Design Against Static Load

1.
01 Fluid Properties
FLUID PROPERTIES

1.1.1 Fluid:
• Fluids are the substance which continuously deform under the action of shear force (no matter how small it is)
• Liquid and gases are example of fluids.

Note:
Conversely if there is no shear force implies no relative motion and the fluid is said to be at rest, this is called as hydrostatic
condition (A state of zero shear stress and equal and a like normal stress)
𝜏=0 𝜎1 = 𝜎2

• Mohr’s circle reduces to a point

1.1.2 Property of fluid:

(a) Density or mass density:

• It is also knowns as absolute density, unit mass or specific mass (ρ)
𝑚
𝜌= 𝑣
𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 [ML–3T0]
• Mass per unit volume is called density
For liquids: ρ ≈ constant
For Gases: ρ = f(P, T)
• At 4°C density of water is 1000 kg/m3 that is maximum.
• As temperature increase molecules will move away and density decreases.
• As pressure increases the molecules come closer and density increases.

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Note:
𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = 1000 kg/m3@4°C
𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 800 kg/m3
𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13600 kg/m3
𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 1260 kg/m3
(293 k and 1atm)
1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙

(b) Specific weight or unit weight or weight density:

• Weight per unit volume is called sp. Weight.
𝑊 𝑘𝑔−𝑚 𝑘𝑔
r 𝑜𝑟 𝑤 = 𝑣
N/m3 or 𝑆 2 ⋅𝑚2 ⇒ 𝑆 2 .𝑚 [ML–1 T–2]
𝑚𝑔
r = = 𝜌𝑔 N/m3
𝑣

(c) Specific volume (v):

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1
𝛾= =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜌

(d) Relative density or Specific Gravity:

𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
&= =
𝜌𝑠𝑡.𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑠𝑡.𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
• It is dimensionless.
• standard fluid is H2O @ 4°C
• Specific gravity of water is equal to 1.

1.1.3 Velocity (Resistance to flow/Deformation)

• It is an internal resisting force between two particles mathematically, it is an internal resisting force between two
adjacent fluid particle when it is in motion.
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑦 1/𝑆
𝑑𝜃
• Where, = Rate of angular deformation/Rate of shear strain/strain rate.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢
= velocity gradient
𝑑𝑦

1.1.4 Newton’s Low of viscosity:

• Shear stress α rate of angular deformation or velocity gradient
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜃
𝜏 ∝ 𝑑𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜃
𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑡
• Where, μ = proportionality constant/Absolute viscosity/ coefficient of viscosity/Dynamic viscosity
• For a small fluid thickness, we can assume linear velocity profile.
𝐹 𝜇𝑈
𝜏=𝐴= ℎ

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• μH2O = 0.001
• μair = 18 × 10–6
• 𝜇𝐻2 𝑂 = 55.55 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟

1.1.5 Unit of viscosity:

𝐹 ℎ
• 𝜇= .
𝐴 𝑣
𝑁–𝑚 𝑁−𝑠
𝜇 = 𝑚2 . m/s = 𝑚2
or Pa -s (SI unit)
𝑘𝑔−𝑚−𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝜇 = 𝑆 2 –𝑚 = 𝑚–𝑠 (MKS unit)
1000 gm 10 𝑔𝑚
𝜇= 100 𝑐𝑚−𝑠
= 𝑐𝑚–𝑠 (CGS unit)
𝑔𝑚
𝑐𝑚–𝑠
= 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
10 poise = 1 Pa-s
1
1 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠
10

Note:
There is no connection between density and dynamic viscosity.
μgly > μoils > μHg > μH2O > μair
ρHg > ρgly > ρH2O > ρoil > ρair
• Redwood viscometer is used to measured absolute value of viscosity.

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1.1.6 Kinematic viscosity;

• ν = Momentum diffusivity
𝑘𝑔
𝜇 𝜇 𝑚𝑠
ν=𝜌 ν=𝜌 𝑘𝑔 or m2/s
𝑚3

∵ ν → [L2T–1]
1 stoke = 10–4 m2 /s
ν𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 15ν𝐻2 𝑂

1.1.7 Variation of viscosity with pressure and temperature;

• Liquids: - T ↑ C∙F↓ = flow become easy = μ↓
• Gases: - T ↑ = molecular momentum ↑ = Flow become difficult = μ ↑ tough

1.1.8 Classification of fluids:

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1.1.9 Compressibility:
• Compressibility of fluid represents fractional change in volume corresponding to unit change in pressure.
• It represents compression ability of fluids.
1 𝑑𝜌 –1 𝑑𝑣 1
𝛽=𝜌 𝑑𝜌
= 𝑣 𝑑𝑝
=𝑘

(a) Isothermal compressibility for Ideal gas:

• for constant temperature: (T = C)
1 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑𝜌 1 1 1
𝛽𝑇 =– 𝑉 𝑑𝑃| = 𝜌 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 = 𝑘
𝑇

(b) Isentropic compressibility for Ideal gas:

–𝑑𝑣
𝑣 1 1
• 𝛽𝑎 = = =
𝑑𝑃 𝛾⋅𝑃 𝑘𝑎

1.10 Surface tension: -

• Fs α length of interface

Fs = σ∙ℓ
𝐹𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝜎= N/m or 2 [MT–2]
ℓ 𝑠
𝐹 𝑁 𝑚 𝐽 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜎= ℓ
= 𝑚 . 𝑚 = 𝑚2 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 J/m2

1.11 Application of surface tension:

4𝜎
• Liquid Droplet: - 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑑
8𝜎
• Soap Bubble: - 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑑
2𝜎
• Liquid Jet: - 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑑

1.12 Capillarity:
• The rise of fall of liquid (Due to surface Tension) in a small diameter tube (d < 5mm), when it is placed in liquid is
called capillarity.
4𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑


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02
1. Fluid Statics
FLUID STATICS

1.1.1 Pascal’s Law

• Pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all direction.
• External static pressure exerted on a fluid is distributed evenly throughout the fluid.
Example: Hydraulic lift

𝐹1 𝐹
𝐴1
= 𝐴2
2

• Any two points at some elevation in continuous mass of same static fluid will be at same pressure.

• Negative gauge pressure is also called vacuum pressure.

50 KPa gauge pressure = 50 KPa vacuum pressure.
• Pirani gauge, McLeod gauge are used to measure vacuum.

1.1.2 Hydrostatic Law:

𝜕𝑃
• 𝜕𝑍
= 𝜌𝑔

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(a) Incompressible Fluid: (ρ = c)

𝜕𝑃
• = ρ𝑔
𝜕𝑍
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 ⇒ P = f(z) only → Linear

(b) Compressible Fluid: (ρ ≠ c)

𝒈𝒛
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [𝑹𝑻]

Note:
For static incompressible fluid pressure increases linearly with depth and decrease linearly with height, but for
compressible fluid the variation is exponential.

1.1.3 Monometers:

(a) Piezometer:

• 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
• There is no role of diameter for calculating pressure.
• This instrument cannot measure gas pressure.
• It is not suitable for extreme pressure measurement; it is suitable for moderate pressure measurement.
• It is generally use to measure pressure of underground water.

1.1.4 Conversion of one fluid column into another having same pressure:

• 𝜌1 ℎ1 = 𝜌2 ℎ2
• 𝑆1 ℎ1 = 𝑆2 ℎ2

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(a) U-Tube manometer:

(b) Jumping Method:

𝜌𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑥 − 𝜌𝑚 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑥 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0

(c) Datum Line Method:

PA = PB
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑓 ⋅ 𝑦𝑔 + 𝜌𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑚𝑔 ⋅ 𝑥

𝐴
𝛥ℎ = 𝐴2 ℎ2
1

𝜌𝐴𝑔 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ2 – 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ1

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡 – 𝑃𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

(d) Inclined Column Manometer:

𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌𝑚 ⋅ 𝑔(ℎ2 + 𝛥ℎ)– 𝜌𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔(ℎ1 + 𝛥ℎ)

h2 =ℓ∙sinθ
1 ℓ
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ℎ2

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1.1.5 Fluid in a Rigid Body Motion;

𝜕𝑧 −𝑎𝑥 2𝛥ℎ
𝜕𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑔
= 𝐵

(a) When water spill out:

𝒂 𝜟𝒉
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =– 𝒈 = 𝑩

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1.1.6 Hydrostatic force on a plane surface: -

Orientation Force Centre of Pressure

𝐼𝐶.𝐺
1. Inclined F = 𝜌𝑔 ⋅ 𝐴𝑥̄ ℎ𝑐⋅𝑝 = 𝑥̄ + 𝐴𝑥̄
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐼𝐶.𝐺
2. Vertical F = 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑥̄ ℎ𝑐⋅𝑝 = 𝑥̄ + 𝐴𝑥̄
3. Horizontal F = 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑥̄ ℎ𝑐⋅𝑝 = 𝑥̄

1.1.6 Hydrostatic force on curved surface: -

(a) Horizontal Component:

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌⋅𝑔 𝐴𝑣𝑡 ⋅ 𝑥̄ 𝑣𝑡

Where, 𝐴𝑣𝑡 = vertical projection of curved surface.

x̅ 𝑣𝑡 = vertical distance from C∙G to free surface.
𝐼𝐶.𝐺
ℎ = 𝑥̄ 𝑣𝑡 + 𝐴
𝑣𝑡 .𝑥̄ 𝑣𝑡

(b) Vertical Component: -

𝑩
𝑭𝒗 = 𝝆𝒈 ∫𝑨 𝒅𝑽

FV = Weight of the fluid contained by curve surface up to free surface.

“The vertical component of total hydrostatic fluid on a curved surface is equal to weight of the fluid contained by
curved surface up to free surface”
𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝐻2 + 𝐹𝑉2
𝐹
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑉
𝐻

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1.1.7 Completely Emerged Cylinder:

FH1 = FH2
Fnet|V = ρg (V1 + V2) → Volume of Cylinder

1.1.8 Partial Submerged Body:

𝐹𝐻𝑙 = 𝐹𝐻2
FV = ρgVfd
𝜋
𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌𝑔 4 𝑑2 ℎ



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03
According to Archimedes Principle:
BUOYANCY & FLOATATION

FB = Weight of the fluid displaced by submerged body

1. Centre of Buoyancy:
Point of application of buoyancy force (FB). It is a centroid of displaced fluid.

𝐹𝑣1 = 𝜌1 𝑣2 𝑔 + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑣1 + 𝜌2 𝑣𝑔
𝐹𝑣2 = 𝜌2 𝑔𝑣
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌1 𝑣1 𝑔 + 𝜌2 𝑣2 𝑔

2. Condition of Rotational Equilibrium:

(a) For completely submerged body:

For completely submerged body as shape of displaced fluid does not change with rotation so, B will remain at the same
position.

In stable equilibrium centre of buoyancy is above the centre of gravity.

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In unstable equilibrium the centre of buoyancy lies below the centre of gravity.

(b) For Partially submerged body:

3. Metacentre:
The intersection of neutral axis and new line of action of buoyancy force is called metacentre.
It is a point about which a floating body supposed to be oscillate when it is slightly disturbed.
(M is a fixed point for a small rolling angle up to 20°).
𝑘2
Time period of oscillation (T) = 2𝜋√𝑔(𝑔𝑀)
Where,
K = Radius of gyration
GM = Metacentric height
g = Gravitational Constant
T = Time period of oscillation.

4. Metacentric Height:
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It is a distance between metacentre and centre of gravity.

GM = BM-BG
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉𝑓𝑑
Where,
Ixx = Area moment of inertia of horizontal section, of floating surface about its longitudinal axis
Vfd = volume of fluid displaced by body.



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04
1. Types of fluid flow:
FLUID KINEMATICS

1. Steady and Unsteady flow:

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑣
| 𝜕𝑡 | = | 𝜕𝑡 | = | 𝜕𝑡 | = 𝑣̄ = 𝑣(𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑎̄ = 𝑎(𝑠)
2. Uniform & Non-Uniform flow:

v
=O 𝑣 ≠ 𝑓(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒)
s

3. Rotational & Irrotational Flow:

During flow when the fluid particle rotates about their mass centre then it is rotational flow.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Torque 𝐷𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜
Rotation 𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Tangential | shear stress
(𝜏 ≠ 𝑂)
No Rotation 𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Torque 𝐷𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Tangential | shear stress
(T = O) (𝜏 = 𝑂)
4. Laminar and Turbulent Flow:
During flow when the fluid particles move in a layer with one particle sliding over the other. Due to sliding of layers
force Dominates so, it is also called viscous flow, which generally occur at low velocity In this flow the fluid particles
moves along well defined path called stream line flow.
During flow, when the fluid particles continuously mix from one layer into another resulting in disorganised motion
leading to large momentum transfer, is called turbulent flow. The nature of fluid flow is judged by Reynolds number:

2. Stream Line:
It is an imaginary line drawn through a flowing fluid in space such that a tangent drawn to it at any point gives velocity
of flow at that point at any instant, or it is a line tangent to velocity vector at every point in a flow field.

3. Differential Equation of stream line:

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𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
The above equation is known as differential equation of stream line.

4. Streak line:

“Locus of various fluid particles which have passed through a fixed point of any instant of time”.
“Actual path followed by fluid particle is called path line.
Note: For steady flow stream line, streak line and path line become identical.
• Path line can be intersected, but stream line cannot be intersected

5. Discharge:
Q = A. V 𝑚3 /s
A = flow area (m2)
V = flow velocity (m/s)

6. Continuity Equation:

m = Q

m = .A.V

7. Generalised Continuity Equation:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥
(𝜌 ⋅ 𝑢) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝜌 ⋅ 𝑣) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝜌 ⋅ 𝑤) + 𝜕𝑡 (𝜌) = 0
The above equation is known as generalised continuity equation.
• For steady flow:
  
(u ) + (v ) + (w ) = 0
x y z
• For incompressible flow:
u v w
+ + =0
x y z
If nothing is mentioned regarding flow, consider 2d, steady, incompressible flow.

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8. Fluid Acceleration:

v v
a=v +
x t

Total acceleration.
𝜕𝑣
Where, 𝜕𝑡
=local or Temporal acceleration
𝜕𝑣
𝑣 =Convective acceleration
𝜕𝑡
• For steady flow: 𝑎𝐿 = 0
• For uniform flow: 𝑎𝑐 = 0
• For steady & uniform flow: 𝑎𝑇 = 0
For 3D – Cartesian – co-ordinate system:
𝑎̄ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑥 𝑘̂
|𝑎̄ | = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑧2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑧

v v v v
ay = u +v +w +
x y z t
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

9. Angular Deformation:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜀̇𝑥𝑦 = [𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥]
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
𝜀̇𝑥𝑧 = [ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢
𝜀̇𝑥𝑧 = [ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑧 ]

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10. Pure Rotation:

1  v u  𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
wz = − 𝑊𝑦 = −
2  x y  𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝑊𝑥 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

11. Vorticity:
Tendency of fluid element to spin or rotate is called vorticity.
Mathematically it is a twice of rotation or curt (v̅)
𝜀 = 2𝜔̄ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑣̄ )
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑣̄ ) | 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
• For irrotational flow: 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑣̄ ) = 0

12. Velocity potential function and Stream Function

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢=− 𝑣=− 𝑤=−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝛹
𝑢=− 𝑣=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

13. Relation between Equipotential line & stream line:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
| . |
𝑑𝑥 𝜙 𝑑𝑥 𝛹
= −1

• Potential line and stream line are always orthogonal to each other, (except at stagnation point).
u=v=0



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05 ENERGY & ENERGY

Energy & Energy

Major forces acting on fluid:
• Pressure Force (FP)
• Gravity Force (Fg)
• Viscous Force (Fv)
• Turbulence Force (FT)
• If Fp, Fg, Fv and FT all are considered:
⇒ Reynolds equation (FT force come into picture)
• If Fp, Fg and Fv are considered:
⇒ Navier - stoke Equation [Laminar flow]
• Navier - stokes equation is based on, conservation of momentum.
• If Fp and Fg are considered
⇒ Euler's Equation
• Euler's equation of motion is based on linear momentum conservation of real fluid.

Bernoulli's Equation:
𝑷 𝑽𝟐
𝝆𝒈
+ 𝟐𝒈 + 𝒛 = C This is known as Bernoulli's Equation.
𝑷
= Pressure Head
𝝆𝒈
𝑽𝟐
𝟐
= Velocity Head
z = Potential Head

Application of Bernoulli's Equation-

Venturi meter:
It is a gradually converging, diverging section use to measure flow rate.

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1. Converging Section:
From continuity equation: A1V1 = A2 V2
A   V   P 
𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑥
= −𝑣𝑒
This pressure is called as favourable pressure gradient.

2. Throat - Section: At throat we are getting minimum area so, velocity will be maximum and pressure will be minimum. So
chances of cavitation is maximum at the throat.

3. Diverging section:
From continuity equation: A   V   P 
𝑑𝑝
= +𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥
This pressure is known as adverse pressure gradient. The chances of flow separation is maximum at divergent section.
• To avoid flow separation the divergent section length is more than convergent section.
A1.A 2 2gh 𝑠
Q= ℎ = 𝑥 [ 𝑠𝑚 – 1]
A12 – A 22 𝑓

As we are not considering losses to it is an ideal discharge.

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
For actual discharge: 𝐶𝑑 = 𝑄𝑡ℎ
Where,
Cd = coefficient of discharge
• for ideal flow (Cd = 1) otherwise (Cd  1)
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = C𝑑 . 𝑄𝑡ℎ
Note: As venturi meter is a gradual converging diverging section. So, losses are minimum.
Cd  (0.94 – 0.98)
2. Orifice meter:
𝐶𝑐 𝐴1 𝐴2 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐴21 –𝐴22
Ac < A2 < A1
𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴1
Where, A1 = Pipe C/S area.
A2 = orifice C/S area.
Cc value varies from (0.64 to 0.76)

3. Pitot Tube: It is used to measure velocity of flow.

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𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃
𝜌𝑔
1
+ 2𝑔 = 2𝑔2 stagnation pressure head.

𝑉12
2𝑔
= Dynamic pressure head.
𝑃1
= Static pressure head.
𝜌𝑔

𝑠
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡 = C𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ 𝑉𝑡ℎ = √2𝑔𝑥 [ 𝑠𝑚 – 1]
𝑡

Vortex flow: Flow along a curved path is called vortex flow.

A] Free vortex flow:

𝑑
Torque (T) = (mvr) = O
𝑑𝑡

mvr = c
v.r = k
𝑘
𝑉𝜃 = 𝑟 , 𝑉𝑟 = 0
Where, V = Tangential Velocity
K = Vortex strength | Circulation constant.
r = Radius of curve.
• Free vortex flow is irrotational, except near the axis of rotation. [E1 = 0]
Ex.) whirl pool, Tornado, fluid flow in a container having hole at the bottom.
B] Force vortex:

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𝑉𝜃 = 𝑟𝑤 & 𝑉𝑟 = 0
Tangential Velocity.
𝑤2
𝑍2 – 𝑍1 = 2.𝑔 (𝑟22 – 𝑟12 ) Parabola.

• Maximum Height of Parabola: r1 = 0, r2 = R

𝑅 2 𝜔2
𝐻= 2.𝑔
No spill conditio (a = b)

𝜋𝑅2 𝐻
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 Paraboloi = 2



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06
Momentum Eq. & Its Application
MOMENTUM EQ. & ITS
APPLICATION

1. Force on a stationary, Normal Flat Plate:

•
𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2

2. Force on a Stationary Inclined flat plate:

Fn =  AV2 Sin 
𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

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3. Force on a curved plate:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃)

4. Forces on a moving flat plate:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴(𝑣 − 𝑢)2

5. Force on a moving curved plate:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴(𝑣 − 𝜇)2{1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃}

6. Forces on a series of flat plate mounted on a wheel:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴 ⋅ 𝑉(𝑉 − 𝑢)
2𝑈(𝑉−𝑈)
𝜂= 𝑉2

2𝑢(𝑣−𝑢)
% = 𝑣2
= 50%

Note: This maximum efficiency can be further increased by using curved plates Ex – Pelton wheel
❑❑❑

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07
LAMINAR FLOW
LAMINAR FLOW

Darcy weisbach Equation: To find (hL)

NOTE: Darcy weisbach eq is valid for both Laminar and turbulent flow to find frictional head loss (flow must be steady and
non-uniform)
𝑓ℓ𝑣 2 𝑓ℓ𝑄 2 𝛥𝑃
ℎ𝐿 = = =
2𝑔𝑑 12.1𝑑 5 𝜌⋅𝑔

Laminar flow Through Circular Pipe:

𝑟 𝜕𝑃
𝜏 =– 2 ⋅ 𝜕𝑥
Linear Variation

1 –𝜕𝑃
𝑢 = 4𝜇 ( 𝜕𝑥 [𝑅 2 – 𝑟 2 ]) Parabolic profile

𝑢 𝑟2
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
= [1– 𝑅2 ]
2𝜇 rU𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝜇 V𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜏= 𝑅2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅

𝜋𝑅 2 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑄=
2

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𝜋 𝜕𝑃
𝑄= (− ) 𝑅 4
8𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
=2

32𝜇𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐿
𝛥𝑃 = 𝑑2
Hagen - Poiseville Equation.
64
𝐹 = 𝑅𝑒 Moody's Equation

𝜏𝜊 𝑓
𝑉 ∗ = √ = √ 𝜈𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝜌 8

Laminar Flow between two fixed Parallel Plate:

1 𝜕𝑃
𝑢 = 2𝜇 (− 𝜕𝑥 ) (ℎ𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )

1 𝜕𝑃 2
𝑢= (− ℎ )
8𝜇 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑃
𝜏 = (− ) (ℎ − 2𝑦)
2 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑃
𝜏𝑜 = (− ) ℎ
2 𝜕𝑥
𝐵 𝜕𝑃
𝑄= (− ) ℎ3
12𝜇 𝜕𝑥
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 3/2
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
12𝜇𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐿
𝛥𝑃 =
ℎ2

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Correction Factors:

1. Momentum Correction Factor () and Kinetic Energy Correction Factor (α): For Laminar Flow
𝛽 = 4/3 = 1.33
∝= 2

2. Momentum Correction Factor () and Kinetic Energy Correction Factor (α): For Turbulent Flow
𝛽 = 1.2
∝= 4/3

❑❑❑

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08
Turbulent Flow
TURBULENT FLOW

𝑓 𝑙 𝑣2 𝑓 𝑙 𝑄2 𝛥𝑃
• hL = 2𝑔𝐷
= 12.1𝐷5 = 𝜌⋅𝑔

𝜏 𝑓
• v = √ 𝜌𝑜 = √8 . 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑟 𝛥𝑃
•  = 2. 𝐿

• Reynold's Equation -
𝜏Turb = δ 𝑢′ 𝑣 ′

Prandtl mixing Length:

𝑑𝑢 2
𝜏 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏 = 𝜌𝑙 2 ( )
𝑑𝑦
𝑅
𝜇 = 2.5𝑣 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝜅
Kinematic viscosity
11.6𝑣
𝛿∗ = Shear velocity
𝑣∗

Hydrodynamic Smooth and Rough Surface:

K = Average Height of Roughness.

• K <   Smooth Pipe
𝐾
≤ 0.25
𝛿∗
• K > *Rough Pipe
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𝐾
∗
>6

Friction Factor:

1. Smooth Pipe: f =  ( Re)

0.316
𝑓=𝑅
𝑒 1/4

2. Rough Pipe: f =  (k) only

1 𝑅
= 2 log 10 (𝑘 ) + 1.74
√𝑓

𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
• For turbulent flow, 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
= 1.43√𝑓 + 1

❑❑❑

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09
Losses in Pipe:
FLOW THROUGH PIPE

1. Major Losses:
• Darcy - Weisbach Equation:
𝑓𝑙𝑣 2 𝑓𝑙𝑄 2
hL= 2𝑔𝐷 = 12.1𝐷5

• Chezy's Formula: v = c √𝑚. 𝐿

8𝑔
𝑐=√  Chezy's constant/Roughness Constant.
𝑓

Dimension of Chezy's constant: [M°L1/2T-1]

2. Minor Losses:
(a) Sudden Expansion Loss (hLe):
1
hLe = 2𝑔 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )2

𝑣2 𝐴 2
ℎ𝐿 𝑒 = 2𝑔1 [1 − 𝐴1 ]
2

• Loss at the exit:

𝑣2
ℎ𝐿 𝑒 = 2𝑔1

• Loss at the exit:

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𝑣2
ℎ𝐿 𝑒 = 2𝑔1

b. Sudden contraction Loss: (hLC)

𝑣2 1 2
ℎ𝐿 𝐶 = 2𝑔1 (𝐶 − 1)
𝐶

1 2
It CC is not given, Take (𝐶 − 1)  0.5
𝐶

𝑣12
ℎ𝐿 𝐶 = 0.5
2𝑔

Loss at the pipe entrance.

c. Losses due to pipe bend:
𝑣2
ℎ𝐿 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 2𝑔

Where, Kb = Coefficient of bend.

It is depended upon.
(a) Angle of bend.
(b) Radius of curvature of bend.
(c) Pipe diameter.

Multi-Pipe System:
A. Series Combination:

𝑙𝑒𝑞 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑑𝑒 𝑞 5
= 𝑑15 + 𝑑25 + 𝑑35 Dupuit's Eq.
1 2 3

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B. Parallel Combination:

𝑙𝑒 𝑙
𝑑𝑒5
= 𝑛2 𝑑5  No of parallel pipe having same 'd' & 'l'.

Power Transmission Through Pipe:

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑄𝑔𝐻
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑃 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Pipe Efficiency:

ℎ
%𝜂 = (1 − 𝐿 )
𝐻
𝐻
ℎ𝐿 =
3
ℎ
%𝜂 = (1 − 𝐻𝐿 )
%𝜂 = 66.67%
Power required to rise fluid P = ρQg (H + hL) to height 'H'

❑❑❑

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10
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY
BOUNDARY LAYER
THEORY

𝜌𝑣𝑥
• 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 =
𝜇

• Rex  5 × 105 : Laminar Flow

• Rex > 5×105 : Turbulent Flow

Boundary Layer Thickness:

It is a distance from the surface in y-direction at which local velocity (u) become 99% of free steam velocity (4).
𝑢 = 0.99u infinity

• As x-increases  𝑥 Also increases

1. Displacement Thickness: -
𝛿 𝑢
𝛿 ∗ = ∫0 (1 − 𝑢 )
∞

2. Momentum Thickness (Ө):-

𝛿 𝑢 𝑢
Ө = ∫𝜊 (1 − 𝑢 ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑈∞ ∞

3. Energy Thickness:-
𝛿 𝑢 𝑢 2
𝛿𝐸 = ∫𝜊 (1 − ( ) ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑢∞ 𝑢 ∞

Shape Factor (H):-

It is a ratio of displacement thickness to momentum thickness.
𝛿∗
𝐻= 𝜃

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Von-karman Momentum Integral Equation:

𝜏𝜊 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑈∞2

Where,  = Surface shear stress

 = Momentum Thickness
x = Distance from leading edge.
• It is obtained by mass and momentum conservation.

A. Laminar B.L Region: (Re<5×105)

𝑢 3 𝑦 1 𝑦 3
= (2 𝛿 − 2 (𝛿𝑥) ) Blasius Equation for Laminar flow.
𝑢∞ 𝑥

4.64.𝑥
𝛿𝑥 =
√𝑅𝑒 𝑥

0.323𝜇 𝑈∞
𝜏𝑤𝑜 = √𝑅𝑒 𝑥
𝑥

0.646
𝐶𝑓𝑥 =
√𝑅𝑒𝑥

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER:

𝑈 𝑦 1|7
= (𝛿 )
𝑈∞

• In the absence of velocity profile, use following empirical formula's

LAMINAR BL (Rex < 5×105) TURBULENT BL (Rex > 5×105)
𝑘.𝑥 0.376×
• ×= ×= 𝑅𝑒 1|5
√𝑅𝑒

0.664
• Cfx= • Cfx=
0.059
𝑅𝑒
R e x1|5

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DRAG AND LIFT:

𝐹𝐷 = ∫𝐴(−𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑑𝐴 𝐹𝐿 =– ∫𝐴(𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)𝑑𝐴

𝐹𝐷 𝐹𝐿
𝐶𝐷 = 1 2
𝐶𝐿 = 1 2
𝜌𝑢∞ 𝜌𝑢∞
2 2

REDUCING DRAG BY STREAMLINE BODY:

A. Streamline Body: A boy whose surface coincide with stream line when placed in a flow is called streamline body.
Ex- Aerofoil | Tear drop

Flow separation takes place only at the trailing edge or rear most part of the body with the formation of thin wake zone.
B. Bluff Body:- A body whose surface does not coincide with the streamline when placed in a flow.
Ex-) Sphere/Cylinder etc.

FLOW SEPARATION:

In a divergent boundary, if momentum of fluid particle may not be sufficient to support the flow due to adverse pressure
gradient flow gets separated near the surface. It is called Boundary Layer separation.
NOTE:- Turbulent B.L is more resistance to flow separation to flow separation compare to laminar B.L, when exposed to
same adverse pressure gradient, because turbulent flow velocity profile is more uniform.
• Drag on sphere :- For the sphere,
𝟐𝟒
𝑪𝑫 = 𝑹𝒆 𝑭𝑫 = 𝟑𝝅𝒖∞ µ𝑫 Stoke's Law.

• Terminal Velocity:-
𝑭𝒗 + 𝑭𝒃 = 𝒘  Equilibrium Condition
(a = o, Terminal Velocity v = c)

❑❑❑

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11 NOTCHES & WEIR

NOTCHES & WEIR

2 2
Q th = 2g.l H3|2 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 3 √2𝑔. 𝑙. 𝐶𝑑 . 𝐻 3|2
3
𝑑𝑄 3 𝑑𝐻
= 2.
𝑄 𝐻

𝐷𝑖𝑠charge over notch

𝑉𝑎 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 Area
𝑣2
ℎ𝑎 = 2𝑔𝑎
2
𝑄= 𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔. 𝑙[𝐻 + ℎ𝑎]3|2 − ℎ𝑎 3|2
3
Empirical Formula for discharge over rectangular weir:

1. Francis' Formula:-
𝑄 = 1.84(𝐿 − 0. 𝑙𝑛 𝐻)𝐻 3|2
Where, n = number of end contraction.
H = Height of water surface above the crest.
2. Banzin's Formula:-
𝑄 = 𝑚√2𝑔. 𝐿. 𝐻 3|2
Benzin's Cofficient.
Discharge Through Triangular Notch:

8 𝜃 8 𝜃
𝑄𝑡ℎ = 15 √2𝑔. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 . 𝐻 5|2 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 15 𝐶𝑑. √2𝑔. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 . 𝐻 5|2
𝑑𝑄 5 𝑑𝐻
𝑄
= 2. 𝐻

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Discharge over Trepezoidal Notch:

8 𝜃 2
𝑄 = 15 𝐶𝑑2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 √2𝑔. 𝐻 5|2 + 3 𝐶𝑑1 𝐿√2𝑔. 𝐻 3|2
Cipolletti Weir:-

• Discharge through rectangular weir with two end contraction is:

2
Q = 3. Cd √2𝑔 (L – 0. 2H)H3|2
2 2
Q = Cd √2𝑔. L.H3|2 – Cd √2𝑔. H5|2
3 15
Decreased Discharge.
" the decrease in discharge through rectangular weir must be compensated by side slope in such a way that the discharge is
2 𝜃
equal to two triangular portion, equal to * Cd × √2𝑔 × tan × H5|2
15 2
𝜃 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 = 4
2
The discharge through Cipolletti weir: 𝑄 = 3 𝐶𝑑 ⋅ 𝑙 √2𝑔. 𝐻 3|2

❑❑❑

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12 DIMENSIONAL & MODEL

ANALYSIS

DIMENSIONAL & MODEL ANALYSIS

* Fundamental Quantities- 𝑀, 𝐿, 𝑇, 𝐴, 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒, 𝑡
* Derived Quantities: V, a, Q, w etc.
Forces on fluid:
Forces Formula
Inertia Force 𝐹𝑖 = 𝜌𝑙𝑣 2
Viscous Force 𝐹𝑣 = 𝜇𝜈𝑙
Gravity Force 𝐹𝑔 = 𝜌𝑙 3 𝑔
Surface Tension Force 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜎𝑙
Elastic Force 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘. 𝐿2

Dimensionless Number:
1. Reynolds Number:
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 Force 𝜌⋅𝑉⋅𝑙
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 Force 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇

2. Euler Number (Eu):

𝐼nertia Force
𝐸𝑢 = √𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 Force

3. Mach Number:
Inertia Force
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 Tension

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 Fluid Mechanics

4. Waber Number:

Inertia Force
𝑾𝒆 =
Surface Tension

5. Froude Number:

Inertia Force
𝑭𝒓 =
Gravity Force

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SSC JE/AE ENGINEERING WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 39