Unit 5: Wave Optics

Unit-5

Optics

Syllabus:
Interference, division of amplitude & division of wave front,
double slit experiment, thin film interference, Newton Ring Experiment.
Diffraction: Difference between interference and diffraction, types of
diffraction, single slit, double slit & n-slit diffraction, Resolving power of
grating.

Page 1

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Interface:
When two waves of approximately same amplitude and frequency going in the same direction in the same
medium, generally coming from the same source, then the intensity of light at different places will be
different. This phenomenon of light is known as interference.
Interference can be obtained by two ways:
Interference may be of two types:

Interfecence

By the division of the wavefront By the division of the amplitude

1. Youns double slit experiment 1. Newton's ring
2. Fresenl's biprism 2. micleson's interferometer

Figure(1): Interference Hierarchy tree

Interfecence

Counstructive interference Distructive interferenc

Figure(2): types of Interference

Constructive Interference:
Locus of all the points where the crest of one wave falls on the crest or the through of the one wave falls on
the through of the other, the resultant amplitude is the sum of the individual waves. So the constructive
interference takes place at those points and the intensity at these points will be maximum.

Figure(3): Constant Phase difference Figure(4): Waves in same phase

Page 2

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Destructive Interference:
Locus of the points where the crest of one wave falls on the through of the other wave the resultant intensity
become the difference of the waves and at these places the intensity become minimum. At these points
destructive interference will take place.

Figure(5): Waves opposite phase

Coherent sources:
Two sources are said to be the coherent if they emit continuous light waves of the exactly same
frequency/wavelength, nearly same amplitude and having sharply define phase difference that remains
constant with the time.
In practice it is impossible to have two independent coherent sources. For experimental purpose virtual
sources formed by a single source and acts as coherent sources.

Figure(6): You g’s Dou le Slit e peri e t Figure(7): Llo d’s Mirror

Figure(8): Fresnel double mirror Figure(9): Fres el’s i-prism

Page 3

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Figure(10): Mi helso ’s I terfero eter

Relation between phase difference and path difference:

The difference between optical paths of two rays
which are in constant phase difference with each
other is known as the path difference.
Suppose for a path difference the phase
difference is �
So
� = � …………………..………..
Δ = …………………………….
by equation (1) and (2)
� �
=
Δ
�
� = Δ

Figure(11): Phase and path difference

Principal of superposition:
When two or more waves reaches at the same point of a medium then the displacement at that point
becomes the vector sum of displacement produced by the individual waves.
i.e.
= + + … … ….

Page 4

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Mathematical treatment of interference:

Let two waves of amplitude and and angular frequency � super imposes and re-unit at a point after
traveling different path and ,let the phase difference of these two waves is �
If and are two waves then
= sin � …………
= sin � + � ………… (2)
By the principle of superposition of waves , the resultant waves will be
= +
= sin � +sin � + �
sin + = sin cos + cos sin
= sin � +[sin � cos � + cos � sin �]
= sin � +sin � cos � cos
+ � sin �
= sin � [+ cos �] + cos sin
� �][ ………… (3)

Let cos �= + cos � …………

sin �= sin � …………
by the equation , and we get-
= sin � . cos � + cos � . A sin �
= [sin � cos � + cos � sin �]
= sin � + � …………
Here and � are constant and can be given by equation and as
+ cos � + sin � = cos � + sin �
+ cos � + cos � +sin � = [cos � + sin
�]
+ cos � + sin
� + cos � = [cos � + sin
�]
+ + cos � =
cos� + sin
� =
= + + cos �
Now the resultant intensity at any point is given as � ∝ for simplicity let
� =
So � = + + cos �
Condition for maxima:
For maximum intensity
cos � =

Page 5

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

then � = �
This is the condition for constructive interference in terms of phase �
Then by equation by
� = + +
� = +
So the path difference

Δ = × �
�

Δ = × �
�

Δ =

Δ =

I.e. the path difference is the even

multiple of , this is the condition of

constructive interference in terms of

path difference ∆
Figure(12): �

Condition for the minima:

Again the intensity will be minimum when-
cos � = −
then � = + �
This is the condition for destructive interference in terms of phase �
Then by equation
� = + −
� = −
And path difference

Δ = × �
�

Δ = + �
�

Δ = +

i.e. the odd multiple of the half wavelength, this is the condition of destructive interference in terms of path
difference ∆
Now the average Intensity:

Page 6

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

�
∫ �
�� = �
∫ �
�
∫ + + cos �
�� = �
∫ �
[ � + � + sin ]� �
�� = [�] �
+ . �
�� =
�
�� = +

�� = � + �
The average intensity is the average of the maximum and minimum intensities. It can be given by-
Now if = = then,

�� =
The average intensity is equal to the sum of the separate intensities. Whatever the intensity disappears at the
minima is actually appears at the maxima. Thus there is no violation of the law of conservation of energy in
the phenomena of interference.

Condition for the sustained interference of light.

1. Two sources of light must be coherent.
2. Difference in the amplitudes of the two waves must be small.
3. Sources should be narrow or point source.
4. The separation between two sources should as small as possible.
5. If the interfering waves are polarised then the plane of polarisation must be same.
6. The sources should be monochromatic.
7. Interfering waves from two coherent sources of light should travel in the same direction.

Page 7

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Fringe width:
Consider a narrow monochromatic source and two parallel narrow slits and very close together and
equidistance from . Let be the distance between two slits and and be the distance of screen from
coherent source. The path difference between the rays reaching from and to is zero so the point
has maximum intensity.
Considering a point at a distance from . The wave reaches at the point from and hence =

− and = +

Figure(13): Measurement of fringe width

− = [ + ( +
) ] − [+ ( −
) ]

+ − = [ + + + .−{ + + − .}]

+ − = + + + .− − − + .

+ − =

− = +
Now from the figure
If the point is very close to point
so − = and
Δ ≈ =

Δ =
+

Δ =

Page 8

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Δ =

1. Bright Fringes: For bright fringes the path difference is the integer multiple of the i.e.

= .

=
ℎ
This equation gives the distance of the bright fringes from the point . Hence for the bright fringe
(replacing by )

For next bright fringe

+
+ =

Therefor the distance between any two consecutive bright fringes

+
+ − = −

� =

2. Dark Fringes: For dark fringes the path difference is an odd multiple of

So = +

+
=
ℎ
Hence the dark fringe (replacing by )
+
=
ℎ
And for the + dark fringe
[ + + ]
+ =
+
+ =

Therefore the distance between two consecutive dark fringes

+ +
+ − = −

Page 9

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

+ − = [ + − ] −

+ − = .

�′ =

As the distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is same and is called fringe width and denoted
by �.

� =

i. The fringe width is directly proportional to the wavelength of the light used i.e. � ∝
ii. The fringe width is directly proportional to the distance of the slits from the screen i.e. � ∝

iii. The fringe width is inversely proportional to the distance between the slits i.e. � ∝

Shape of the interference fringes:

Actually these interfering fringes are hyperbolic in shape, but the eccentricity of fringes is quite large and
hence these hyperbolic fringes appear more or less strength lines.
Angular Fringe Width:
The angular fringe width is defined as the angular
separation between consecutive or dark fringes and
is denoted by �.

Figure (14): Angular fringe width

=
�

� = � + − �

+
� = −

+ −
� =
β
� =

But � =
λ
so � =

Page 10

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Fresnel’s Biprism:
The prism is a device to obtain two coherent sources
to produce sustained interference.
Fresnel used a biprism to show the phenomenon of
interference. A biprism is usually a combination of
two prisms placed base to base. In fact – this
combination is obtained from an optically plane glass
plate by proper grinding and polishing. The obtuse
angle of the prism is about 9 and other angles are
about ′ each.
To show the phenomenon of interference a
horizontal section of the apparatus is shown in the
Figure : Fres el’s Bipris
figure.
Measurement of �

Figure(16): Measurement of d by displacement of lens

A bi-convex lens of short focal length is mounted between the bi-prism and the eyepiece by moving the
lens along length of bench, two positions and are obtained such as for which the image of sources
formed at the same place.

For position = …………

For position =

= [ = = …………

So on multiplying & we get

Page 11

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

= ×

=
= √

Page 12

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Determination of the thickness of a thin sheet of

transparent material:

Figure(17): Shift in fringes on introducing the thin film

Distance travelled by the light in air = − (by the velocity c)
Distance travelled by the light in film= (by the velocity )
Time taken by the light to cover this distance
−
= +

But = ℎ =
�

So we have
−
= +

−
= +

− +
=

+ −
=

Thus the path to �. . is eqivelent to an air path + −

Now the path difference at

Δ = ℎ � � − ℎ � �

Δ = − [ + − ]

Δ = − − −
�
But − =
�

So we have ∆ = − − … …

Page 13

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

ℎ
but for maxima,
Δ = … …
So by equation (1) and (2)

− − =

= [ + − ] … …
ℎ
Where is the position of the maxima
Now in absence of the plate �. . =
ℎ ′ �
The maxima =[ ] (in the absence of ) …………..

1. Displacement of the fringes:

ℎ
If denotes the displacement of the maxima by introducing the mica sheet, then

′
− = [ + − ]−
� � �
= + − − `

= −

This equation is free from so the displacement of each maxima will be same.

2. Thickness of mica sheet:

The displacement of any maxima by introducing a mica sheet of thickness is given by

×
=
−

3. Refractive index of the material of prism:

Once if we know the displacement of the fringes and thickness of the film we can calculate the
refractive index of the material of the film as-
×
− =

×
= +

Page 14

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Stoke’s treatment of phase change:

When a light wave is reflect from the surface of an optically dens medium, it suffers a phase change of

� �. a. path difference of

Let is an interface separating the denser medium (below i.e. glass) to rare medium (above i.e. air) it. A
ray of light of amplitude " " incident on the interface is partially reflecte along the path and
patially refracted into the denser medium along .Let is the coefficient of reflection and is the
′
coefficient of transmission then the amplitude of reflected and transmitted wave will be ′ and
respectively.
Then in case of no absorption of light
+ =
′
Now if the reflected and refracted rays are reversed the resultant should have the same amplitude ′ as that
of the incident ray

Figure(18): Reflection and refraction through a Figure(19): Ray diagram on reversing the direction of
surface incidence
When is reversed it is partly reflected along and partially refracted along as shown in figure.
Similarly when the ray is revesed it is partly refracted along and partially reflected along . Now the
content along should be zero and that along should be equal to a �. .
′
+ = … … … . . … … … …
= − ′
′
= −
This equation indicates displacement in the opposite direction so according to Stoke’s la , he a light a e
coming from a rare medium an additional phase � is introduced in it.

Page 15

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Interference in thin film:

Consider a thin film of equal thickness and refractive index > . A monochromatic light ray incident
at angle � is partially reflected and partially transmitted as shown in figure

Figure(20): Reflation and transmission of light through a thin film

Reflected system:
In reflected system two waves & are in the position to interfare so the path difference between
&

Δ = ℎ � � − ℎ � ��

Δ = + −
Now from figure it is clear that =

Δ = −
But from Δ

= sec

Then = sec
= sec

And from Δ = sin �

Page 16

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

= sin �
But = +

= + sin � …….…. (1)

But from Δ and Δ

= tan ⟹ = tan ⟹ = tan

and = tan ⟹ = tan ⟹ = tan

but = tan = tan …….…. (2)

putting the value of and in from so we have

= tan + sintan�

= tan � . sin �
sin
= . . sin �
cos
Multiplying and dividing by sin we get

sin sin �
= . . . sin
cos sin
sin
= . . sin �
cos =
sin
sin
= .
cos
Therefor ∆ = −
Putting the value of and , we get
sin
∆ = sec − .
cos
sin
∆ = sec −
cos
sin
∆ = −
cos cos
− sin
∆ =
cos
cos
∆ =
cos
∆ = cos …….…. (3)

Page 17

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

A. In Reflected system:
The ray undergoes a reflection from the densor medium so a additional path difference of must be

added, then

∆ = cos +

1. Condition for constructive interference:

For constructive interference ∆=

So
cos +=

cos = −

cos = − (where = , , , … …
2. Condition for the destructive interference:

For destructive interference ∆= +

So
cos += +

cos = + −

cos = (where = , , , … …

B. In transmitted system:
In the transmitted system there will be no additional path difference so
∆ = cos
1. Condition for constructive interference: Condition constructive interference is ∆=
then cos = Where = , , , … …
2. Condition for destructive interference: Condition for the destructive interference is

∆ = + Where = , , , … . .

then cos = +

So the reflected and transmitted interference patterns are complimentary.

Colour in thick film:

A thick film do not show the any colour in reflected system when illuminated with an extended source of light.

Page 18

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Wedge shape film:

A wedge shape film is one whose surfaces are inclined at a certain small angle. Figure shows a thin wedge
shape film of refractive index bounded by two plane surfaces and inclined at an angle �. Let a parallel
beam of monochromatic light falls on the upper surface normally and the surface is viewed in the reflected
and refracted system then alternate dark and bright fringes becomes visible.

Figure(21): Reflection and refraction through a wedge shape film

Let the light is incident nearly normally at a point on the film, the path difference between the rays reflected
at the upper and lower surface is = where is the thisckness of the film at .

Reflected system:

Figure(22): Reflection through a wedge shape film

The condition for the maximum intensity (bright fringes):

In the reflected system according to the Stokes treatment an additional path difference of is introduced in
the ray reflected from the upper surface. Hence the effective path difference between the two rays will be ∆=
+ and the condition for the bright fringes is ∆=

So + =

Page 19

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

= −

= −

The condition for the minimum intensity (Dark fringes):

The condition for the destructive interference is Δ = +

+ = +

+ = +

= +−

Transmitted System:

Figure(23): Refraction through a wedge shape film

In the transmitted system there will be no additional path difference so the effective path difference will be
∆=

The condition for the maximum intensity (bright fringes):

The condition for the maxima is given as ∆=

so =

Page 20

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

The condition for the minimum intensity (Dark fringes):

The condition for the minima in interference is ∆= +

So = +

Fringe width:
ℎ
For dark fringe let this fringe observed at a distance from the edge, where the thickness of fringe is
From figure (23-B) it is clear that = �
then = �
So =
So � = ……..
ℎ
Similarly for + fringe Figure(23-B)

+ � = + ……..
By equation (1) and (2)

+ � − � = + −

+ − � = + −
But + − = �
so �� =

� = �

Page 21

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Newton’s Ring:
For atio of Newto ’s Ri g:
When a Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface in contact with a
plane glass plate, an air film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the upper surface of the
plan glass plate and the lower surface of the Plano-convex lens. If a monochromatic beam of light is allow to
fall normally on the upper surface of the film then, alternative bright and dark concentric fringes with their
centre dark are for ed. These fri ges or ri gs are k o as the Ne to ’s ri gs.

Figure : For atio of the Ne to ’s ri gs

Experimental arrangement:
The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure. Light rays reflected upwards form the air film,
superimpose each other and interference takes place, due to which the alternative bright and dark
concentric rings are formed those can be seen by the telescope.

Page 22

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Figure(25): Ne to ’s ri g experimental arrangement

The fringes are circular because the air film is symmetrical about the point of contact of the lens with the
plane glass plate.

Theory:
The rings are formed both in reflected and refracted part.

Reflected Part:
As the films are obtained in the reflected part the effective path difference between the interfering rays is
given by

Δ = cos + ……. (1)

Where is the refractive index of the film, is the thickness of the film, is the angle of incidence. The

factor is account for the phase change of � on reflection from the lower surface of the film. For air =

and for normal incidence = then

Δ = + ……. (2)

Central fringe:
At the centre i.e. at the point of contact =

So Δ =

This is the condition for the minimum intensity, hence the central fringe will be dark.

For Constructive interference (i.e. maxima):

The condition for the constructive interference by thin film is given as
Δ =

Page 23

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

+ =

= −

Then = −

It is the condition for constructive interference Where = , , ….

For destructive interference (i.e. minima):

The condition for the destructive interference by the thin film is given as Δ = +

+ = +

=
It is the condition for minima Where = , , … ..
Shape of the fringes:
As in air film remains constant along the circle with its center at the point of contact, the fringes are in the
form of the circles, since each film is the locus of the constant thickness of the air film. These fringes are
known as the fringes of equal thickness.

Figure : Dia eter of Ne to ’s ri g Figure : Shape of the Ne to ’s ri gs

So the diameter of the bright ring is proportional to the square root of the odd number.

Diameter of Bright ring:

Let is the lens placed in the glass plate the point of contect is shown by . Let is the radius of the

Page 24

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

cuvature of the curved surface of the lens. Let e the radius of the Ne to ’s ri g here the fil thi k ess
is
from the right angle Δ
= − +
= + − +
As the air film is very thin so can be neglected
= − +
=

Substituting the value of in the equation for bright ring i.e. = +

So
= +

ℎ
Radius of brigth ring

+
= √

ℎ
So the diameter of bright ring

=
So
+
= √

= √ +

= √ √ +
∝ √ +

Diameter of the Dark ring:

Condition for dark ring is

=
And
=

So on comparing these two equation we get

Page 25

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

=
= √
the diameter of the dark ring
=
= √
= √
= √ √
∝ √
The diameter of dark ring is proportional to the square root of even number.
So, as we go far from the centre the thickness of the ring reduces, this limits the number of rings in any
pattern that means infinite number of ring can-not be seen.

Newton’s Rings in transmitted part:

In case of transmitted light, the effective path difference is cos

Figure : Ne to ’s ri g refle tio s ste Figure : Ne to ’s ri g i Refra ted s ste

Transmitted part:
Constructive interference:
=
Destructives interference:

= +

Page 26

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 S.N.
3 2 1
Ne to ’s ri g Wedge shape film Parallel Thin film
Name

http://www.rgpvonline.com
Figure

Destructive: Constructive: Destructive: Constructive: Destructive: Constructive:

(Minima) (Maxima) (Minima) (Maxima) (Minima) (Maxima)

cos
Condition for
Reflected part

= = − = cos =
= − = −

cos =
Condition for

http://www.a2zsubjects.com
transmitted part
Unit 5: Wave Optics

Page 27
= = cos =
= − −
−
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Applications of the Newton’s Ring:

1. Determination of wavelength of light
ℎ ℎ
Let and + respectively the diameters of the and + dark rings where is an integer. Then
by equation
= ……………………………………………………
= �
ℎ
Similarly the diameter of + ring is given by

+ = + ……………………………………………………
So by equation &

+ − = + −

+ − = + −

+ − =
+ −
=

+ −
=

2. Determination of refractive index of any liquid:

For air film ( + − )�� = = � … … … … … .
�
In liquid ( + − )� = … … … … … … … . .
�

By equation (1) and (2)

( + − )��
= �
( + − )
� �

( + − )��
=
( + − )
� �

Page 28

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Diffraction:
1. Bending of the light form the sharp edges of the obstacle is called the diffraction.
2. The intensity of light outside the geometrical shadow of an obstacle and presence of light within its
geometrical shadow is called the diffraction of light.
3. The deviation of light from the rectilinear path is called the diffraction.

S.N. Fres el’s diffra tio S.N. Frau hofer’s Diffra tio
1. Either the source of light or screen or both 1. Both the screen and source are effectively at
are at finite distance form obstacle or infinite distance from the obstacle or aperture.
aperture.
2. Wavefront may be of any type i.e. plane, 2. The incident wavefront is always a plane
spherical or cylindrical. wavefront.
3. No need to use the lenses. 3. Lenses are required.
4. Diffraction pattern is the image of obstacle 4. Diffraction pattern is the image of the source.
or aperture.
5. Intensity of light at any point is found by the 5. Intensity at any point is measured by the
half period zone method which is not mathematical treatment which is more
accurate. accurate method.

Difference between diffraction and interference:

S.N. Interference Diffraction

1. This phenomenon is the result of interaction 1. This phenomenon is the result of interaction of
taking place between two separate wave light between the secondary wavelengths
front originating from two coherent sources. originating from different points of the same
wavefronts.
2. The regions of minimum intensity are usually 2. The regions of minimum intensity are not
almost perfectly dark. completely dark.
3. Interference fringes may or may not be of 3. Diffraction fringes are not of the same width.
same width.
4. All maxima are of same intensity. 4. The maxima are of varying intensities.

Page 29

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Fraunhofer’s diffraction at a single slit:

Let parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength be incident normally upon a narrow slit =.
A ordi g to Hu ge s’s theor a pla e a e fro t is i ide t or all o the slit . Each point of sends
out sencodory wavelets in all directions. The rays proceeding in the same direction as the incident rays are
focused on , while those diffracted through an angle � are focused at .

Figure(27 : Frau hofer’s diffra tio

To find the intensity at point , we drop a normal on the ray , the optical path from each point of the
plane to point will be equal.
Now the path difference between the wavelets reaching the point from point and is
Δ =
But from Δ

= sin �

= sin �
= sin �
Δ = sin �
�
so ℎ � = × Δ

�
ℎ � = × sin � … … (1)
…

Now if we consider n number of infinite point sources of secondary wavelengths on the plane wave front
then this can be divided into equal parts, so phase difference between the waves obtained at the point
from any two consecutive parts

� = � … … …
× . sin �

Page 30

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Now to find the intensity at point there are following two methods are available
1. Phase diagram Method.
2. Integral Method.

Phase diagram method:

In the figure, draw vectors , , … … … such
… that
.. the magnitude of each vector is and angle
between the two consecutive vectors is � . The vector gives the resultant vector. Let the magnitude of
the resultant vector is �. If is the centre of the polygon formed by the vector then by the simple
geometry we can see that each vector substance � at the centre and the angle substaended by the
resultant vector at the centre is �.
Let and are the normal drawn of first vector and resultant vector from centre .

Figure(28): Phase diagram

from right angle triangle Δ

�
= sin ()

�
= sin )(

But = = [ ]
=

�
= sin )( … … …

Similarly from Δ
�
= sin ( )

�
= sin ()

But
�
=� so
��
=
�
sin … … …

Page 31

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

By (3) and (4) �� �

sin
�
= �
sin
�
sin
� = �
… … …
sin

Now putting the value of � from the equation no. (2) we get

�
sin sin �
� = �
… … …
sin sin �
� si �
Let =
sin
Then � = sin

Now is very small so sin ≈

sin
Then =
�

sin
So =
�

sin
� =

Where =
Now the intensity

� ∝ �

� = � [Where is a constant

sin
� = [ ]

�
� = [ ]

sin
� = � [ ] … . … . . Where � =

Conditions for maxima and minima:

si
From the equation � = [� ] it is clear that the resultant intensity � at point on the screen depends on

the angle of diffraction � or on . For maxima, the derivation of � with respect to must be zero. �. .

Page 32

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

sin
{� [ ] } =

sin cos − sin

� . . ( ) ( ) = ……

Condition for Minima:

For the minima, the first term in the above equation (8) should be zero i.e.

sin
=

sin =
= ± �
Putting the value of we get-
� sin �
= ± �

sin �= ±
Where = , , , , … … … ….
Condition for maxima:
Now the second term of equation (8) will show the condition for maxima-
cos − sin
i.e. =

cos = sin
sin
=
cos
= tan
The condition for maxima is = tan
To find the value of for which the above condition may hold, we draw two curves
= … … (9)
…
= tan … … (10)
…
On the same graph as shown

Page 33

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Figure(29): Graph
The value of at the points of intersection of these two curves satisfy the equation = tan
At the central maxima: � = ⟹ =
� sin �
So =

So, the intensity at the principle maxima

sin
� = � ( )

Applying the limits we get

sin
lim ( ) =
→

So � = � (maximum)
So at the principle maxima the intensity will be maxima.
Intensity for subsidiary maxima:
� si �
For subsidiary maxima the value of sin must be maximum, for this the value of = i.e. the value

of sin �must be maximum �. . sin � =

�
� = ± +

� � �
�. . � = , ±± , ± … … …

so at the,

Page 34

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

�
sin �
first subsidiary maxima � = � [ � ] =

�
sin �
Second subsidiary maxima � = � [ � ] =

�
sin �
Third subsidiary maxima � = � [ � ] =

Page 35

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Fraunhofer’s diffraction at a double slit:

Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength be incident normally upon two parallel slit and
′
, each of width ′ separated by opaque space of width d.

Figure (30): diffraction at a double slit.

Suppose each slit diffracts the beam in a direction making an angle � with the direction of the incident beam.
From the theory of diffraction at a single slit the resultant amplitude is
sin
� =

� si �
Where = and is a constant

These two slits can be considered as two coherent source placed at the centre of the slits. Then resultant
intensity at point will be the result of interference between these two waves of same amplitude and phase
difference �
Now the resultant amplitude at point

= √ + + cos � (interference)

So = √ � + � + � � cos �

= √ � + cos �

�
= �√ . cos

Page 36

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

�
= � cos

si
But we know that � =

sin �
So = ( ) cos )( … … (1)
…

Therefore the resultant intensity at point will be

� ∝
� =
Where is a constant
Putting the value of from equation (1)
sin �
� = . ( ) cos ( ) … … …

Let � =
Hence resultant intensity
sin �
� = � ( ) cos ( ) … … …

Condition for Minima:

From the equation (3) it is clear that the intensity will be minimum when sin = ⇒ = ± �
Where = , , … but
… … ≠… …
So putting the value of we get
� sin �
⇒ = �

sin �=
Where m= 1, 2, ,…… ut ≠ m = is the condition for the maxima
Condition for maxima:
si
From the equation (3) it is clear that the intensity will be maximum when term will be maximum.
sin =
�
⇒ = −

� sin � �
⇒ = −

⇒ sin �= −

Where n=0,1,2, , …..

Page 37

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Missing order maxima:

The condition for the interference maxima is given as ∆=
But Δ = sin � (from single slit)
So the condition for the interference maxima will be
+ sin= � ………
And the condition for the diffraction minima is given as
sin �= ……….

Figure(31): Intensity graph of double slit diffraction

For certain value of certain interference maxima become absent from the pattern. Let for some value of �
the following two conditions be satisfied simultaneously

Dividing the equation by

+
=

Case I: If =
+
Then =

⇒ =

⇒ =
If = , , … … … . . ⇒ = , , … … … … ..
This means that , , … order
etc … of interference maxima will be missed.

Page 38

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

If =
Case I: If =
Then +
=

⇒ =
If = , , ,then
… … =…. , , 9 … … ..
This means that , , 9 etc.
… will
…. missed.

Page 39

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Fraunhofer’s Diffraction of � Parallel slit:

Diffraction Grating:
It is an arrangement consisting of several parallel and equidistant slits each of equal width.
It is constructed by drawing the several equidistance parallel lines on an optically plane glass plate with a
pointed diamond. The distance between two consecutive slits is + = which is called the grating
element. Genrally the value of for the grating to be used with the visual light is of the order of
−
�. . lines drawn on length of the grating.

Figure(32): Diffraction Grating Figure(33): Diffraction Grating

Theory:
In figure, is a grating of parallel and equidistance slits , , … … …the…width of each slit is ′ ′ and
width of opaque space between the two consecutive slits is ′ ′. �. .the grating element = . +
Let a plane wavefront of wavelength is incidents normally on the grating. Then diffracted by it is focused on
a screen by means of a convergent lens on screen.
Intensity distribution: It is clear from the figure that
diffracted waves do not reach a point on the screen in
the same phase since their optical paths are not equal.
The path difference between the two consecutive wave
is Δ = sin �
Therefor the phase diff.
�
� = × ∆

Wave diffracted at an angle � from each slit is � =

si � e si �
where =

[by single slits diffraction]

Figure(34): Phase Diagram

Page 40

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Now we can find the resultant amplitude due to the superposition of such waves by phase diagram method.
In figure we draw vector , , … such
.. that magnitude of each vector is � and the angle between
the consecutive vector is �. The vector which joints the initial points of first vector and final point of last
vector is and this vector sustained an angle �. and are the normal plotted from the centre of
polygon on first and resultant vectors.

From the figure in Δ

�
= sin

�
⇒ = sin
��
But = =

� �
= sin … … … .

Similarly in Δ
�
⇒ = sin ( )

�
⇒ = sin ()

But = =

�
= sin () …………. (2)

Dividing equation (2) by (1)

� ��
sin
�� = �
sin
��
sin
= [ �
]
� sin
��
sin
= � [ �
]
sin

On substituting the value of � we get

��
sin sin
= ( )[ �
]
sin

Multiplying and dividing by we get

Page 41

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

��
sin sin
= ( )[ �
]
sin

So the resultant intensity will be given as

� ∝
� =
Where is the proportionality constant
Putting the value of from (3) we get
��
sin sin
� = ( ) [ ]
�
sin

��
sin sin
� = � ( ) [ ] … … (3)
…
�
sin

Where � =
si
In this expression the term represents the intensity due to diffraction due to a single slit, while second

��
si
2
term [ � ] represents the intensity due to interference of wave obtained from slits.
� si
2

Condition for Principle Maxima:

� �
For principal maxima the path difference will be zero so the phase diff then sin = =⇒ ± �where
��
�� � si
2
= , , then
… sin
.. is also zero and in the limit when sin → the value of term [ � ] will be
si
2

. Hence from equation the resultant intensity will be maximum.

i.e.
��
sin
�
lim [ �
] =
2
→ sin

sin
So we have � = � ( ) ……..

Which is the intensity at principle maxima i.e. similar to the intensity by a single slit.

Condition for Minima:

�� �
From the equation (3) it is clear that the intensity will be minimum when sin = but sin ≠
�
i.e. sin ( ) =

⇒ � = ± �

Page 42

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Where = , , , … …
� si �
But � =
� sin �
So = � … … (5)
…

sin �=

This is the condition for the minimum intensity for N-slit diffraction.
Condition for Secondary maxima:
�
Condition for maxima is =
�

So from equation (3)

��
sin sin
[� ( ) { �
} ] =
� sin

��
� sin sin
( ) { } =
� �
sin

�� � � �� �� �
� sin sin sin . cos − sin .cos
( ) [{ �
} ] =
sin �
{sin }

� � � �
sin () . cos () − sin ( ) . cos) ( =

� � = sin
��
. cos
�
……… 6)
sin () . cos ()

� �
⇒ tan )( = tan ( ) … … …

again by equation
� � �
tan )( cos () = sin ( )

� � �
⇒ sin ( ) = tan )( cos ()
�
� tan
sin ( ) = ��
sec
�
tan
�
sin ( ) = ��
√ + tan

Page 43

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

�
tan
�
sin ( ) = �
By (7)
√ + tan

On squaring both sides we get

�
si
2
� c s
�
sin ( ) = 2
�
+ tan
��
sin
� = � �
sin [ + tan ] . cos

��
sin
� = � � �
sin [cos + tan . cos ]

��
sin
�
= � si 2 �
� cos + 2
cos
sin c s2
�
2

��
sin
� = � �
sin [cos + . sin ]

��
sin
� = − sin� �
sin + . sin

��
sin
[ ] = �
� + − sin
sin
��
sin
[ ] = � ……… (7)
� + − sin
sin
So by equation (3) and (7)
sin
� = � ( ) × �
+ − sin
This is the expression for the intensity at the subsidiary maxima in N-slit diffraction.

Page 44

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Resolving Power of Optical Instrument:

To distinguish two close object is called geometrical resolution and the ability of an optical instrument to
distinguish the image of very close object is called the resolving power of that optical instrument.
The ability of instrument to produce the separate diffraction pattern is known as resolving power.
Raleigh’s criterio of resolutio :
According to this criterion two sources are resolved by an optical instrument when the central maxima in the
diffraction pattern is fall over the first minima in the diffraction pattern of the second maxima and vice versa.
In order to illustrate the criterion let us consider the
resolution of two wavelengths and . Figure shows
the intensity curve of the diffraction pattern of two
wavelengths. The diffraction in wavelength is such that

their principal maxima are separately visible. There is a

distinct point of zero intensity in between the two.
Hence the two wavelengths are resolved.
Figure(35): Two separate maxima
In the case when there is small dip between the maxima
of and such that the central maxima of
wavelength coincide with the first minima of and
wise versa as shown in the figure (36). The resultant
intensity curve has a dip in the middle of the two central
maxima. Thus two wavelengths can be distinguished
from one another

Figure(36): Condition of just resolution

If the difference between the two wavelength and
is so small that the maxima corresponding to
wavelength come still closer as shown in the figure (37)
the resultant intensity curve in this case is quit smooth
without any dip, thus wavelengths cannot be resolved.

Figure(37): Maxima that cannot be resolve

Resolving power of Grating:

The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as the capacity to form separate diffraction maxima of

Page 45

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

two wavelengths without which they are very close to each other. This is measured by .

Let is a plane diffraction gratting having grating

element = +
and total numbers of number of
slits. Let a beam of light having two wavelengths and
+ is normally insidented on the gratting. is the
ℎ
primary maxima of spectral line of wavelength at
ℎ
an angle of diffraction � and is the primary
maxima of wavelength + at diffraction angle
� + �

The principal maxima of in � direction will be

+ sin �= …………………………………………..……..

Figure(38): Formation of diffraction pattern by a

And the equation of minima + sin �=
grating
Where is an integer except , , … ,… .
because for these values of the condition for maxima
is satisfies and we obtain diffraction maxima.

ℎ
Now first maxima adjacent to principle maxima
+ sin � + � = + ………… (2)
And first minima
+ sin � + � = + ………… (3)
Now multiplying the equation (2) by we have
+ sin � + � = + ………… (4)
By &
+ = +
+ = +

Page 46

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com
 Unit 5: Wave Optics

Page 47

http://www.rgpvonline.com http://www.a2zsubjects.com