How to Write Introductions and

Conclusions
Introductions and conclusions can be tricky to write. They do not contain
the main substance of your assignment, but they do play a key role in
helping the reader navigate your writing.
The usual advice is
• Introduction: say what you're going to say
• Main body: say it
• Conclusion: say that you've said it
However, this approach can feel repetitive and is not very rewarding to write or read.
A more engaging approach is to think about the perspective of the reader and what they need to
know in order to make sense of your writing. In academic writing, it is the writer’s job to make their
meaning clear (unlike in literature and fiction, where it is the reader’s job to interpret the meaning)
so that the reader can concentrate on deciding what they think of your work and marking it.
Introductions and conclusions play an important role in explaining your aims and approach, so to
help you write them well, you could think about what questions the reader has for you as they pick
up your work for the first time, and when they have finished reading it.

Introductions
The introductions are the first part of your assignment that the reader encounters, so it needs to
make a good impression and set the scene for what follows. Your introduction is about 10% of the
total word count. It can be difficult to think what that first opening sentence should be, or what an
introduction should include.
From your reader’s perspective, they have three questions when they first pick up your assignment:

What are you doing?

You could approach this question in a number of ways:
• Although your lecturer knows the assignment questions they’ve set, they don’t know how
you have understood and interpreted it. To demonstrate that you’ve read it accurately, you
can echo back the question to your reader, paraphrased in your own words so they know you
have really understood it rather than just copying and pasting it.
• There might also be different ways to interpret the assignment, and clarifying for the reader
how you’ve interpreted it would be helpful. Perhaps different angles on it are possible, there
is more than one definition you could be working to, or you have been given a range of

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 options within the assessment brief, and you need to tell the reader which approach you are
taking.
• It’s also common to give a brief overview of a topic in the introduction, providing the reader
with some context so they can understand what is to follow. Of course, your lecturer is
already likely to know this basic information, so you could think of it as giving the reader
confidence that you also share that foundational knowledge and have got your facts right.
This aspect needs to be as brief as possible, as it can be very descriptive (which will not get
you higher marks) and if it extends too far, can take up too much space in your essay which
would be better used for analysis, interpretation or argumentation. A rough guide is to ask
yourself which information is built on later in your assignment and cut anything that doesn’t
get ‘used’ later on.

Why are you doing this?

The obvious answer to this question is "because you told me to write this assignment”! A more
interesting response, though, is to show that you've really understood why your lecturer has set that
question and why it’s worth asking. None of the questions you are set at University will be simple or
straightforward, but will be complex and problematic, and many have no single clear answer or
approach. In responding thoughtfully to the question “why are you doing this”, you are reflecting on
why it is significant, complex and worth doing, that you've understood the complexity of the
assignment you’ve been set and recognise the lecturer’s aims in setting it.

How will you do this?

Every student who answers a particular assignment will produce a different answer, with a different
structure, making different points and drawing on different information. Your reader wants to know
what your own particular approach to the assignment will be.
• You might answer this question in terms of what your structure is going to be, signalling how
many sections you use and what order they appear in, signposting how you have broken the
assignment down and organised it, so the reader knows what to expect.
• You might also explain to the reader which choices and decisions you have made to narrow it
down to a manageable, focussed assignment. You might have chosen to set yourself
particular limits on the scope of your assignment (for example, a focussing on a particular
context, timespan, or type), or which examples and case studies you’ve chosen to illustrate
your answer with, and why they are appropriate for this assignment.
• If relevant, you might also tell the reader about your methodology, the theories, models,
definitions or approaches you have applied in order to answer the assignment question.
Your introduction may not include all these elements, or include them in the same balance or in this
order, but if you address the reader’s three questions, your introduction will fulfil its purpose. Make
sure you’re not jumping into your argument too early. Your introduction should introduce your
argument but not actually do the work of making it yet; that is the job of the main body of the
assignment.

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Conclusions
Conclusions can feel a bit repetitive, as you need to revisit the points you’ve already made, but not
include any new material. Again, the conclusion is usually about 10% of your total word count. The
challenge is to make them engaging to read for your marker, but also interesting for you to write, so
they feel purposeful. You cannot include any new material as conclusions should close a discussion
down, not open up new avenues or leave points unresolved. If a point is important, it should be dealt
with in the main body rather than as an afterthought.
As they read, your marker is focussing on each paragraph in detail, identifying the point you’re
making, analysing and evaluating the evidence you’re using, and the way you explain, interpret and
argue, to see if it makes sense. They’re also thinking about the quality of your work and what mark
they’re going to give it, looking to see that you’ve met the marking criteria. University assignments
are long enough that the reader will find it hard to give each point this kind of detailed scrutiny and
keep the whole assignment in their mind at the same time. The job of the conclusion is to help them
move from that close-up reading and zoom out to give them a sense of the whole.
Again, a good approach is to think of the questions that your reader has when they reach the end of
your assignment.

Where are we?

Your conclusion is the overall answer to the original assignment question you were set. See if you
can summarise your overall answer in one sentence. This might be the first line of your conclusion.
Make sure that your concluding answer does match the question you were set in the assessment.

How did we get here?

Having told the reader where they've got to, you will need to remind them of how you got there. To
strengthen their confidence in your overall answer, you can remind them of the points you made
and how together they build your conclusion.

Where does that leave us?

Although you cannot include new information in your conclusion, you can show your thinking in a
new light. One question your reader may have is “where does that leave me’? or “so what?”. You
could therefore briefly discuss the significance of your conclusion. Now that you’ve demonstrated
your answer to the question, how does that add to our overall understanding of this topic? What do
we know, what can we do now, that we couldn’t before? If we hadn’t explored this topic, where
would we be? Why is this conclusion important? This might resolve the issues you raised in the
introduction when you answered the question ‘why am I doing this?’

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What next?
A possible follow-on to this question is to examine what work might come next, if you didn’t have
time constraints or word limits. This is particularly relevant in second and third year and masters
level assignments, especially dissertations. This is a good way to show awareness of how your own
thinking fits in the wider context of scholarship and research and how it might be developed. It might
be a way to touch on aspects you had to cut out, or areas you couldn’t cover.

When to write the introduction and conclusion

You don’t have to write your assignment in order. If you find that the introduction is hard to start,
then you could write it at the end of the process, which will ensure that it matches the assignment
you’ve actually written. However, it might be a useful approach to at least begin by thinking about
the introduction questions above, as it will help you in the planning process. Likewise, you could start
with writing the conclusion if you have done extensive thinking and planning, as formulating your
end goal might help to keep you on track (although be open to your overall answer changing a little
in the process). Again, thinking about the conclusion questions above at the start of the process is a
useful planning tool to clarify your thinking, even if you don’t write it until the end.

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Paragraphs in Academic Writing
Academic Writing has its own conventions, not just in terms of style and language, but
also structure, and the use of paragraphs is one of those conventions.
Paragraphs don’t just make a text easier to read by breaking it up on the page. They are a key tool in
creating and signposting structure in academic writing, as they are the building blocks of an
argument, separating each point and showing how they link together to form the structure. They
also have a characteristic structure of their own.

Paragraphing: structure

Keyword (old) Signpost word Keyword (new)

Topic sentence: Introduction
of the paragraph’s main idea.
Could be an observation to be Self assessment can also develop skills which make a
interpreted or an argument to
student more attractive to prospective employers.
be evidenced.
Employers value students with skills in self-assessment
because these types of skills are relevant to a wide range of
Main body in which the initial employment contexts. They want graduates who can
assertion is developed and accurately assess their own competencies in performing
explained. tasks. Students who can do this are well places to take on
responsibilities and adapt readily to roles in work places.
The value in developing these types of assessment can be
Conclusion to be drawn from
the above points. seen to go beyond meeting immediate educational needs.

Paragraphs and Points

A common piece of advice is ‘one point per paragraph’. This can be a little hard to put into practice –
what counts as ‘a point’? The whole assignment could be said to be making a point, and each
sentence also makes a point. Another way to think of it is that a point in this sense is a statement of
argument or observation that contributes a significant and essential step in your whole structure,
without which your conclusion will be weakened. A point like this can’t stand on its own without
being further unpacked with evidence, explanation, interpretation etc, which is the job of the rest of
the paragraph. You should be able to get the overall gist and structure of an academic text by just
reading the first line of each paragraph.

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Topic sentences
This point is usually the first (in some cases the second) sentence of the paragraph, commonly
known as the topic sentence. The point made is usually an argumentative statement which needs to
be demonstrated or an observation which needs to be interpreted or explained (the former is more
common in Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences; the latter is more common in the sciences, but they
can be found in both). The topic sentence introduces the main idea of the paragraph, usually with a
key word which echoes the signposting language from the introduction so the reader recognises it. It
also moves from what we know (the old keyword) to the new information (the new keyword),
showing how the paragraph builds on what has gone before. It also indicates how it connects to the
previous paragraph with a signpost word. This linking should be as brief as possible, as the longer
your reader has to wait or the more they have to search for the new idea, the more confused they
are likely to become.

Paragraph structure
Academic paragraphs work like court reports rather than murder mysteries; start with the end result
and then explain how you got there, rather than taking the reader on an exploration with the
purpose only revealed at the end. One simple model for paragraph structure is PEEL: Point, Evidence,
Evaluation, Link (to the assignment topic or next paragraph). This is a good starting point, but you
may find it too rigid and restrictive for what you need to do, or too clumsy and repetitive in
constantly linking back or forward. Look at some of the paragraphs in the academic books or articles
you’re reading and see how they are structured and how often they fit this model, and how they
vary. Average paragraph length varies depending on your subject- Arts, Humanities and Social
Sciences tend to use longer paragraphs than in the sciences.

Sentence Structure
In English, the reader prioritises the information which is at the start of the sentence (they are front-
loaded). Sentence length varies according to personal taste and discipline convention, but overly
long sentences can mean that later elements get overlooked or the sentence coherence breaks
down. If your sentence contains several important elements, then it might be best to split into two
or more sentences so that each one gets its own spotlight. You can use signposting words to make
the connection between them clear.
Compare these two versions. Which is better?
In English, sentences are ‘front-loaded’ so the most important information appears early
on, and later information may be lost, meaning that writers might separate very long
sentences and use signpost words to demonstrate the link.
In English, sentences are ‘front-loaded’ so the most important information appears early
on. Later information may be lost as a result. Writers might therefore separate very long
sentences and use signpost words to demonstrate the link.

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Troubleshooting
• you’re not sure which is your topic sentence
• your reader gives you the feedback that your point isn’t clear (or that your writing is too
descriptive)
Your main point is likely to be buried somewhere in your paragraph, or there isn’t a clear focus. This
could be an issue with planning, or that you are still working your ideas out as you write. Ask
yourself: if you could only keep one sentence from each paragraph, which one would it be? That is
most likely an idea, argument or observation of your own rather than from your reading. This is likely
to be your topic sentence, and should be placed at the start of your paragraph. Your reader should
be able to follow your overall structure by reading the first line of each paragraph, to capture your
points. If the first line of your paragraph is just a descriptive fact or quote from someone else, then
they aren’t going to get a sense of your argument.
• Your paragraphs are very long
• More than one of your sentences could be your topic sentence
You may have some less relevant material which isn’t essential to making your point, or your
paragraph may be making two related points rather than one. If you ask ‘if I could only keep one
sentence from this paragraph, which would it be?’ and can’t decide between two sentences, then
you may have two points which would be better developed separately in two paragraphs. You could
also look at each sentence and decide if it’s necessary or just nice to have, and whether your overall
point would be undermined if you removed it, or if it just adds interest but is not strictly essential.
• Your paragraphs are very short
• Your feedback suggests that you need to ‘unpack’ or ‘expand’ your points
You may have an isolated fragment which on your plan looked like it might be enough for a
paragraph but didn’t work out being very much when you came to write it up. This would be better
integrated into another paragraph if it fits, or cut if it doesn’t. You may instead have skipped some of
your reasoning, not developing your point fully with all of the evidence and explanation needed, and
instead assuming that your reader is following you. In this case, try analysing what you have written
and after each sentence (or part of a sentence), identify what questions the reader might ask about
that to be convinced of it, such as ‘what does that mean? How do you know? Why / how does that
happen? What is the significance of that? How does that prove your point?’ if you haven’t answered
any of the questions that occur to you, you may need to expand on that aspect more fully.

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Reporting verbs
Reporting verbs help you introduce the ideas or words of others as
paraphrase or quotation from scholarly literature. Always accompanied by
a reference, they indicate where you’re drawing on other people’s work to
build your own argument.
They also indicate your stance (agree, disagree, etc) on the scholarship, highlighting your critical
contribution. There are many reporting verbs to choose from and, depending on context, they might
be used to convey more than one stance, so you’ll notice that some appear in more than one
category.
This list of reporting verbs has been organised by the critical stances they signal:

Critical Stance
0B Reporting Verb
1B Example
2B

Neutral description of
3B
Observes Abrams mentions that culture shock has
what the text says “long been misunderstood as a primarily
Describes
psychological phenomenon” (34)
Discusses
Chakrabarty outlines the four stages of
Reports mitosis (72-3)
Outlines
Remarks
States
Goes on to say that
Quotes that
Says
Mentions
Articulates
Writes
Relates
Conveys

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Acceptance as
4B
Recognises Abrams refutes the idea that culture shock
uncontested fact, is a “primarily psychological phenomenon”
Clarifies
having critiqued it (34)
Acknowledges
5B
Chakrabarty demonstrates
Concedes that mitosis actually occurs over five stages
Accepts (73)
Refutes
Uncovers
Admits
Demonstrates
Highlights
Illuminates
Supports
Concludes
Elucidates
Reveals
Verifies

Recognition that this

6B
Argues Abrams contends that culture shock is
is one perspective on socially produced (38)
Reasons
or interpretation of an Chakrabarty hypothesises that metaphase is
issue or conclusion, Maintains
a more complex process than previously
and others might be Contends thought (77)
possible
Hypothesises
7B

Proposes
Theorises
Feels
Considers
Asserts
Disputes
Advocates
Opines

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 Thinks
Implies
Posits

Agreement with that

8B
Shows Abrams points out that culture shock is a
perspective/interpret “stress response mechanism” (34)
Illustrates
ation/conclusion Chakrabarty proves that mitosis is
Points out
9B
irreversible, once triggered (80)
Proves
Finds
Explains
Agrees
Confirms
Identifies
Evidences
Attests

Disagreement with
10B
Believes Abrams’ analysis disregards the
that neurochemical factors that contribute to
Claims
perspective/interpret culture shock (36)
ation/conclusion Justifies
Chakrabarty speculates that “metaphase is
11B
Insists the most important stage of mitosis” (78)
Assumes
Alleges
Denies
Speculates
Disregards
Supposes
Conjectures
Surmises

Slight reservations
12B
Notes Abrams asserts that theories of culture
held – probably true shock have moved away from psychological
Asserts
but being cautious explanations.
Suggests

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13B Challenges Chakrabarty emphasises the role of
metaphase within mitosis (78)
Critiques
Emphasises
Declares
Indicates
Comments
Upholds

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Signposting
Signposting language can help you guide the reader through your writing and make
sure the order is clear and flows well. These are small words or phrases that help the
reader follow your argument, understand the relationship between your ideas and
anticipate what’s going to come next.
These words may not seem important, but they’re really the glue that holds a piece of writing
together. Without signposting language, writing can lose direction, become confused and read like a
series of unrelated points. Try reading the paragraph without them and see how it changes the
meaning.
Signposting words are useful in the introduction to signal your structure, and echoed in the first lines
of paragraphs to indicate how the paragraphs relate to each other. They are also useful at sentence
level to make the links between them clear. There are different kinds of links and relationships, so
you need to choose a signposting word that does the right job.

Signposting of order
You can use these kinds of signposting words to direct the reader through your writing, provide a
‘roadmap’ for the order in which you’re going to talk about things, help them keep on track
throughout and remind them of key information or anticipate questions. This kind of signposting can
be especially useful for introductions, conclusions and when transitioning from one big idea to
another or talking about methods and procedures.

Signposting of order Why? Examples

Listing Informs readers of the writing’s First/Firstly,…

overall structure To begin with…
Second/Secondly,…
Afterwards,…
Next,…
Then,….
Following this…
Finally,…
Lastly,…

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 To conclude,…

Referring Forward Helps readers anticipate In the following section…

content that’ll appear later in As we shall see,…
the writing
As explored below,…
As will be explained later,…

Referring Backward Reminds readers of important In the previous section,…

information mentioned earlier As we have seen,…
As demonstrated above,…
As indicated earlier,…
As discussed previously,…
Prior to this,…
Initially,…

Transitioning Between Helps readers identify where Turning now to…

Points they are in the writing’s overall Moving on to…
structure
Having considered…we will now
consider…
It is now necessary to…
This section identifies…
Next...

Signposting of Relations
You can use these kinds of words to show that you are constructing logical steps in your argument,
showing relationship between ideas and make it clear to the reader where you’re identifying
similarities and differences; cause and effect; summaries; examples; or particularly important pieces
of information.

Signposting of Why? Examples

relations

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Addition Tells the reader that this point As well as,…
builds on the previous In addition…
Additionally,…
What is more…
Another…
Besides...
Also,…
Further,…
To elaborate,…

Similarity Tells the reader that that this Similarly,…

point is a further example of Likewise,…
the previous
Just as…, so too…
In the same way,…
Correspondingly,…
Complementary to this…

Illustration Prepares the reader for an For example,…

example For instance,…
To illustrate,…
In particular,
One way…
One such…
…such as…
…like…
…including…
Namely,…
Notably,…
…as can be seen in…

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 …as demonstrated by…
…exemplifies…

Contrast Tells the reader that this point In contrast,…

is in opposition to the previous In comparison,…
However,…
Rather,..
Conversely,…
Instead,…
Whereas,…
On the other hand,…
Even so,…
Otherwise,…
Alternatively,…
Despite this,…
Actually,…
Nonetheless,…
Nevertheless,…
That aside,…
While this may be true…
And yet,…
Notwithstanding…
Then again,…
On the contrary,…

Cause-and-Effect Tells the reader that this point Therefore,…

is a result of the previous Consequently,…
Accordingly,…

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 Thus,…
As a result,…
This means that…
This causes…
Hence,…
For this reason…
Because of this…
In view of this,…
With this in mind…
It can be seen that…
Resulting from this…
As a result,…
This suggests that…
Subsequently,…

Summary Prepares the reader for a In summary,…

summary of previous points To sum up…
Overall,…
Altogether,…
In brief,…
In short,…
In all,…
On the whole,…
To review,…

Reformulation In other words,…

Provides the reader with Rather,…
another way of saying the Better still,…
same thing

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 Stated otherwise,…
That is to say,…
Put simply...
To look at this another way....

Emphasis Helps the reader identify key In particular,…

information Especially…
Indeed,…
Importantly,…
In fact,…
Moreover,…
Furthermore,…
Chiefly,…
Mainly,…
Mostly,…

Tips for using signposting language

Choose wisely
Signposting words aren’t interchangeable and can be really confusing for the reader if used
inappropriately. So make sure you choose the right word to reflect the relationship you’re trying to
communicate.

Use deliberately
You don’t need to use a signposting word in every sentence, so before you do ask yourself if it helps
make the meaning clearer, or just bogs down the writing.

Edit carefully
When you want to get the wordcount down, you might be tempted to get rid of signposting words
first so you can keep more of the information. This might not be as useful as it seems, though,
because lots of information without any signposting can make it really difficult for the reader to
understand what you’re trying to say.

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Proofreading
Proofreading is the final step in the writing process, showing that you’ve
taken care over it and checked it thoroughly for accuracy and consistency.
Proofreading helps give your reader a good impression of your work.
The term ‘proofreading’ means to check the final draft to correct any issues of formatting, spelling,
grammar and small errors like typos. Although these issues don’t reflect the quality of your ideas,
they may affect the clarity of your writing and might irritate your reader. Proofreading is different to
editing, which is the process of reviewing content, style and structure. Proofreading might seem like
a superficial issue compared to editing, but it’s worth doing to show your work in its best light and
demonstrate your attention to detail.

Principles
An effective proofreading strategy can be to take the perspective of the reader rather than the
writer, to see it afresh through the marker’s eyes. This can be challenging; because you wrote it, you
are naturally so close to it that you can often only see what you think it says, not what it does say!
Your brain may correct errors and complete gaps without you realising. Most proofreading strategies
therefore aim to help you distance yourself from your work in order to read it from a fresh vantage
point and therefore be open to spotting errors and inconsistencies.
A good way of getting distance is leaving a day or two between finishing the final draft and
proofreading it. Time is the best way to gain the distance you need from your own work to see it
clearly again. Of course, leaving time isn’t always possible, in which case the following strategies will
help you either create distance from your own writing or help you pay very close, detailed attention

Gaining distance: techniques to try

Print it out
You have probably been used to seeing your writing on the computer screen. Printing and checking a
hard copy can help you see it in a new format and a new light.

Change the font

You’re very used to seeing familiar fonts like Ariel or Times New Roman. Try temporarily converting it
into a different font to make it look less familiar. For some students, a font that is slightly harder to
read can make your brain work to see what’s actually there – try Sans Forgetica, which was
developed for this purpose.

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Slow down
Professional editors often place a ruler or a piece of paper under each line of writing or follow their
finger as they read. Adopting this technique may help you to slow down and guide your eye to focus
on one sentence or word at a time. Read aloud: Reading your work out loud helps prevent you from
reading ahead and skipping words. Your ears may hear errors that your eyes might miss. It can also
help you pick up on issues with punctuation.

Get the computer to read it out

Text-to-speech software, such as ClaroRead Plus and NaturalReader, can read your work out loud for
you. They can also support the identification of words which are pronounced the same but spelt
differently (for instance sight and site). ClaroRead Plus is available to all students on networked
computers and is especially useful for students with dyslexia. For information about accessing
assistive technologies on your personal computer, visit Newcastle University’s IT service.

More information
Newcastle University doesn’t offer a proofreading service. If you are considering asking a friend or
employing a proofreader, see our related guide Working with a Proofreader to ensure that the types
of changes the proofreader recommends are in accordance with Newcastle University’s Statement
on Collusion and the requirements of your assessment.
To support students with specific learning difficulties, the Specialist Learning Team in Student
Wellbeing carries out paired proofreading and one-to-one study skills sessions.

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Working with a proofreader
With the Writing Development Centre
Checking your writing before submitting it is an important part of the process. It can
be challenging to proofread your own writing, and some people prefer to work with
a proofreader. However, to avoid collusion, it is your responsibility to ensure that it is
still your own work.

Your responsibilities
If you choose to work with a proofreader (either a professional or a friend), you will need
to ensure that their suggestions don’t change your work so much that it’s no longer
yours. Remember that proofreading is a significant amount of work, so if asking a friend
as a favour, do be mindful of this. It is not the role of peer mentors, PASS advisors or
WDC tutors to undertake proofreading.
Discuss with your proofreader the type of changes which you feel might be necessary
and appropriate, in accordance with Newcastle University’s Assessment Irregularities
Procedure and the requirements of the assessment. If you aren’t sure, ask your lecturer
or supervisor. Make sure that you can see and approve all changes (using “Track
Changes” or a similar markup). You could use proofreading as a developmental
opportunity to identify your own common mistakes or stylistic quirks to improve, so that
you become independent of the need for a proofreader.
Here are some suggestions to help you retain authorial control over your own work so
that you don’t run the risk of collusion, which is an academic offence.

Proofreading
These levels involve correcting accidental or minor features of the text and its
language:
Level 1 errors
 Typing errors (typos)
 Inconsistencies (e.g. capitalisation, variant spellings, use of font and effects such
as bold or italics, formatting issues such as margins, indents and line breaks,
consistent presentation of references).
 Omitted elements (e.g. subheadings, labels for figures etc, page numbers,
incomplete references)
 Adherence to house style in your assignment or module guide, or School
handbook. This includes referencing styles.

Writing Development Centre. University Library. [2019/20]

www.ncl.ac.uk/library/subject-support/wdc
It’s not always possible to spot all your own errors. You might have a Specific Learning
Difficulty or find it hard to get the distance from your work to see what it says, rather
than what you think it says.
You could ask your proofreader to highlight instances of these errors so that you can
become aware of them.

Level 2 mistakes (language competence)

 Spelling (including confusion of homophones which are those words that sound
the same but have different meanings, such as there/their/they’re).
 Grammar (including syntax, incomplete or run-on sentences, verb formation,
subject/verb matching etc)
 Punctuation (including apostrophes, commas, semi-colons etc)
 Inappropriate word choice (including malapropisms).
In most instances, your proofreader can correct these issues without collusion. You
might however ask your proofreader to give you an overview of your most common
errors so that you can improve these areas in future. If you have Specific Learning
Difficulties, you will have access to a paired proofreading with a specialist learning
advisor who can advise you.
Check that language competence isn’t part of the assessment criteria; in some subjects,
for example, Modern Languages, this is what you’re being tested on and corrections by
someone else might constitute collusion.
Some mistakes, for example, commas or word choice, can actually change the
meaning of your text. You could ask your proofreader to highlight instances, and explain
the two possible alternative meanings, but not to make corrections or decisions about
what your text means.
If your proofreader made extensive changes to your English language usage, these
changes may not accurately represent your writing skills or meaning. Therefore, if you
are a non-native speaker who would like to improve written fluency, you may seek
advice from INTO or the University’s Language Centre.

Editing
Level 3 academic style
The following two levels involve more major changes to the text’s style and content:
 Inappropriate style for UK academic writing (which might include colloquialisms,
emotive language, personal language where inappropriate, but also overly
formal registers etc.)
 Lack of cohesion or ‘flow’ in structure or argument
 Clumsy, repetitive or wordy expression
 Ambiguous or unclear meaning
 Lack of structure, inappropriate, repetitive or unclear structure

Writing Development Centre. University Library. 2

www.ncl.ac.uk/library/subject-support/wdc
Academic writing is a specific style, and one of the skills that you learn at university. It
reflects the objective, logical and critical nature of your thinking, and the structure of
your argument. It also varies between different genres of assignment, and according to
the subject you’re studying and level of study. It’s important that any proofreader is
familiar with UK academic writing in your discipline so they don’t make inappropriate
suggestions. It’s important that the writing genuinely represents your voice, and your
structure. Ask your proofreader to identify areas where your writing wasn’t clear or
sounded wordy, but anything which changes the meaning or structure of your writing
might be problematic. In terms of collusion, your proofreader might make suggestions,
but take these critically and reflect on them before you implement them.

Level 4: content and meaning

 Factual and interpretative accuracy
 Content and meaning
 Irrelevant or missing material
 Missing references or other evidence, plagiarism
 Quality of aim, discussion, argument or conclusions
 Selecting material to delete to meet word count (beyond making style more
concise)
 Accurate paraphrasing of sources
 Whether it meets the aims/assessment question or marking criteria
These should only be undertaken by yourself, in discussion with a lecturer, Specialist
Learning Advisor or Writing Development Centre tutor.

The University doesn’t offer a proofreading service. You may feel however that you
need a second pair of eyes to proofread your work before you submit it to pick up
anything you’ve missed. However, the Writing Development Centre can teach you
strategies to proofread and edit your own work, and the Specialist Learning team will
carry out paired proof reading as part of a study skills session to support students with
specific learning difficulties to learn this skill.

Want to review your study strategies?

Book a one to one appointment with us for personalised study advice tailored to you,
your subject and level of study.

Writing Development Centre. University Library. 3

www.ncl.ac.uk/library/subject-support/wdc
Writing Clearly and Concisely
“A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no
unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have
no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.” (Strunk and
White, 2020)

It is difficult to improve on this frequently quoted guidance from Strunk and White’s
classic Elements of Style. Writing concisely does not mean stripping your work of
nuance and complexity. It doesn’t mean that your writing has to become reductive or
simplistic. Instead, it involves making conscious decisions about which words to use,
and how to make your chosen words work.

Effective academic writing is clear, precise and communicates successfully with its
intended audience. Adhering to inflexible writing ‘rules’ is unlikely to produce the kind
of coherent, consistent prose you need; however, it can be helpful to have some
concrete suggestions to guide you.

Don’t conflate formality with authority

It’s easy to assume that excessively formal writing conveys authority. Academic writers
often make the mistake of hiding behind jargon and overly complicated language in an
attempt to sound authoritative. Whilst florid and colourful prose can be effective in the
right context, your writing needs to communicate your ideas with clarity and precision. It
is better to work on saying what you need to say clearly and effectively.

Here are some examples to illustrate how this might look on the page:

“Thus it is absolutely vital for us that we henceforth consider that X is to be designated

the most efficient and best equipped means by which we can thereby approach this
issue.”
Concise version: “The evidence suggests that X is best way to approach this
issue.”

“There exists but a nugatory disparity between the respective expostulatory theses of
Reed (2018) and Cale (2016).”

Concise version: “Reed (2018) and Cale (2016) make similar arguments.”

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 “I singlehandedly leveraged the process of implementing an innovative new ambient
lighting solution.”
Concise version: “I changed a lightbulb.”

Making every word count

It is entirely possible to communicate complex information with very few words, and
without relying on elaborate phrasing and technical intricacies.

Story telling and persuasion with minimal words

Examples Why does it work?

Think different • Constructs a narrative which divides people

(Apple, 1997-2002) into passive, unthinking ‘sheep‘ and dynamic,
intelligent, free-thinking individuals.
• Plays on the antithetical human needs of
belonging among, and differentiation from,
others.
It is. Are you? • Flatters the viewer by offering them the
change to purchase entry into an elite group
Launch campaign slogan for
of consumers, defined by autonomy and
the Independent newspaper,
superior intellect.
1986)
• At the same time, manipulates the viewer by
exploiting their fear of not belonging to this
group.

A note on ‘writing rules’

Orwell’s ‘Politics and the English Language’ is a standard, if contentious,
recommendation for guidance on concise language. If you feel that you need clear
rules, his are a good place to start:

“One can often be in doubt about the effect of a word or a phrase, and one needs rules
that one can rely on when instinct fails…

• Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech which you are used to
seeing in print.
• Never use a long word where a short one will do. If it is possible to cut a word
out, always cut it…
• Never use a... jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.

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 • Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.”
(Orwell, 1946)

References
Orwell, G. (1946) ‘Politics and the English Language’, Horizon, 13 (6) 1946, pp. 252-265.

Strunk, W. and White, E.B., (2020) Elements of Style (New York: Open Road Integrated
Media).

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The 1-Hour Writing Challenge
In need of some writing motivation? Try our 1-Hour Writing Challenge!
Are you working on your dissertation, project or thesis? Are there times when you just don’t know
where to start, or when you can think of at least 900 things you’d rather do than write?! Never fear,
our 1-Hour Writing Challenge is here to help you get focused, avoid overwhelm and make some
progress with your writing.

Step One: Setting Writing Goals (5 minutes)

You’re more likely to lose focus if you don’t specify a clear writing goal. And you could end up putting
yourself off if the goal you do identify is too ambitious. So let’s spend the first 5 minutes of the
session ensuring that your goal is SMART.
• Specific: the specific idea I will write/section/paragraph I will work on is ….
• Measurable: I will write ______ words
• Achievable: this will be a rough draft/quick bullet points for me to work up later/polished
final version/edited final draft
• Relevant: where this section will fit in is …
• Time- bound: I will write for 1 hour.

Step Two: Freewriting (8 minutes)

You wouldn’t run a marathon without warming up first (well, you’d be unwise to!). Similarly, diving
straight into a piece of writing can sometimes feel a bit daunting. Freewriting is a great way of
helping you settle down, get focused and think a little more about what you’re going to write. For
instance, you could use this time to plot out how you might structure your ideas in the section
you’ve chosen to work on. Or you might use the time to help you decide which of your ideas to work
on and develop further in the upcoming writing session.
Freewriting can be particularly useful if you tend towards perfectionism with your writing, as it gives
you permission to write a messy first draft. This, in turn, can really help you capture your ideas
without worrying that they’re not “academic enough” (you can develop your ideas and polish your
writing style in the editing stage).

The rules of freewriting are:

• Set a timer for 8 minutes
• Start writing whatever comes to mind about the section you’re going to be working on.
• Write in full sentences

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 • Don’t stop writing
• Don’t look back or edit
• If you get stuck, write about that – why are you stuck? What would help you get unstuck?!
You just might be able to untangle yourself!
• If you don’t like what you’re writing, write about why

Step Three: Review (2 minutes)

Look over what you’ve just written. What points could you pull out of your freewriting that you
might use in your draft? Or maybe you’ve just used the 8 minutes to ‘unload’ any anxieties you have
about your writing, which is perfectly fine – and very useful – too!

Step Four: Write (40 minutes)

Write for 40 minutes and work on your draft.
Just something to bear in mind: if you really like working in timed writing sprints, but
there are days when 40 minutes seems too long or, indeed, when it doesn’t seem long
enough, you can always adjust the time to suit you. The important thing here is to break
writing down into manageable chunks.

Step Five: Next Action List (2 minutes)

Use the final couple of minutes to leave notes to your future self about the next steps you need to
take to progress this piece of writing. This helps you maintain momentum.

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