or the “branch current method”. This method is carried out using
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
Nodal analysis is used to find out the potential difference between the nodes in an electrical circuit. KCL is applied at
each of the electrical nodes and potential difference between the nodes is determined in terms of branch currents.
In an electrical circuit containing P nodes, one out of the P nodes is chosen as the reference node. Hence, for an electrical
circuit containing ‘P’ nodes a total of P – 1 node equations and P – 1 node voltages are obtained.
Steps Involved in Nodal Analysis
1. Identify all the nodes (i.e., the points where elements are connected) in a given electrical circuit.
2. From the identified nodes, select one node as the reference node.
3. Assign the variables to the nodes whose voltages are unknown.
4. Apply KCL at each of the unknown node voltages.
5. Solve the system of simultaneous equations which are obtained by the application of KCL at each of the nodes.
Example
Determine the currents in each branch and also write the node voltage equations for the electrical network shown in
figure (1).

Figure (1)
Step I
In the given electrical network, nodes A, B and C are identified.

Figure (2)
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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.17
Step II VB − 10
Select node C as the reference node. Current in 1 Ω branch =
1
Step III
10.84 − 10
Here, the voltages at nodes A and B are unknown. Hence, =
1
assign variables VA and VB to them.
= 0.84 Amps
Step IV
Q28. Determine V1 and V2 in the circuit shown in
below figure.

+
–

Figure (3)
Figure
Applying KCL at node A, we get,
Ans:
VA V − VB
+ A = 5 ... (1) Given circuit is as shown in figure (1),
10 3

Applying KCL at node B, we get,

V − VA V V − 10
B + B + B = 0 ... (2)
3 5 1
Step V
Solving the system of simultaneous equations (1) and +
–
(2), we get,
13V A − 10VB = 150
− 5V A + 23VB = 150 Figure (1)
V A = 19.89 Volts Let I1, I2 and I3 be the loop currents as shown in figure (2).
VB = 10.84 Volts

VA
Current in 10 Ω branch =
10
19.89
=
10

= 1.989 Amps
VB
Current in 5 Ω branch= Figure (2)
5
10.84 Applying KVL to the loop a b c d e a,
=
5 ⇒ 2I1 + 2(I1 – I3) + 2(I1 – I2) = 0
= 2.168 Amps ⇒ 2I1 + 2I1 – 2I3 + 2I1 – 2I2 = 0

V A − VB ⇒ 6I1 – 2I2 – 2I3 = 0 ... (1)

Current in 3 Ω branch=
3 Applying KVL to the loop e d g f e,
19.89 − 10.84 ⇒ 2(I2 – I1) + 2(I2 –I3) = 12
=
3 ⇒ 2I2 – 2I1 + 2I2 – 2I3 = 12
= 3.01 Amps ⇒ – 2I1 + 4I2 – 2I3 = 12 ... (2)

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1.18 Basic electrical Engineering
Applying KVL to the loop d c h g d, Q29. Determine the current supplied by each
⇒ 2(I3 – I1) + 2I3 + 2(I3 –I2) = 0 battery in the circuit shown in figure by using
⇒ 2I3 – 2I1 + 2I3 + 2I3 – 2I2 = 0 Kirchhoff’s laws.
⇒ – 2I1 – 2I2 + 6I3 = 0
⇒ 2I1 + 2I2 – 6I3 = 0 ... (3)
By solving equations (1) and (2), we get,
2[6I1 – 2I2 – 2I3 = 0]
6[– 2I1 + 4I2 – 2I3 = 12]
0 + (– 4 + 24)I2 + (– 4 – 12)I3 = 72
⇒ 20I2 – 16 I3 = 72
⇒ 5I2 – 4I3 = 18 ... (4) Figure

By solving equations (2) and (3), we get, Ans:

– 2I1 + 4I2 – 2I3 = 12 Let the node voltages at nodes (a) and (b) be Va and Vb
2I1 + 2I2 – 6I3 = 0 respectively as shown in figure (1).
6I2 – 8I3 = 12
⇒ 3I2 – 4I3 = 6 ... (5)
By solving equations (4) and (5), we get,
5I2 – 4I3 = 18
3I2 – 4I3 = 6
– + –
2I2 + 0 = 12

I2 = 6 A
Figure (1)
Substituting I2 value in equation (5), we get,
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node (a), we get,
3(6) – 4I3 = 6
⇒ 18 – 4I3= 6 I1 + I2 + I3 = 0

6 − 18 Va − 20 Va − 5 Va − 5 − Vb
⇒ I3 = ⇒ + + =0
−4 5 3 4
⇒ I3 = 3A Va 20 V 5 Va 5 V
⇒ – + a – + – – b =0
Substituting I2, I3 values in equation (3), we get, 5 5 3 3 4 4 4
2I1 + 2(6) – 6(3) = 0 47 1 83
⇒ 2I1 + 12 – 18 = 0 ⇒ Va – Vb = ... (1)
60 4 12
⇒ 2I1 – 6 = 0
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node (b), we get,
6
⇒ I1 =
2 – I3 + I4 + I5 = 0
⇒ I1 = 3 A
 V − 5 − Vb  V −5 Vb − 30
From figures (1) and (2), we get, ⇒–  a  + b + =0
 4  2 8
V1 = I1 × 2
⇒ V1 = 3 × 2 −Va 5 Vb Vb 5 Vb 30
⇒ + + + – + – =0
⇒ V1 = 6 V 4 4 4 2 2 8 8
And, V2 = I3 × 2 −1 1 1 1 −5 5 30
⇒ V2 = 3 × 2 ⇒ Va + Vb  + +  = + +
4  4 2 8 4 2 8
⇒ V2 = 6 V
−1 7
∴ V1 = 6 V, V2 = 6 V ⇒ Va + V = 5 ... (2)
4 8 b

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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.19
On solving equations (1) and (2), we get,
3505
Va = = 11.722 V
299
2710
Vb = = 9.064 V
299
Va − 20
∴ I1 =
5
11.722 − 20 Figure (2)
=
5 Q30. Two resistances when they are in series
= – 1.656 A has an equivalent resistance of 9 ohms and
when connected in parallel has an equivalent
Va − 5 11.722 − 5 resistance of 2 ohms. Find the resistances
I2 = = and the ratio of the voltage and current
3 3
sharing between these elements if supply
= 2.241 A voltage is 50 V.
Va − 5 − Vb 11.722 − 5 − 9.064 Ans:
I3 = =
4 4 Let R1, R2 be the two resistances. It is given that when
they are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is 9 Ω and
= – 0.586 A
when they are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance
Vb − 5 is 2 Ω.
9.064 − 5
I4 = = = 2.032 A
2 2
Vb − 30 9.064 − 30
I5 = = = – 2.617 A
8 8
Hence, the current supplied by 20 V battery,
I6 = – I1
Figure (a): Series Connection
= – (– 1.656)
= 1.656 A
The current supplied by 5 V battery which is in series
with 3 Ω resistor,
I3 Ω = – I2
= – 2.241 A
The current supplied by 5 V battery which is in series Figure (b): Parallel Connection
with 4 Ω resistor, 1. Values of Resistances
I4 Ω = – I3 The equivalent resistance when connected in series is
given by,
= – (– 0.586)
Req1 = R1 + R2 = 9 ... (1)
= 0.586 A The equivalent resistance when connected in parallel is
The current supplied by 5 V battery which is in series given by,
R1 R2
with 2 Ω resistor, Req2 = = 2 ... (2)
R1 + R2
I2 Ω = – I4
Substituting equation (1) in equation (2), we get,
= – 2.032 A R1 R2
The current supplied by 30 V battery, = 2
9
I = – I5 R1 R2 = 18 ... (3)
= – (– 2.617) We know that,

= 2.617 A (a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab

The current supplied by each battery in the circuit is Using the above identity, we have,
shown in figure (2). (R1 – R2)2 = (R1 + R2)2 – 4R1R2 ... (4)

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1.20 Basic electrical Engineering
Substituting equations (1) and (3) in equation (4) we get, (b) When Connected in Parallel
(R1 – R2)2 = (9)2 – 4(18)
⇒ (R1 – R2)2 = 81 – 72
⇒ (R1 – R2)2 = 9
∴ R1 – R2 = 3 ... (5)
Solving equations (1) and (5), we get,
Figure (d)
R1 + R2 = 9
50
R1 − R2 = 3 I R = = 8.333 A
1 6
2 R1 = 12 50
I R2 = = 16.666 A
3
∴ R1 = 6
I R1 8.333
R1 + R2 = 9 ∴ = = 0.5
I R2 16.666
R2 = 9 – R1
=9–6 VR1 = VR2 = 50 V [ Voltage remains same in
case of parallel circuit]
∴ R2 = 3 VR1 50
∴ = =1
R1 = 6 VR2
50
2. Ratio of Voltage and Current Q31. Three resistances are connected in parallel
(a) When Connected in Series having the ratio of 1:2:3, the total is 100 W when
10 V is applied to the combinations, find the
values of the resistances.
Ans:
Given that,
Voltage, V = 10 V
Total power, P = 100 W
Ratio of resistances connected in parallel = 1:2:3
Figure (c)
Let, the three resistances be x, 2x and 3x.
Let I R1 , I R2 be the current flowing through R1 and R2
The circuit diagram for the given data is shown in figure,
and VR1 , VR2 be the voltage across R1 and R2.

The total current of the circuit shown in figure (c) is,

V 50
I = = = 5.555 A
R1 + R2 6+3

In case of series circuit, current remains same hence,

I R = I R2 = I = 5.555
1

I R1 5.555
∴ = =1
I R2 5.555
Figure
Voltage across R1, VR1 = 6 × 5.555
Let ‘I’ be the current flowing through the circuit.
= 33.33 V
Total power consumed is given by,
Voltage across R2, VR2 = 3 × 5.555 P = VI
= 16.66 V ⇒ 100 = 10I
VR1 33.33 ⇒ I = 10 A
∴ = =2
VR2 16.666 ∴ Current, I = 10 A

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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.21
Let, the equivalent resistance of three parallel resistors To determine,
R1, R2 and R3 be ‘Req’.
Using node-1 analysis, power loss in each resistor,
Equivalent resistance ‘Req’ of the parallel circuit is
given by, i.e., P2 Ω = ?

1 1 1 1 P1 Ω = ?
= + +
Req R1 R2 R3 P3 Ω = ?

1 1 1 P2 Ω = ?
= + +
x 2 x 3x Applying KCL at node-1, we get,

6+3+ 2 11 V1 V1 + 10 − V2 V1 − V2
= = 4= + +
6x 6x 2 3 1
6x  1 1 1  1  10
∴ Req = Ω ⇒ 4 = V1  + +  − V2  + 1 +
11
 2 3 1 3  3
Given,
Total power = 100 W ⇒ 11 4 2
V1 − V2 − = 0 ... (1)
⇒ I Req = 100
2 6 3 3
Applying KVL at node-2, we get,
6x
⇒ 10 × 2
= 100 V2 − V1 V2 − V1 − 10 V2
11 2= + +
1 3 2
6x
⇒ =1
11 ⇒  1  1 1  10
2 = V1 − 1 −  + V2 1 + +  −
11  3   3 2 3
∴ x== 1.833 Ω
6
⇒ = 0 ... (2)
∴ The values of resistances are,
R1 = 1x = 1.833 Ω
R2 = 2x = 2 × 1.833 = 3.666 Ω On solving equations (1) and (2), we get,

R3 = 3x = 3 × 1.833 = 5.5 Ω V1= 5.26 Volts

Q32. Find the power loss in the resistors of the V2= 6.74 Volts
network for the figure shown using nodal
∴ Power loss across 2 Ω resistor connected at node 1.
analysis.
P2 Ω = I 2Ω
2
R

V1
But, I2 Ω =
2
5.26
=
2
= 2.63
Figure ∴ P2 Ω = (2.63)2 × 2
Ans:
= 13.83 Watts
Given circuit is shown in figure,
Power loss across 1 Ω resistor connected between node-1
and node-2.
2
P1 Ω = I1Ω .R

V1 − V2
But, I1 Ω =
1
= 5.26 – 6.74
Figure = –1.48 A

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1.22 Basic electrical Engineering
Here negative sign indicates that the current is in At Node 1
opposite direction.
V1 − (−10) V1 V1 − V2
∴ P1Ω = I1Ω
2
R + + =0
6 5 3
= (– 1.48)2 × 1 V1 + 10 V1 V1 V2
⇒ + + − =0
= 2.19 Watts 6 5 3 3
Power loss across 2 Ω resistor connected across node-2.
1 1 1 V −10
P2 Ω= (I2Ω)2R ⇒ V1  + +  − 2 =
6 5 3 3 6
V2
But, I2 Ω =
2  5 + 6 + 10  V2 −5
⇒ V1   − =
6.74  30  3 3
=
2
= 3.37 A  21  V −5
⇒ V1   − 2 =
 30  3 3
∴ P2 Ω= (3.37)2 × 2
7 V −5
= 22.71 Watts ⇒ V1   − 2 =
10  3 3
Power loss in 3 Ω resistor is given by,
P3 Ω = (I3 Ω )2 R
⇒  21V1 − 10V2  − 5
V + 10 − V2 5.26 + 10 − 6.74  30 = 3
But, I3 Ω = 1 =  
3 3
= 2.84 −5× 30
⇒ 21 V1 – 10 V2 =
3
∴ P3 Ω = (2.84)2 × 3
= 24.19 Watts ⇒ 21 V1 – 10 V2 = –50 ... (1)

Q33. By using nodal analysis, find the current flowing At Node 2

through 3 ohms resistor.
V2 V2 − (−5) V2 − V1
⇒ + + =0
2 4 3

V2 V2 5 V2 V1
⇒ + + + − =0
2 4 4 3 3

− V1 1 1 1 −5
⇒ + V2  + +  =
3  2 4 3 4

Figure − V1  6+3+ 4  −5
⇒ + V2   =
Ans: 3  12  4
The network given is shown in figure wherein the cor-
responding node voltages are V1 and V2. − V1  13  −5
⇒ + V2   =
3  12  4

− 4V1 + 13V2 −5
⇒ =
12 4
−5
⇒ – 4V1 + 13 V2 = × 12
4
⇒ – 4V1 + 13 V2 = – 15 ... (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get,
Figure
V1 = – 3.43 V
Current through 3 Ω resistor, I3Ω = ?
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, V2 = – 2.21 V

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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.23
V2 − V1 Step II
∴ Current through 3 Ω, I3Ω =
3 Repeat the above procedure for each independent source.
Let only current source 5 A is operative now and all other
−2.21 − (−3.43) 1.22
= = sources are inoperative. The circuit is modified as,
3 3
= 0.41 A
∴ I 3Ω = 0.41 A

1.3 superposition theorem

Q34. State and explain the superposition theorem.
Ans:
Statement Figure (3)

For answer refer Unit-I, Q8. 5

∴ i5 = (5) × = 3.125 A
3+5
Explanation Step III
This theorem is valid only for linear system. To determine the net branch response utilising superposi-
An independent voltage source can be made inoperative tion theorem, just add all the responses obtained in step-I and
by replacing it by a short-circuit and an independent current step-II considering their voltage polarities and current direc-
source can be made inoperative by replacing it by an open- tions.
circuit. ∴ The net response in 3Ω branch is,
This theorem can be better understood with a numeri- I = i20 + i5 = 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
cal example. Consider the circuit which has two independent
sources as follows, Q35. Is superposition valid for power? Substantiate
your answer.
Ans:
Superposition theorem is valid only for linear systems.
It cannot be applied for power because the equation for power
is non-linear.
Consider the circuit shown below.
Figure (1)
Steps for Applying Superposition Theorem
Step I
Keep one independent source active and other sources
are inoperative. Obtain the branch response (voltage or current).
By superposition theorem,
Let, only 20 V source is operative and all other sources Figure (1)
are inoperative. The circuit now gets modified as, When V1 is acting, let the current through RL be I '.

Figure (2)
Figure (2)
∴ Power = (I') RL 2
20
∴ i20 = ⇒ i20 = 2.5 A
5+3 When V2 is acting, let the current through RL be I ".

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1.24 Basic electrical Engineering
Let V1 be the voltage at node (1),
Applying KCL at node (1), we get,

⇒ V1 − 10 V1 V
+ + =0
10 20 2 + 5

1 1 1
Figure (3) ⇒ V1  + + –1=0
10 20 7 
∴ Power = (I")2RL
The total current through RL by superposition is, ⇒ V1[0.2928] = 1
I = I ' + I"
⇒ V1 = 3.41 Volts
∴ Power = I 2 RL
But, (I ')2 RL + (I")2 RL I 2 RL Voltage across 2 Ω resistor is,
Since, I = (I ' + I") = (I') + (I") + 2I 'I "
2 2 2 2
V1 3.41
V1′ = ×2= × 2 = 0.97 V
Therefore, the superposition theorem is not valid for 7 7
power.
Considering 20 V voltage source is only active. Short
Q36. Find the voltage across the 2 Ω resistor by using
circuiting the 10 V voltage source and open circuiting the 2 A
superposition theorem.
current source. Now the circuit becomes,
10 W A 2W B
10 W 1 2W

3W 5W
+
10 V 20 W 5W
– +
2A
–
20V
20 W I
20 V
Figure
Ans:
Figure (iii)
The given circuit is as shown in figure (i).
10 W A 2W B Let V2 be the voltage at node (1),

Applying KCL at node (1), we get,

3W 5W
+
10 V 20 W V2 − 20 V2 V2
– +
⇒ + + =0
2A 7 20 10
20V
–
1 1 1  20
⇒ V2  + + =
Figure (i)  7 20 10  7
In Superposition theorem one source is considered at a ⇒ 0.2928 V2 = 2.857
time. Consider 10 V voltage source is active and other current
source (2 A) and voltage source (20 V) are open circuited and ⇒ V2 = 9.7575 Volts
short circuited respectively as shown in figure (ii). The voltage across 2 Ω resistor is,
10 W 1 2W
V2 − 20
V2′ = ×2
7
+ 9.7575 − 20
10 V 20 W 5W ×2 =
– 7
= –2.926 Volts

Now considering only the current source is active and

Figure (ii) short-circuiting both the voltage sources as shown in figure (iv),
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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.25

Figure (iv)
Current in 2 Ω resistor is,

5
I =2× = 0.73 A
10 × 20
5+ +2
30
Voltage across 2 Ω resistor will be,
V 3' = I × 2
= 0.73 × 2
= 1.46 Volts
According to Superposition theorem the voltage across 2Ω resistor in presence of all source is sum of the voltage produced
by each individual source.

∴ Voltage across 2 Ω resistor is,

V2 = V1′ + V2′ + V3′
= 0.97 – 2.926 + 1.46
= – 0.496 volts
The negative sign represents that the voltage at A is negative.

1.4 thevenin theorem

Q37. Explain the steps for solving a network problem using Thevenin’s theorem.
Ans:
The following are the steps involved in order to apply Thevenin’s theorem.
Step 1
Open circuit the terminals of the load if given i.e., remove the element (by open circuiting) for which the response is to
be determined.
Step 2
Determine the voltage across the open terminals using any of the network techniques. This voltage is nothing but VTh.
Step 3
In the given network, replace all the voltage source by short-circuit and all the current source by open circuit.
Step 4
Determine the equivalent resistance as seen through the open terminals (load terminals). This resistance is nothing but
RTh.
Step 5

VOC VTh
If the circuit contains any dependent source then RTH is given by, RTh = = , where ISC is the short-circuit current
I SC I SC
through the load terminals.
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1.26 Basic electrical Engineering
Step 6 By applying KVL to the circuit, we get,
In order to determine ISC, replace the open load terminals I(R1 + R2) + V2 – V1 = 0
with a short-circuit. Determine the current through the shorted
V1 − V2
terminals using any network technique. ⇒ I= ... (1)
R1 + R2
Step 7
Since, VTh = VAB = V1– IR1 ... (2)
Replace the original network with the Thevenin’s equiva-
lent circuit shown in figure. By substituting equation (1) in equation (2) we can
calculate the value of VTh.
Steps to Calculate RTh
In order to calculate Thevenin’s resistance (RTh), the
voltage sources are short circuited and current sources are open
circuited.
Therefore, RTh can be found by short circuiting the volt-
age sources V1 and V2. The circuit becomes,
Figure R1 R2
A A
Q38. State and explain Thevenin’s theorem.

Ans: Þ R1 R2
Thevenin’s Theorem
For answer refer Unit-I, Q10. B B

Procedure to Calculate Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit Figure (4)

Consider a network as shown in figure (2). Thevenin’s resistance,
R1 A R2
From figure it is observed that both the resistances are
in parallel.
R1 R2
V1 RL V2 ∴ RTh = R1 || R2 =
R1 + R2
Therefore, the Thevenin’s equivalent LM circuit ob-
tained from derived parameters is as follows,
B
RTH A
Figure (2)
The circuit consists of two voltage sources V1 and V2
and three resistances R1, R2 and RL. VTH + RL
–
Steps to Calculate Thevenin’s Voltage (VTh)
In order to obtain Thevenin’s voltage, open circuit the B
resistance (RL). The circuit becomes as shown in figure (3).
Figure (5)
I R1 A R2
Q39. In the given figure, find the current flowing
through R1 using Thevenin’s theorem.
V1 + VTH + V2 R1= 2 W
– –

+
B R2=3 W R3=4 W
E = 6V I = 3AMP
Figure (3) –
Thevenin’s voltage (VTh) is equal to the voltage across
the terminals A and B i.e., VAB. Figure
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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.27
Ans: RTH= 7W

The given circuit is as shown in figure (1).

R1= 2 W +
VTH= 6V
–
+
E = 6V R2=3 W R3=4 W I = 3A
Figure (4)
–
Current through Resistor R1
Now, connecting the resistor R1 with thevenin’s
Figure (1) equivalent circuit as shown in figure (5).
RTH= 7W
In order to determine the current through R1 resistance
using Thevenin’s theorem, first remove 2W resistance as shown
in figure (2).
+
A B R1= 2W
VTH= 6V
–

+
E = 6V R2=3 W R3=4 W I = 3A
Figure (5)
–
V
I1 = R TH+ R1
TH

N 6 6
= 7 + 2 = 9 = 0.67 A A
Figure (2)
\ The current flowing through R1 resistance = 0.67 A
VTH = VNB – VNA
Q40. Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent across the
6
= 4 × 3 – 3 ×3 terminals A and B as shown in figure.
15 Ohms 5 Ohms
= 12 – 6 B
= 6V with B at higher potential. 5 Ohms
20 V 5 Ohms 5 Ohms 10 V
Thevenin’s Resistance, RTH
Inorder to determine RTH, the voltage source is replaced A 15 V
with short circuit and the current source is replaced with open Figure
circuit as shown in figure (3).
Ans:
A B
The given circuit is as shown in figure (1).
15 W 5W
B
5W
R2=3 W I = 3A
R3=4 W 20 V 5W 5W 10 V

A 15 V

N Figure (1)
Figure (3) The given circuit can be redrawn as shown in figure (2).
RTH = R2 – R3 15 W 5 W 15 V
+ –

= 32 + 4 I1 2
20 V 5W 5W 10 V
= 7W 1 I2

Hence, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit can be drawn 5W

as shown in figure (4). Figure (2)

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1.28 Basic electrical Engineering
The two closed loops (1) and (2) are independent of each
other. 1.5 norton theorem

Let I1 and I2 be the currents in loops (1) and (2) respec- Q41. State and explain Norton’s theorem.
tively. Ans:
Applying KVL to loop (1), we get, Statement
The Norton’s theorem states that any two terminal linear
20 = 15I1 + 5I1 network with current sources, voltage sources and resistances
20I1 = 20 (impedances) can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a current source in parallel with a resistance (impedance),
I1 = 1 A where the value of the current source is equal to the current
Applying KVL to loop (2), we get, passing through the short-circuited terminals and the resistance
is equal to the resistance measured between the terminals of the
10 = 5I2 + 5I2 network with all the energy sources replaced by their internal
10I2 = 10 resistance.
I2 = 1 A In short, this theorem is used, where it is easier to sim-
plify a network in terms of current instead of voltages. This
Voltage drop across 5 Ω resistance in loop (1) is, theorem reduces a normally complicated networks to a simple
= I1 × 5 parallel circuit consisting of,
= 1 × 5 [ I1 = 1 A] (a) An ideal current source IN of infinite internal resistance
and
=5V
(b) A resistance RN in parallel with current source as shown
Voltage drop across 5 Ω resistance in loop (2), in figure (2).
= I2 × 5
= 1 × 5 [ I2 = 1 A]
=5V
The voltage between points A and B is sum of the volt- Figure (1): Normally Complicated Circuit
ages as shown in figure (3).
5V 15 V 5V
– + + – – +
A B
Figure (3)
∴ VAB = – 5 + 15 – 5 = 5 V

The equivalent resistance seen into terminals AB is,

Figure (2): Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
RAB = [(15 || 5) + 5] || (5 + 5) Where, IAB is the current which flows through a short-
circuit placed across terminals A and B.
 15 × 5  
=   + 5 || (10) = (8.75) || (10) RAB is the circuit resistance looking from the open A-B
 15 + 5   terminals.

RAB = 4.666 Ω Q42. By using Norton’s theorem determine the current

through 5 Ω resistor (all resistances are in Ω)
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown in figure (4). as shown in figure.

Figure (4) Figure

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Unit-1 D.C Circuits 1.29
Ans:

The given circuit is shown in figure (1)

Figure (1)

Current through 5 Ω resistor = ?

In order to determine the current through 5 Ω resistor using Nortons’s theorem, we have to first find Norton’s equivalent
circuit which consists of current source IN in parallel with resistance RN where, IN is the current through the short circuited ter-
minals A and B and RN is the equivalent resistance seen through the terminals A and B.

(i) Norton’s Current

Remove 5 Ω resistor and replace it with a short circuit as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2)

Equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in figure (2) is given by,

Req = 2 Ω + (12 Ω || 3 Ω)

12 × 3 36
=2+ =2+
12 + 3 15

= 2 + 2.4 = 4.4 Ω

Total current supplied by the source is,

V 10
I = = = 2.272 A
Req 4.4

∴ Norton’s current is given by,

 12  12
IN = I ×   = 2.272 × = 1.818 A
 12 + 3  15

∴ I N = 1.818 A

(ii) Norton’s Resistance

In order to determine RN, voltage source is replaced by a short circuit.

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1.30 Basic electrical Engineering

Figure (3)

∴ Norton’s resistance

RN = (2 Ω ||12 Ω) + 3 Ω

2 × 12 24
= +3 = +3
2 + 12 14

= 1.714 + 3 = 4.714 Ω

∴ R N = 4.714 Ω

The Norton’s equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in figure (4).

Figure (4)

∴ Current through 5 Ω resistor is given as,

 R 
IAB= IN ×  N 
 RN + 5 

 4.714 
= 1.818 ×  
 4.714 + 5 

 4.714 
= 1.818 ×   = 1.818 × 0.485
 9.714 
= 0.882 A

∴ I AB = 0.882 A

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