Semiconductor Theory

Semiconductor materials have only half the required electrons in their valance shell. Most common semiconductor materials include germanium and silicon. Pure semiconductor material is called intrinsic.
A bonding of atoms, by the sharing of electrons, is called covalent bonding. Semiconductor atoms form covalent bonds

Electrons and holes

An intrinsic silicon crystal at room temperature derives thermal energy fro the surrounding air, causing some valence electrons to gain sufficient energy to become free electrons. When an electron jumps to the conduction energy band (higher energy band than valence band), a vacancy is left in the valence band. This vacancy is called a hole. For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one hole left in the valence band, creating what is called an electron hole pair.

Current in semiconductor
When a voltage is applied across an intrinsic silicon, the free electrons move towards the positive end. This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semi conductive material and is called electron current. Another type of current occurs at the valence level, where the holes created by the free electrons exist. A valence electron can move into a nearby hole, thus leaving another hole where it came from. There is a movement of valence electrons (influenced by the holes) in one direction and holes in the opposite direction. This component of current is called hole current. The two components of current add together and the total current is called drift current. 1

Extrinsic Semiconductor Materials

Semiconductors dont conduct well and are of little value in the intrinsic state (because of the limited number of electron-hole pairs.) By adding impurities to the intrinsic material(doping the intrinsic material), the number of free electrons and holes may be increased, increasing its conductivity. A semiconductor that has been subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic material. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor materials: n-type and p-type.

n-Type Material
Both the n- and p-type materials are formed by adding a predetermined number of impurity atoms into a germanium or silicon base. The n-type is created by introducing those impurity elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus. The effect of such impurity elements is indicated in below (using antimony as the impurity in a silicon
base)

Note that the four covalent bonds are still present. There is, however, an additional fifth electron due to the impurity atom, which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond. This remaining electron, loosely bound to its parent (antimony) atom, is relatively free to move within the newly formed n-type material. Since the inserted impurity atom has donated a relatively free electron to the structure:
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.

p-Type Material
The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The elements most frequently used for this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium. The effect of one of these elements, boron, on a base of silicon is indicated below

Note that there is now an insufficient number of electrons to complete the covalent bonds of the newly formed lattice. The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is represented by a small circle or positive sign due to the absence of a negative charge. Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a free electron: The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.

Majority and Minority Carriers

In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole the minority carrier. In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier.

The PN Junction
When a P-Type and N-Type semiconductor material are fused together, a PN junction is formed and is the fundamental structure of many electronic components (diodes, transistors, JFET) As a result of diffusion of electrons across the junction, a depletion region is formed. The electric field across the depletion region must then be overcome by some external voltage source before further current flows.

This potential difference across the junction is called the barrier or junction
potential. The barrier potential at 25 C for silicon semiconductor material is approximately 0.7V while for germanium material it is approximately 0.3V.

Forward and Reverse Biased Junctions

Bias refers to an external DC voltage that is used to control the operation of a device. When bias is applied to a PN junction it can oppose or reinforce the barrier potential. When the bias supply V opposes the junction barrier potential and if large enough it will exceed the barrier potential and current can flow. This junction is then said to be forward biased. The forward current vs. voltage characteristic for a silicon PN junction is represented below

When the bias supply polarity is reversed, it reinforces the barrier potential and current flow is inhibited. This junction is then said to be reverse biased. If the bias supply continues to be increased, at some voltage (VBR), the junction will reach breakdown and substantial reverse current will flow (called avalanche).

A diode is the name applied to a PN junction. The diode is generally silicon or germanium. PD(MAX) = ID VD The schematic symbol for a diode is:

A Zener diode is specially doped to operate in the breakdown region. It is used as a voltage reference. The schematic symbol for a zener is:

Resistance of a Diode
Below the junction voltage (knee voltage) the diode exhibits high resistance, while above the knee voltage it looks as a very low resistance. Every diode has 3 resistive components: 1. DC (Static) Resistance (RD)

2. AC (Dynamic) Resistance (rd)

(for small changes in Vd) above the diode knee;

3. Bulk Resistance (rB )-consists of the AC resistance of the semiconductor material and the contact resistance of the leads. Since r B << rd it can generally be neglected. Therefore the total AC resistance of a junction (rj) includes rd + rB. Since rB << rd , r j rd Diode DC Models (Equivalent Circuits) First Approximation--Ideal Diode--behaves either as a short or open switch. The junction voltage is ignored.

Second Approximation (Model)

Below VD, diode is open. Above VD, diode is short. Third Approximation (Model)

Rectifiers A rectifier is a circuit that allows current to flow through it in one direction only.
Rectifiers are used to provide wave-shaping of signals and also to convert AC to DC in power supplies. Diode conduction is controlled by the input signal.

Half wave rectifier

Example 1
For the series diode configuration below, determine VD, VR, and ID.

Repeat with the diode reversed. Example 2