Module 1

Introduction to Geodesy

After the learners have gone through the lessons contained in this module, they are
expected to:

1. Explain the main concepts and task of Geodesy;

2. Describe historical methods of determination of size and shape of the Earth;
3. Identify the different branches of geodesy and their interrelationships; and
4. State the goals of geodesy.

1.1 Definition of Geodesy

What is Geodesy? Who needs it and why? These are some of the questions asked
by many people. Geodesy is nothing new having been around for centuries. The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) defines geodesy as “the science of
accurately measuring and understanding three fundamental properties of the Earth: its
geometric shape, its orientation in space, and its gravity field— as well as the changes of
these properties with time.” In practice, geodesy uses the principles of mathematics,
astronomy and physics, and applies them with the capabilities of modern engineering and
technology. A thorough study of the science of geodesy is not a simple undertaking.
However, it is possible to gain an understanding of the historical development, a general
knowledge of the methods and techniques of the science, and the way geodesy is being
used to solve geodetic problems.

In the past, geodesists was largely involved with the practical aspect of the
determination of exact positions of points on the earth’s surface for mapping and artillery
control purposes by using Earth-based surveying tools. Today, geodesists use space-
based tools like the Global Positioning System (GPS) to measure points on the Earth’s
surface.
Geodesy

Geodesy is one of the oldest

professions in the world. Literally,
the word geodesy means “dividing
the earth” since it comes from the
words “geo” means earth and
“daisia” means divide. The classical
definition of Geodesy is the science
concerned with the shape, size, and
the gravity field of the earth.

Geodesy today is much more

than that. It is a geo-science that
treats the Earth as a complex
dynamic system, a body consisting
of many layers, surrounded by the
Figure 1. Geodesy as Geo-science (Image
atmosphere and the oceans. Courtesy of International Association of Geodesy
Journal)

Geodesy deals with:

 the monitoring of the solid Earth (e.g. tectonic and non-tectonic displacements);
 the monitoring of variations in the liquid Earth (sea level rise, ice sheets);
 monitoring variations in the Earth’s rotation (polar motion, the length of the day);
 determining orbits for scientific satellites (including Earth Observation Satellites);
 monitoring the atmosphere with satellite geodetic techniques (ionosphere,
troposphere);
 monitoring the temporal variations in the gravity field of the Earth; and
 determining positions, and their changes with time, of points on or above the
surface of the Earth with the utmost precision.
 Geodesy continues to provide the scientific basis of Navigation by the exploitation
of the existing and planned Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), such as Global
Positioning System (GPS), GLONASS, GALILEO, and COMPASS. Its activities have a
link to fundamental Astronomy via the global terrestrial reference system.

Geodesy is experiencing spectacular growth and each year new frontiers of Earth
science knowledge are being explored, such as temporal variations of positions and
gravity (land deformations, post glacial rebound, sea level rise, etc.). It is contributing to
both everyday mapping and navigation purposes, and to the deeper understanding of our
living planet, the Earth.

1.1.1 Domain of Geodesy

a) Positioning
It is a geodetic task. Points can be positioned either individually or as part
of a whole network of points.
b) The Earth’s Gravity Field
The knowledge of the earth’s gravity field is needed to make possible the
transformation of the geodetic observations made in physical space, affected by
gravity, into the geometrical space in which positions are usually defined.
c) Temporal Variations
Temporal variations of positions and the gravity field result from
deformations of the earth attributed to a number of causes.

1.1.2 Geodetic Activities

Theory Practice
1. Data Acquisition -Land
2. Data Processing and Manipulation -Sea
3. Representation of Data and Information -Atmosphere
4. Utilization of Data and Information System -Space
1.1.3 Geodesy Basics

Geodesy – The science that determines the earth’s size and shape, the inter-
relationships of selected positions on (or near) its surface, the earth’s gravity field, and
the changes in the above over time.
Ellipsoid – The mathematical surface which approximates the earth’s shape and size
and which is used as a reference frame for positions computation.
Datum – The mathematical model developed to fit the physical earth’s surface; defined
by the ellipsoid and the constraints that relate the model to real world
Coordinate – Values that relate a point to a mathematically defined surface.

1.1.4 Branches of Geodesy

1. Geometric Geodesy
Concerned with the definition of the figure of the earth using the properties of an
ellipsoid of revolution and other related geometric concepts.
2. Satellite Geodesy
Concerned with the study of the Earth’s gravity field in order to determine its true size
and shape
3. Satellite Geodesy
Concerned with studies using satellite positioning system in determining position and
defining the Earth’s size and shape
4. Geodetic Astronomy
Concerned with the study of determining position, using measurements made by
observing celestial bodies
5. Integrated Geodesy
A relatively new branch concerned with the unification of the physical and geometric
components of the Earth
1.1.5 Geodesy and other Disciplines

It is beneficial to know the relationships of geodesy to other disciplines. Surveying

is the practice of positioning, and geodesy is the theoretical foundation of surveying. For
centuries, the role of geodesy was to serve mainly mapping.

Mapping
It is the creation of maps, a graphic symbolic representation of the significant
features of a part of the surface of the Earth. There is a need for an aerial network of
appropriately distributed points (geodetic controls) of known horizontal and vertical
positions for the production of maps

 Urban Management. The locations of man’s creations must be defined and

documented for future reference.
 Engineering Projects. Coordinates of large structures, like dams, bridges must
be obtained according to control points.
 Boundary Demarcation. Oil and gas leases in remote and inhospitable parts of
the world can be positioned by relating them to a framework of point with known
horizontal coordinates.
 Ecology. Movement of ground caused by the removal of underground resources
or subsurface disposal of wastes. The detection and monitoring of these
movements is a geodetic problem.
 Environmental Management. Transportation, land use, community and
assessment of tax data and population statistics should be based on land parcels
whose locations are uniquely defined in terms of coordinates.
 Geography. All the positional information needed in geography is provided in
geodesy.
 Planetology. It uses methods for studying the geometry, gravity fields and
deformations of planets.
 Hydrography. Positioning of sea, combined with the depth sounding, and applies
many geodetic methods.
1.1.6 Symbolic Relation between Geodesy and some other Sciences

 Geophysics – physical response of the earth to a variety of forces.

 Space Science – earth’s artificial satellites.
 Astronomy – monitoring the rotation of the earth.
 Oceanography – involved in the location and movements of shorelines.
 Atmospheric Science – effect of the distribution of air density.
 Geology – provides geodesists with a knowledge of geomorphology and local
stability of different geological formations.

1.1.7 Theoretical Basis of Geology

a. Mathematics – most important building block

of geodesy.
b. Computer Science – problems faced by
geodesy require a computer solution.
c. Physics – Gravitational has played a very
important role in geodesy.

Figure 2. Theoretical Basis of Geology

(Retrieved in July 29, 2020)
1.2 History of Geodesy

Man has been concerned about the earth on which he lives for many centuries.
During very early times this concern was limited, naturally, to the immediate vicinity of his
home; later it expanded to the distance of markets or exchange places; and finally, with
the development of means of transportation man became interested in his whole world.
Much of this early “world interest” was evidenced by speculation concerning the size,
shape, and composition of the earth.

The history of geodesy includes much more than can be covered in summary
fashion, but certain highlights are notable:

 Flat earth concept (Homer, 9th Century

B.C)
 Pythagoras (born 582 B.C.) declared the
earth to be a globe.
 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) concluded the
earth must be spherical.
 Eratosthenes, an Alexandrine scientist,
(276-195 B.C.) is given credit for first
measuring earth's meridian’s length
between Syene (now Aswan) and
Alexandria. His results were about 16%
too big.

Figure 3. Eratosthenes Method for

Determining the Size of the Earth
(Retrieved in July 29, 2020)

 Poseidonius (135-50 B.C.) also determined earth's size using arc measurements
between Rhodes and Alexandria. Results still 11% too large.
 Arabian efforts about 827 A.D. near Baghdad by the caliph Abdullah al Mamun gave
an answer only about 3.6% too large.

Little is recorded in western literature, but see Smith (1988), about geodesy until
after the Middle Ages. However with invention of the telescope in the early 1600's,
publication of 14 place logarithms and use of triangulation for arc measurement, much
advancements were made. Later developments also included the theory of gravity,
differential & integral calculus, standardization of length and introduction of least squares
adjustment.

 In 1615 a Dutchman, Willebrord Snellius, measured an arc more than 80 miles

long with a series of 33 triangles. His computation of the earth's circumference was
too small by about 3.4 percent.
 In 1669-70 a Frenchman, Jean Picard, measured an arc on the meridian through
Paris and obtained results too large by only 0.7 percent. An interesting note here
is that Newton needed and used Picard's measurements in development of his
theory of universal gravitation which he published in 1687. Newton also concluded
the earth is flattened at the poles due to earth's rotation.
 Picard's work was extended north to Dunkirk and south to Collioure by the Cassini
brothers about 1700. The total arc was about 8° 20' but the arc was computed in
two segments--the parts north and south of Paris. The radius of the earth
determined from the northern portion was shorter than that computed from the
southern portion. Hence the Cassini's concluded, in fact insisted, the earth is
elongated at the poles.
 By the early 1700, the earth was still considered flat but more scientist,
astronomers and surveyors started to make refinements on the best values for the
parameters of the spheroidal shape of the earth. During this period CARL GAUSS
(1777-1855) introduced the concept of a “GEOID” for which he earned the title
“Father of Geodesy”
 In 1735 & 1736 two geodetic surveying expeditions were sent by the French
Academy of Science to Peru (Bouguer) and Lapland (Maupertuis) to make precise
 measurements to settle the dispute. Results showed quite conclusively the earth
is flattened at the poles.
 In the first half of the 19th century, the Royal astronomer Sir George Airy presented
the earth’s spheroid parameters which became the basis of all national mapping
in Great Britain.

Figure 4. Comparison between Cassini’s prolate spheroid and

Newton’s oblate spheroid (Retrieved in July 29, 2020)

1.3 Goals of Geodesy

It is not practically to mathematically describe the earth’s entire topographical

surface. However, one goal of geodesy is to obtain mathematical model that best
approximates the earth’s mean-sea-level surface. The model most commonly used is
an ellipsoid, formed by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis. (In the past, such a figure
has been referred to as spheroid. For the purposes of this module, the two terms can be
interchangeably). The ellipse major axis is in the equatorial plane; the minor axis
coincides with the earth’s spin axis. Often an ellipsoid is defined by the length of its semi-
major axis “a” and the semi-minor axis “b”.

The earth’s mean-sea-level surface is called the geoid, shown in figure 5.b. The
geoid extends under the land masses and is the mean equilibrium level to which water
would rise in a transcontinental canal. The geoid does not follow the ellipsoid exactly, but
undulates from it by as many as 100 m. For this reason, the earth’s mean-sea-level shape
has been referred to as a lumpy potato. Additionally, there is an identifiable bulge in the
geoid of 10 to 15 m in the Southern Hemisphere, giving rise to the earth being described
as pear-shaped. On the other hand, despite mountains and ocean trenches, the earth is
nearly spherical and by comparison is smoother than an orange. If its diameter at the
equator was 10m, the distance South Pole to North Pole would be shorter by only 0.034
m.

Figure 5. (a) Mathematical Ellipsoid (b) Physical Geoid

(Retrieved in July 29, 2020)

A second goal of geodesy is to describe the location of points on the earth’s

surface relatives to the equator (longitude); to an arbitrary meridian (latitude); and
to mean sea level surface (elevation). Thus, the rotational ellipsoid is indispensable in
providing a framework for geodetic control networks. These networks, such as that in
figure 6, define latitude and longitude of control points throughout the world. Previously,
geodetic surveying operations were confined to continental land masses, and precise
intercontinental ties were impossible. Now with space-age technology, geodetic
surveying activities are conducted on a global scale, so any two points on the earth can
be tied together.
A third goal of geodesy is to determine the earth’s external gravity field. Isaac
Newton, Christian Huygens, and others in the middle 1600’s recognized that the earth’s
shape is influenced by gravity. Since then, much scientific research has been devoted to
the earth’s geophysical attributes. This aspect of geodesy is important to surveyors
because the geoid – the mean sea level to which elevations are referenced – is actually
defined by an equipotential surface. Since the distance between equipotential surfaces is
defined in terms of work required to move a unit mass from one to the other, the
perpendicular distance between two level surfaces is not constant but varies from the
equator to the pole. Precise differential levelling computations must accommodate that
difference.

Figure 6. US Horizontal Networks in 1984 (Image Courtesy of Maralyn Vorhauer)

1.3.1 Methods Use in Determining Earth Figure

1. Measurement of the length of areas on the surface of the earth, combine with the
determination of astronomical position of points on these areas.
2. Measurement of length in a network of triangles which covers an area, combine
with the determination of astronomical positions.
3. Measurement of the variation of force of gravity in different parts of the earth’s
surface.
1.3.2 Observation Techniques in Geodesy

Astronomical Observations
 Latitude, Longitude
 Azimuth
 Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)
 Observations necessary to monitor polar motion, precession, nutation, etc.
Terrestrial Observations
 Arc measurements
 Triangulation, Trilateration, Traversing
 Leveling
 Zenith or Vertical Angles
 Gravity
Spaced Based Observation
 Lunar Laser Ranging
 Satellite Laser Ranging
 Satellite Positioning
 Satellite Altimetry

1.3.3 Why Should A Surveyor Study Geodesy?

Geodetic Control Surveys

 Understanding geodetic datums and coordinate system, e.g. NAD-83,
WGS-84
 Difference between geodetic and astronomic coordinates
 Difference between geodetic and astronomic azimuth
 Azimuth change due to convergence of meridians
 Lengths of lines on the datum surface
 Reduction of measured lines to datum surface
Geodetic Leveling
 Different datums (geoids)
 Orthometric height and dynamic height
 Effect of gravity on levelling

GPS Surveys
 Satellite Datum
 GPS derived coordinates and baselines
 GPS derived orthometric heights (Elevations)
Guide Questions 1

Answer the following to check what you learned from the discussions so far.

1. What is Geodesy?
2. Explain how Eratosthenes determined the size of the Earth.
3. Discuss the purpose of the expeditions organized by the French Academy of
Sciences to Peru and Lapland?
4. Is the earth round? Explain.
5. How does geodesy relate to land surveying?

Answer to the Guide Questions 1

Question 1: Geodesy is the science that accurately measures and understands our
planet's geometric shape, its orientation in space, and its field of gravity.

Question 2: Eratosthenes then measured the angle of a shadow cast by a stick at

noon on the summer solstice in Alexandria, and found it made an angle of about 7.2
degrees, or about 1/50 of a complete circle. Eratosthenes then used this to calculate
the circumference of the Earth to be about 250,000 stadia.

Question 3: In the early 18th century the earth was recognized as having some
ellipsoidal shape rather than a true sphere. Experts differed as to whether the ellipsoid
was flattened at the Poles or the Equator. The French Academy of Sciences decided
to settle the argument once and for all by sending one expedition to Lapland- as near
to the Pole as possible; and another to Peru- as near to the Equator as possible. The
result supported the view held by Newton in England rather than that of the Cassini’s
in Paris.
Question 4: Even though our planet is a sphere, it is not a perfect sphere. Because of
the force caused when Earth rotates, the North and South Poles are slightly
flat. Earth's rotation, wobbly motion and other forces are making the planet
change shape very slowly, but it is still round.

Question 5: Geodesy is a geoscience concerned with the determining and measuring

the size and shape of the Earth. It also deals with computing the positions of points
with utmost accuracy in addition to measuring and describing the Earth’s gravity field
and the variations thereof. Land surveying is defined as the science, art and
technology of making all essential measurements to determine the relative position of
physical and cultural features above, on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to
depict them in map or digital format. Geodesy and land surveying function to carry out
tasks like national geodetic network, compute and update national geodetic reference
framework, establish, update and maintain the national vertical network and carry out
all types of land surveying.
Key Points

1. Geodesy means “dividing the earth” since it comes from the words “geo”
means earth and “daisia” means divide.
2. Geodesy is a geoscience concerned with the determining and measuring
the size, shape and gravity field of the Earth.
3. Geometric geodesy is concerned with the size and shape of the earth’s
mean-sea-level surface.
4. Ellipsoid is the mathematical surface which approximates the earth’s shape
and size and which is used as a reference frame for positions computation.
5. Datum is the mathematical model developed to fit the physical earth’s
surface; defined by the ellipsoid and the constraints that relate the model to
real world
6. Coordinate are values that relate a point to a mathematically defined
surface.
7. The earth’s mean-sea-level surface is called the geoid.
8. Homer believed that the earth is flat.
9. Pythagoras declared the earth to be a globe.
10. Aristotle concluded the earth must be spherical.
11. Eratosthenes, an Alexandrine scientist was given credit for first measuring
earth's size.
12. Jean Picard and Isaac Newton concluded the earth is flattened at the poles
due to earth's rotation.
13. Cassini's concluded that the earth is elongated at the poles.
14. Two geodetic surveying expeditions were sent by the French Academy of
Science to Peru (Bouguer) and Lapland (Maupertuis) to make precise
measurements to settle the dispute. Results showed quite conclusively the
earth is flattened at the poles.
15. Carl Gauss introduced the concept of a “GEOID” for which he earned the
title “Father of Geodesy”.
References and Supplementary Materials

Books

1. Lu Zhiping et al. (2014). Geodesy: Introduction to Geodetic Datum and

Geodetic Systems. Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London, ISBN
978-3-642-41245-5, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41245-5, www.springer.com.
2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (1977). Basic
Geodesy. US Department of Commerce. United States of America.
3. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (1985). Geodesy
for the Layman. Fifth Edition, US Department of Commerce. United States of
America.

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

1. Foster, Roger. May 2005. Basic Geodesy (Journal), Issue 5. Retrieved July 29,
2020.
2. Vorhauer, Maralyn. Horizontal datums: Knowing where in world you are
(Journal). Retrieved July 30, 2020.
3. Drewes, Hermann. May 2006. The Changing Objectives in Geodetic Research.
Volume 131, ResearchGate, www.researchgate.net/publication/314951762.
Retrieved July 30, 2020.
4. The International Association of Geodesy. What is Geodesy Fundamental to
Society (Booklet)?
5. GIM International. What is Geodesy (Article)? https://www.gim-
international.com/content/article/what-is-geodesy.