International Journal of Bilingual Education and

Bilingualism

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Motivation for learning English in the immersion

environment of an international school in Japan

Yumi Tanaka & Aya Kutsuki

To cite this article: Yumi Tanaka & Aya Kutsuki (2016): Motivation for learning English in the
immersion environment of an international school in Japan, International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism, DOI: 10.1080/13670050.2016.1210566

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2016.1210566

Published online: 27 Jul 2016.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2016.1210566

Motivation for learning English in the immersion environment

of an international school in Japan
Yumi Tanakaa and Aya Kutsukib
a
Hiroshima University of Economics, Hiroshima, Japan; bDepartment of Psychology, Kobe Shoin Women’s University,
Hyogo, Japan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The present study examined motivation toward English learning among Received 11 November 2015
students at an international school in Japan. The motivation of 112 Accepted 2 July 2016
elementary school students, including those with English and Japanese
KEYWORDS
as an L1, and those bilingual in English and Japanese, was analyzed Two-way immersion;
based on self-determination theory. The results showed a distinction content-based instruction;
between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, including three types of EFL; intrinsic motivation;
regulation (viz., identified, introjected, and external regulation) on the extrinsic motivation; Japan
self-determination continuum. For all three language groups, self-
determined orientations constituted the highest motivation for studying
English, and English L1 participants were more enthusiastic than
Japanese L1 participants about studying English. Whereas a number of
studies have suggested that Japanese L1 students’ motivation toward
English learning decreases with grade level, this study found that
participants’ intrinsic motivation did not decrease significantly. This
finding may be due to the immersion environment, in which Japanese
L1 participants learnt English together with English L1 participants,
whose intrinsic motivation significantly increased from the middle to
upper grades. It may also be due to the opportunity to use English with
both L1 and L2 peers, allowing L2 learners to visualize target language
use in the English-Japanese immersion environment.

Introduction
Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) will institute English as
a subject in the fifth and sixth grades of elementary schools in the near future, whereby early instruc-
tion in L2 English will become ever more prominent. Educators will therefore need to focus on motiv-
ation, as without sufficient motivation, students will experience difficulty initiating and sustaining
learning, even if teachers choose suitable textbooks and methods (Dörnyei and Ryan 2015). Pertinent
to this, research on intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan 1985), the most self-determined form of motiv-
ation within self-determination theory (SDT), has recently attracted a great deal of attention in the edu-
cational field, as children with high intrinsic motivation are apt to be successful in their academic
studies (Gottfried 1990; Lemos and Veríssimo 2014).
In spite of the supposed benefits of such intrinsic motivation, however, a number of studies have
found a decrease in the motivation of elementary and secondary school students for L2 learning with
a rise in grade level (Butler and Takeuchi 2008; Carreira 2011; MacIntyre et al. 2002; Nishida 2008).
Although this trend appears to apply to learning in general (Carreira 2011), L2 educators may

CONTACT Yumi Tanaka [email protected]

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 Y. TANAKA AND A. KUTSUKI

need to be mindful of this decline. The present study aimed to explore factors in the learning environ-
ment that may increase L2 students’ learning motivation.
A number of international schools in Japan cater to Japanese children returning from other
countries, as well as foreign children and those with dual nationalities. In these schools, core subjects,
such as English, mathematics, and science, are taught in English, and Japanese and Japanese studies
in Japanese. The system is thus one of immersion English education for Japanese L1 students, in
which they learn subjects through the target language (TL). These Japanese international schools
contain students of different language backgrounds interacting in their L1s and L2s. Thus, a multiplier
effect of peer learning is expected to add to formal instruction in the TL.
A number of studies have focused on intrinsic motivation among students in elementary schools
(Carreira 2011, 2012; Carreira, Ozaki, and Maeda 2013), but few on motivation among students in
Japanese international elementary schools. In particular, quantitative studies in the context of
English as a foreign language (EFL) in such schools have been limited. Thus, the present study
aimed to clarify the nature of L2 learning motivation among students in this context.

Literature review
Language learning and SDT
The extension of Deci and Ryan’s (1985) SDT to the field of L2 learning by Noels et al. (2000) was of
particular relevance to researchers and teachers interested in Japanese students’ motivation. The
concepts underlying SDT were an innovation among language teachers, who had hitherto favored
teacher-centered learning as a common teaching paradigm, in which students follow a teacher’s
modeling. Along with its implication of student-centered learning, the notion of self-determination,
with emphasis on the motivation of students through self-directed learning, became widely accepted
in the L2 learning context.
SDT proposes that motivation comprises a continuum of categories, including both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation, relating to the degree of self-determination of ones’ actions (Ryan and Deci
2002).1 According to SDT, intrinsic motivation is the most self-determined and internalized form of
motivation, and many studies have focused on its developmental trends (Carreira 2011; Carreira,
Ozaki, and Maeda 2013). An example of learning based on this type of motivation would be
taking action based on one’s enjoyment and interests.
Extrinsic motivation, in contrast, is influenced by external factors. Based on the extent of self-deter-
mination of one’s actions, SDT divides extrinsic motivation into four regulations, namely integrated,
identified, introjected, and external regulation. Integrated regulation is the most internalized form of
extrinsic motivation, and originates in positive experiences (Ryan and Deci 2002). For example, a
student may consider it fun to speak English to people from different countries, and so wish to
learn English. Under this type of extrinsic motivation, learning is personally important, and the motiv-
ation can be fully integrated into the student. However, the L2 learning itself is not for enjoyment.
Identified regulation is defined as a form of extrinsic motivation in which one’s actions are person-
ally important in relation to internalized social values (Ryan and Deci 2002). An example is a student
who learns a new language in order to increase his/her chances of getting an ideal job. Learning the
L2 may not directly interest such learners, but they are highly motivated to do so in order to achieve
their goals.
Introjected regulation refers to extrinsic motivation based on maintaining one’s self-esteem and
avoiding embarrassment. Thus, it is often defined as an orientation according to which an individual
is motivated to satisfy his/her self-esteem (Ryan and Deci 2002). It is worth noting that there may be a
gap between the self and the value placed on self-esteem in this form of extrinsic motivation. For
example, a language learner may study hard in order to be admired, but this motivation is lost if
admirers are absent. Consequently, this type of motivation is controlling and only partially
internalized.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM 3

Finally, external regulation is the least self-determined and internalized form of extrinsic motiv-
ation. Within external regulation, one’s behaviors stem from the desire for immediate rewards or
to avoid threats (Ryan and Deci 2002). Examples are actions that lead to a prize or avoiding a punish-
ment. External regulation is the most extrinsic form of motivation, and thus contrasts completely with
intrinsic motivation.
SDT was initially applied to the field of education to investigate academic motivation in general
(e.g. Vallerand et al. 1992), and later to the field of L2 learning. However, along with intrinsic motiv-
ation, only three forms of extrinsic motivation have enjoyed attention (viz., identified, introjected, and
external regulation), as it is difficult to distinguish between integrated and identified regulation
among school-aged learners (Noels et al. 2000). Noels et al. suggest that this is because such learners
might struggle to distinguish between values from their own experience and societal values, since
both are acquired through school studies. Accordingly, these two regulations might be integrated
with respect to one’s goals for language learning. Later research among university students clearly
distinguished between intrinsic motivation and the three types of regulation in extrinsic motivation
(Hiromori 2006), whereas studies carried out in elementary schools suggested that identified and
introjected regulation may be better combined into one type of regulation (Carreira 2012).
Along with the aforementioned distinctions, a continuum of motivational orientations exists
in SDT, wherein adjacent points correlate more positively than distant ones (Guay 2005). Specifi-
cally, intrinsic motivation is more strongly positively correlated with a more self-determined form
of extrinsic motivation (i.e. identified regulation) than with less self-determined forms (such as
introjected and external regulation). Furthermore, distant points on the continuum (e.g. intrinsic
motivation and introjected regulation) correlate negatively or not at all (Carreira 2012; Guay 2005;
Noels et al. 2000).
More recently, in an extensive review of L2 motivation research including SDT, Dörnyei and Ryan
(2015) suggested that present experience and future visualized self-image as a L2 user regulate
motivation among young adults. However, younger elementary school children remain in a
process of establishing self, and their motivation may be influenced by their parents specifically.
Thus, by incorporating past and future aspects in SDT, the balance between learners’ intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation in the developmental process may be analyzed.

Attitudes toward language learning

Gardner and Lambert (1972) considered L2 learning in relation to attitudes toward the TL group in a
social context. Later, Gardner (1985) proposed the socio-educational model, which distinguished
between integrative and instrumental orientations to achieve ultimate goals. Integrative orientation
entails direct interest in the TL community as a reason for L2 learning, whereas instrumental orien-
tation entails pragmatic reasons. The innovative feature of Gardner’s socio-educational model was
its proposal that languages possess emotional and economic values in relation to a society, and
that these can influence motivation for L2 learning.
Following these early works, many studies have focused on learning English as a lingua franca
(ELF) and on learning so-called heritage languages. As for ELF, Lamb (2004) suggested EFL learners’
integrative motivation to learn English as an L2 to be a world citizen while maintaining their L1. A
popular motivational orientation, namely international posture, has been widely used to analyze
EFL learners’ motivation (Yashima 2001). This notion includes the concepts of both integrative and
instrumental orientations, and demonstrates that EFL learners with higher English proficiency tend
to possess a motivational orientation toward knowing others in the world, beyond the TL culture
itself.
Research on learning heritage languages, in turn, has demonstrated that attachment to one’s heri-
tage may enhance motivation to learn the language in a multicultural society. Heritage languages
may be learned as either an L1 or L2, and learners are more likely to learn their heritage languages
than are non-heritage learners, as the language is central to their self-concept (Noels 2005). Although
4 Y. TANAKA AND A. KUTSUKI

learners with family members who speak the heritage language have been shown to achieve higher
proficiency than other heritage language learners and non-heritage language learners (Kondo-Brown
2005), both L1 and L2 heritage language learners have reported that learning the heritage
language was an essential part of their selves, feeling an obligation to learn them (Comanaru and
Noels 2009).
The foregoing findings show that attitudes toward language learning can be diverse, and
depend upon affective values placed on languages. Note, however, that research in this field
focuses mainly on university students, with few studies involving elementary school children.
Indeed, no study has focused specifically on elementary school children at an international
school in the EFL context.

Influence of grade level on motivation

Research focusing on elementary school students has examined their motivation for L2 learning and
their development. Several studies have demonstrated that motivation toward language learning
decreased with a rise in grade level among EFL students (Butler and Takeuchi 2008; Carreira 2011;
Nishida 2008), among those learning Japanese as a national language in Japanese elementary
schools (Ando, Fuse, and Kodaira 2008), and among those learning French as an L2 through immer-
sion education in Canada (MacIntyre et al. 2002).
Nishida (2008) examined motivation among 720 elementary school students (from first to sixth
grade) in Japan, reporting that their motivation to learn English and interest in English-speaking
countries decreased with an increase in age. In investigating motivation among 5741 Japanese
elementary school students from the third to sixth grades, Butler and Takeuchi (2008) similarly
reported that motivation to use English decreased as learners aged. Carreira (2011) compared intrin-
sic motivation toward learning L2 English to that toward learning in general among third to sixth
grade Japanese students, finding that of sixth grade students to be the lowest, and suggesting
that the decline of motivation toward learning in general influenced intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic
motivation for studying Japanese as a national language was also found to decrease from third to
sixth grade, although the difference between fifth and sixth grade was not significant (Ando, Fuse,
and Kodaira 2008). In a study of 268 students in an immersion context, MacIntyre et al. (2002) similarly
found that motivation (i.e. desire, effort, and attitude) toward learning French decreased from
seventh to eighth grade.
Overall, previous research has suggested that motivation for L2 or foreign language learning
decreases with an increase in grade level. However, motivational changes among elementary
school students at an international school in the EFL context have not hitherto been
investigated.

Learning environment in international schools

Some international schools in Japan offer two-way immersion education, as they provide content-
based instruction in English and Japanese with a local curriculum. According to Baker (2006), bilingual
education occurs in international schools when they use two languages as media of instruction. Fur-
thermore, such international schools contain children of different language backgrounds who gain
skills and subject knowledge in two languages, as is characteristic of immersion education (Swain
and Johnson 1997).
Despite a lack of investigation into motivation in international schools, two-way immersion edu-
cation has been shown to contribute to positive learning attitudes and linguistic outcomes for both
L1 and L2 learners in the ESL context (Lightbown 2007; Lindholm-Leary 2001). Tanaka and Kutsuki
(2015) found that English-Japanese immersion students interacted with peers almost equally in
their L1 and L2, regardless of their L1, illustrating motivation by visualization of L2 use in real life,
as Dörnyei (2009) suggests. The expectation in the present study was that bilingual content-based
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM 5

instruction and peer interactions in the international school immersion environment would influence
EFL learning motivation.

Purpose of this study

This study investigated young learners’ motivation toward English learning from the perspective of
SDT. Specifically, the objectives were:

(1) To determine whether motivation among students in an international elementary school could
be explained based on the self-determination framework. If so, adjacent motivational orien-
tations (intrinsic motivation vs. identified regulation; identified vs. introjected regulation; intro-
jected vs. external regulation) would correlate positively; if not, there would be negative or no
correlation (intrinsic motivation vs. introjected regulation; intrinsic motivation vs. external
regulation).
(2) To compare motivational orientations among Japanese L1 students (with English as an L2) and
English L1 and English-Japanese bilingual students (with English as an L1) in an immersion
environment.
(3) To determine whether or not Japanese L1 students’ intrinsic motivation changes across age in an
immersion environment.

Method
Participants
All students in the second to sixth grades at an English-Japanese international elementary school in
Japan were invited to participate (N = 165), but only those whose parents agreed in advance to their
participation were included. Students whose mother tongue was English, Japanese, or both who
answered all items on the questionnaire relevant to this study were retained for the analyses pre-
sented here (112 participants: 54 boys, 58 girls). The mean ages were calculated according to
school year, and were 9.6 years (SD = 1.3), 9.7 years (SD = 1.2), and 9.3 years (SD = 1.3) in the
English L1, Japanese L1, and bilingual groups, respectively. Age and grade level were treated identi-
cally, as it is possible to surmise age from grade level, since students do not skip or repeat grades in
Japanese compulsory education.
In addition to studying core subjects (e.g. English, mathematics, and science) in English, the par-
ticipants were taught Japanese and Japanese studies in Japanese. The school was authorized by
‘Article One’ of the School Education Law to follow the Japanese curriculum, providing immersion
education in the Japanese context. Seventy-two of the participants were middle graders (second
to fourth grade) and 40 were upper graders (fifth to sixth grade). With regard to mother tongue,
34 participants (30.4%) reporting English as their best-spoken language were categorized as
English L1; 53 (47.3%) reporting Japanese as their best-spoken language were categorized as Japa-
nese L1; and 25 (22.3%) reporting both English and Japanese as their best-spoken languages were
categorized as English-Japanese bilingual.

Materials
Data were collected by means of a questionnaire containing 16 items focusing on motivational
orientations, written in both English and Japanese (with the furigana phonetic alphabet) to
ensure understanding. These items were based on the work of Hiromori (2006), Noels et al.
(2000), and Sakurai and Takano (1985). Participants indicated their degree of agreement with
16 reasons for studying English. To answer the question ‘Why do you learn English?’ they
rated each of 16 phrases on a 5-point scale (i.e. 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral,
6 Y. TANAKA AND A. KUTSUKI

4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree). The appropriateness of the questionnaire items was checked
by teachers at the school.

Procedure
To ensure participants’ understanding, the researcher read the questionnaire items aloud to the class
in English and/or Japanese, according to participants’ requests. Staff members (e.g. the school’s
English adviser) were available to answer participants’ questions (approximately one staff member
per six students). The questionnaires were answered within 20 minutes, anonymously to ensure
confidentiality.

Results
Data analysis began with exploratory factor analysis to determine the items that most accurately
reflected the types of motivation. To demonstrate reliability and validity for each factor, correlation
analysis was undertaken and the internal consistency of the accumulated data was checked.
Second, analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified tendencies regarding motivation in the language
and grade groups.

Validity and reliability analyses

The exploratory factor analysis used the principal factor method followed by oblique rotation. One
item (‘Because it will help me to live in foreign countries’) cross-loaded with other factors by .30
and was eliminated, following which the matrix was reanalyzed. This analysis yielded four factors
with eigenvalues greater than 1.0. Table 1 shows the results of the factor analysis.
Overall, the results demonstrated four factors. The five items that loaded onto factor 1 were
labeled introjected regulation because they showed that the participants were learning English in
order to increase their self-esteem. The last of these five items (‘I have to take English classes’) had
the least loading of all items, and was originally expected to fall into the category of external regu-
lation. The phrase ‘have to’ may be nuanced toward self-esteem maintenance. These items indicated
a tendency for participants to base their conduct on how they are seen and judged by others.

Table 1. Factor analysis: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation items.

Factors
Items 1 2 3 4 η2
1. Introjected regulation
Because I feel I am uncool if I am not good at English .85 −.14 .04 −.03 .74
Because I am proud of myself if I am better at English than my friends .75 .05 −.17 .01 .45
Because I feel embarrassed if I do not have better grades in English than my friends .70 .04 .11 −.10 .54
Because I feel nervous if I do not study English .37 .12 .02 .14 .26
Because I have to take English classes .34 .14 .17 .11 .31
2. Intrinsic motivation
Because I enjoy learning new words in English −.02 .93 .18 −.19 .78
Because I feel happy if I have more English knowledge .12 .70 −.07 .10 .58
Because I enjoy studying English −.07 .66 −.11 .03 .48
Because I would like to know more about foreign countries .07 .42 .00 .25 .31
3. External regulation
Because I have English homework −.08 .22 .77 .05 .56
Because my father or mother is telling me to study −.05 −.29 .69 .04 .59
Because people will be angry at me if I do not get good scores on English tests .23 −.06 .60 −.05 .57
4. Identified regulation
Because it will be useful for me in getting a good job −.15 .02 .03 .96 .83
Because it will help me to get into better schools later in life .23 −.04 −.04 .59 .50
Because it will help me to get rich .19 −.04 .19 .34 .34
Note: Communalities (η 2). N = 112.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM 7

The four items that loaded onto factor 2 were regarded as falling within the category of intrinsic
motivation, which represents participants’ enjoyment of language learning. These items included
phrases containing self-determining words, such as ‘enjoy learning’ and ‘feel happy to have
English knowledge.’
The three items that loaded onto factor 3 were labeled external regulation, demonstrating learn-
ing based on external pressure and avoidance of punishment. These items included phrases contain-
ing words potentially threatening for children, such as ‘homework,’ and ‘father, mother, and people’s
pressure.’
The three items that loaded onto factor 4 were labeled identified regulation because they
reflected aspects related to participants’ ideal future goals in relation to social activities, such as
‘getting a good job,’ ‘getting into better schools,’ and ‘getting rich.’ Some of the items might seem
to exemplify explicit rewards in external regulation, yet they represent positive engagement
toward the actions envisaged. Following Hayashi (2005), this positive engagement was categorized
as identified regulation.
Turning to internal consistency and correlation analysis, Table 2 displays the means and stan-
dard deviations. To demonstrate internal consistency, the Cronbach alpha index of each factor
was also calculated. As Table 2 shows, intrinsic motivation achieved the highest mean rating, fol-
lowed by identified, introjected, and external regulation. All factors’ indexes lay between .71 and
.78, demonstrating acceptable levels of reliability for each regulation type, according to the
requirement of .70 or above in applied linguistics research (Dörnyei 2007). In addition to
reliability, validity was attested by the existence of a self-determination continuum (Carreira
2012; Hiromori 2006; Noels et al. 2000; Ryan and Deci 2002), which means adjacent motivational
regulation types correlated positively, but negatively or not at all as they fell further away from
each another. As shown in Table 2, the adjacent regulation types within extrinsic motivation (i.e.
identified vs. introjected regulation, introjected vs. external regulation) correlated highly posi-
tively. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation correlated with identified regulation, the most
self-determined form of extrinsic motivation, but not with introjected and external regulation.
The correlation patterns confirmed the self-determination continuum suggested by previous
studies.

Relations between language, grade, and motivation

A 3 × 2 × 4 mixed model ANOVA was conducted to determine any effects of the between-subjects
factors of language (English L1, Japanese L1, and bilingual) and grade (middle and upper) on the
within-subjects factor of motivation (intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected regulation,
and external regulation). There was no significant main effect of language on motivation (Pillai’s = .02,
F (6, 210) = .32, p = .93 ns). There was, however, a significant main effect of grade on motivation
(Pillai’s = .08, F (3, 104) = 2.86, p < .05), and of motivation on its own (Pillai’s = .69, F (3, 104) = 78.03,
p < .001), as well as a significant three-way interaction among language, grade, and motivation
(Pillai’s = .13, F (6, 210) = 2.34, p < .05). Means and standard deviations appear in Table 3.

Table 2. Motivation subscale means, standard deviations, Cronbach alpha, and correlations.
Subscales
Subscales M SD α 1 2 3 4
1. Intrinsic motivation 3.93 .77 .77 –
2. Identified regulation 3.49 .86 .71 .20a –
3. Introjected regulation 2.55 .90 .78 .19 .51b –
4. External regulation 2.40 1.03 .75 −.09 .40b .52b –
Note: N = 112.
a
p < .05.
b
p < .001.
8 Y. TANAKA AND A. KUTSUKI

Table 3. Means and standard deviations for each group.

External Introjected Identified Intrinsic
regulation regulation regulation motivation
Groups M SD M SD M SD M SD
Language
English L1 (n = 34) 2.66 .18 2.73 .16 3.81 .15 4.05 .13
Japanese L 1 (n = 53) 2.21 .14 2.28 .12 3.27 .12 3.68 .10
Bilingual (n = 25) 2.52 .22 2.73 .20 3.67 .19 4.28 .16
Grade
Middle (n = 72) 2.45 .12 2.71 .11 3.46 .10 4.00 .09
Upper (n = 40) 2.48 .17 2.45 .15 3.72 .14 4.01 .13
Language × Grade
English L1 × Middle (n = 21) 2.97 .22 2.94 .19 3.52 .18 3.79 .16
English L1 × Upper (n = 13) 2.36 .28 2.52 .24 4.10 .23 4.31 .20
Japanese L1 × Middle (n = 33) 2.18 .18 2.36 .15 3.21 .15 3.86 .13
Japanese L1 × Upper (n = 20) 2.23 .22 2.20 .20 3.33 .19 3.50 .16
Bilingual × Middle (n = 18) 2.19 .24 2.82 .21 3.63 .20 4.35 .17
Bilingual × Upper (n = 7) 2.86 .38 2.63 .33 3.71 .32 4.21 .27

To analyze the three-way interaction, simple interaction effects were calculated (see Table 4). A
number of simple interaction effects were significant, namely grade and motivation in the English
L1 group, language and motivation in the middle grade group, and language and grade in intrinsic
motivation and external regulation.
The simple-simple main effect of language was significant for intrinsic motivation, introjected
regulation, and external regulation in the middle grade group (F (2, 106) = 3.53, p < .05; F (2, 106)
= 3.27, p < .05; F (2, 106) = 4.56, p < .05), and for intrinsic motivation and identified regulation in
the upper grade group (F (2, 106) = 5.79, p < .01; F (2, 106) = 3.38, p < .05). The post-hoc test indicated
no significant pair-wise differences between language groups for intrinsic motivation and introjected
regulation in the middle grade, whereas extrinsic regulation in the English L1 group was higher than
the Japanese L1 group (see Figure 1). The post-hoc test also found that intrinsic motivation and ident-
ified regulation were higher in the English L1 than the Japanese L1 group in the upper grades. The
simple-simple main effects of grade revealed that English L1 participants’ intrinsic motivation was
higher in the upper than the middle grades (F (1, 106) = 4.19, p < .05) (see Figure 2). The simple-
simple main effect of motivation was significant for English L1, Japanese L1, and bilingual participants
in both middle grades (F (3, 318) = 6.82, p < .001; F (3, 318) = 37.16, p < .001; F (3, 318) = 29.76, p < .001)
and upper grades (F (3, 318) = 25.38, p < .001; F (3, 318) = 18.05, p < .001; F (3, 318) = 7.14, p < .001).
The post-hoc test indicated that intrinsic motivation was significantly higher than introjected
and external regulation within each language group in the middle grades, and significantly

Table 4. Simple interaction effects.

Sources df F p
[Language] [English L1] [Grade] × [Motivation] 3 6.10a .000
[Japanese L1] [Grade] × [Motivation] 3 1.12 .342
[Bilingual] [Grade] × [Motivation] 3 2.46 .062
[Grade] [Middle] [Language] × [Motivation] 6 3.12b .006
[Upper] [Language] × [Motivation] 6 1.19 .309
Error 318
[Motivation] [Intrinsic motivation] [Grade] × [Language] 2 3.51c .033
[Identified regulation] [Grade] × [Language] 2 .95 .390
[Introjected regulation] [Grade] × [Language] 2 .47 .625
[External regulation] [Grade] × [Language] 2 3.41c .037
Error 106
a
p < .001.
b
p < .01.
c
p < .05.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM 9

Figure 1. Rearranged means with ‘grade’ factor to distinguish the panels.

higher than identified regulation for Japanese L1 and bilingual participants. In the upper grades,
intrinsic motivation was significantly higher than introjected and external regulation for all language
groups.

Discussion
Investigating motivation on the basis of SDT (Deci and Ryan 1985), this study had three purposes:
(1) to determine whether or not motivation among young learners at an international school reflected
10 Y. TANAKA AND A. KUTSUKI

Figure 2. Rearranged means with ‘language’ factor to distinguish the panels.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM 11

a continuum of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation including three types of regulation (i.e. identified,
introjected, and external regulation); (2) to compare intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among
language groups (English L1, Japanese L1, and English-Japanese bilingual); and (3) to determine
whether or not Japanese L1 learners’ intrinsic motivation changed with grade level.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among young international school learners

The theoretical predictions of SDT (Deci and Ryan 1985) entail a distinction between each type of
regulation, with higher and positive correlations between adjacent types. Consistent with this, the
factor analysis above indicated clear distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation that
extend to the three types of regulation. The results also supported the idea of a continuum of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation in language learning, depending on the extent of self-determination among
the present participants.
The present results were consistent with those of earlier studies of motivation among young
adult learners (Hiromori 2006; Noels 2001; Noels et al. 2000). All identified factors were satisfactorily
reliable, and the correlations were highest for the types of regulation within extrinsic motivation.
In support of the self-determination continuum, a correlation was shown between intrinsic motiv-
ation and identified regulation, the more self-determined type within extrinsic motivation. In
contrast, no significant correlations were found between intrinsic motivation and the less self-
determined regulation types (introjected and external regulation). These findings suggested that
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were connected by means of identified regulation among the
present participants.

Comparison of motivational orientations among language groups

Similarities
The ANOVA indicated that self-determined orientations (i.e. intrinsic motivation and identified regu-
lation) were the highest motivation for English learning among all three language groups. Within
each group, mean intrinsic motivation was the highest of all orientations. However, among English
L1 middle graders and all three upper grade language groups, there was no significant difference
between intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. This could be because identified regulation
refers to the achievement of one’s ideal future goals. As noted by Dörnyei (2009), an L2 user’s vivid-
ness of future self-image strongly motivates learning; hence, it is unsurprising that no significant
difference was found between intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, as the latter can be a
powerful motivator akin to intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the results indicated that these partici-
pants tended to possess self-determination in learning English.
The present findings did not concur with those of Carreira (2012), who concluded that external
regulation, the least self-determined form of extrinsic motivation, was the highest orientation
among young English learners in Japan. This difference may be due to the present participants
being in an immersion environment, thereby spending more time learning subjects through the
TL than learning the TL itself. Indeed, a staff member emphasized that this was a unique characteristic
of the school. As the learning environment was mostly content-based, participants may have con-
sidered language learning enjoyable, as it helped them obtain new information through the TL.
Noels, Clément, and Pelletier (1999) reported students indicating higher intrinsic motivation if they
regarded teacher feedback as informative. Obtaining explicative information enabling understanding
of content in various subjects through the TL may be an important key to ensuring a self-determined
form of motivation.
Concerning the overall comparison across the three language groups, the finding that all upper
grade groups shared the same highest motivation agrees with the findings of Comanaru and
Noels’ (2009) study, wherein both L1 and L2 learners shared the highest regulation type (i.e. identified
regulation). The present middle grade participants did show different levels of motivation toward the
12 Y. TANAKA AND A. KUTSUKI

TL depending on their L1s, but it may be that the educational setting affected both L1 and L2 learners
in the same way once they reached the upper grades, as they all shared the same environment.
Although findings on this point differ among studies (cf. Noels 2005), it may be that educational inter-
vention affords students a shared self-determined form of motivation toward a TL, irrespective of
their L1.

Differences
With regard to differences in orientation among the three language groups, the present study found
significant differences between English and Japanese L1 participants. The two groups differed par-
ticularly in the self-determination of their motivation across grade levels. The less self-determined
orientation (i.e. external regulation) was significantly higher among English than Japanese L1 partici-
pants in the middle grades, and the more self-determined orientations (i.e. intrinsic motivation and
identified regulation) were significantly higher among English than Japanese L1 participants in the
upper grades.
These results indicate greater motivation among English than Japanese L1 middle graders to study
English for immediate rewards or threat avoidance, but more enjoyment of English and clearer future
goals in terms of studying English among English than Japanese L1 upper graders. This means that
the younger English L1 middle graders may have been motivated by less self-determined reasons,
becoming more self-determined in their study of English as they reached the upper grades. As Coma-
naru and Noels (2009) suggested, language behaviors of heritage language learners are affectively
different from those of foreign language learners in enhancing their self-concept. The term ‘heritage
language’ usually refers to a minority language used in a multicultural society. However, English is not
generally used for everyday conversation in Japanese society. In this EFL context, studying the L1
might yield higher intrinsic motivation and identified regulation amongst English L1 students
when compared to Japanese L1 students with respect to development, so as to enhance their
self-concept, which is the case for heritage language learners in multicultural societies. This assump-
tion is seemingly supported by a remark made by one student during the implementation of the
questionnaire, wherein she reported learning English by conversing with her grandparents. Further-
more, the English L1 participants in this study included non-heritage language learners, namely those
who had lived in foreign countries and considered English to be their best-spoken language. Like
heritage language learners, such students might possess particular attachment to English, as it
enhances their self-concept in the EFL context.
With respect to the bilingual group, no significant difference was found between it and the mono-
lingual (i.e. English L1 and Japanese L1) groups. This finding was surprising since we expected that
the bilingual students’ results would be significantly higher than their Japanese L1 counterparts,
as English was the L1 for both the English L1 and bilingual groups. Instead, the mean scores for
the bilingual students’ three orientations were between those for the English L1 and Japanese L1 stu-
dents. This could be because bilingual students might use both English and Japanese to enhance
their self-concept. Further research regarding Japanese learning in an identical environment is
necessary to better understand this feature.

Intrinsic motivation of Japanese L1 students and grade level

The present study found no significant change in Japanese L1 participants’ intrinsic motivation with
an increase in grade level, although it did decrease somewhat. These results differed from those of
previous studies among English L2 learners in the EFL context (Butler and Takeuchi 2008; Carreira
2011; Nishida 2008). One possible account for the relatively stable levels of motivation in this
study may be that these Japanese L1 participants were learning the TL together with English L1 stu-
dents whose intrinsic motivation increased significantly from the middle to upper grades. As Wata-
nabe (2002) suggested, cultural plasticity in relationships with friends from different cultural
backgrounds is established around 9 to 11 years of age. Thus, the present Japanese L1 learners of
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM 13

English may have regarded the TL as part of their own culture as they engaged with their English L1
friends without hesitation during their elementary school years (i.e. from grades 2–6).
Another possible reason for the relatively stable intrinsic motivation among the Japanese L1 par-
ticipants may be the immersion environment that included English users with a range of L1s. The
school in which the data were collected catered to students with different language backgrounds
(e.g. Japanese children who had or had not been abroad, foreign children, and dual nationality chil-
dren) so the Japanese L1 participants had peers from whom they could gain a realistic picture of how
English is used in the world, similar to the international influences from which young adult learners
benefit (Lamb 2004; Yashima 2001). Thus, Japanese L1 students in an EFL context such as this inter-
national school might regard learning English as a pathway to communicating with others, which
would maintain their intrinsic motivation at relatively stable levels through the grades.

Pedagogical implications
The present findings have three pedagogical implications. First, they demonstrate that the self-deter-
mination framework can elucidate motivational tendencies among L1 and L2 English learners at
international schools. Likewise, by using the framework and genuinely considering students’ intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, teachers can better evaluate programs. Second, these findings suggest that
teachers should create educational environments wherein students can obtain information through
the TL, which might increase intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Indeed, providing
content-based instruction in the TL may increase self-determined motivation to learn English.
Third, as opposed to a monolingual configuration, it is advantageous to have a mix of both L1 and
L2 children in an immersion environment from the middle grade level. This is because learning
English alongside native speakers who display heightened intrinsic motivation, and communicating
in the TL with friends whose L1s vary, may sustain Japanese L1 students’ intrinsic motivation as they
rise in grade level. However, this result will only occur in two-way immersion environments wherein
students can participate as both L1 and L2 peer learners (cf. MacIntyre et al. 2002). In practical terms,
longitudinal immersion environments wherein children can partake in group work alongside a variety
of L1 and L2 peers should contribute to maintaining greater self-determined motivation.

Limitations
The present study had three limitations. First, students’ linguistic competence in English was not
assessed. Objective measurements of students’ TL competence would be helpful in future studies
of this nature. Second, the study focused only on English learning, whereas all participants also
studied Japanese at the school in which the data were collected. It would have likewise been infor-
mative to explore each language group’s motivation toward studying Japanese. Third, although this
study benefited from a rare opportunity to include over 100 participants in an immersion EFL environ-
ment, the number of participants remained limited, and research focusing on young learners in multi-
lingual EFL environments ought to be continuously expanded.

Conclusion
The present study investigated intrinsic and extrinsic motivation among students at an international
elementary school in the EFL context. The findings showed that SDT is an appropriate framework to
study language-learning motivation among such children. Overall, the international school’s immer-
sion environment, which featured a variety of L1 and L2 learners, was key to self-determined motiv-
ation during the elementary school years. Although monolingual L1 speakers of the TL would likely
derive the most benefit from such an environment, the diffusion of a sense of language attachment
from these individuals to L2 learners may prevent a decline in intrinsic motivation among the latter,
thereby contributing to successful language learning for all. The authors hope that the findings
14 Y. TANAKA AND A. KUTSUKI

will contribute to improving language education practices both nationally and internationally
by encouraging the proliferation of EFL programs comprising students of different language
backgrounds.

Note
1. Identifying distinct categories within a continuum may seem contradictory, but Ryan and Deci (2002) do this in
the same way that, for example, one distinguishes between distinct colors in a rainbow, which are broader than
the transitional zones in between.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This work was partly supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science [grant number 24730713 awarded to
the second author].

Notes on contributors
Yumi Tanaka is an assistant professor at Hiroshima University of Economics. Her research interests include second
language acquisition and motivation, with a focus on intercultural communication.
Aya Kutsuki is an associate professor of Developmental Psychology at Kobe Shoin Women’s University, Japan. Her
research interests include development of social cognition, language and cognitive influences of multicultural and lin-
guistic experiences in young children.

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