CHINHOYI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING

COURSE TITTLE: ENGINEERING SURVEYING

COUESE CODE: CUAE 227

COURSE COORDINATOR: MR E. PANDASVIKA

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Course Title Engineering Surveying
Course Code CUAE 227
Lecturer Mr E. Pandasvika
email:[email protected] or
[email protected]
Notional Hours 120 hours
Contact: 72 hours (6h/w); Directed Self-
learning and Self-directed Learning: 57
hours (including practicals); Assessment: 15
hours.

Credits 12
Prerequisites None
Options (compulsory or electives) Compulsory
Semester Offered 4
Course Aims The aim of this course therefore is to
help students understand and appreciate
the importance of engineering
surveying, acquire sufficient knowledge
of engineering surveying, acquire
sufficient knowledge in the use of
manual and digital surveying equipment
and be able to carry surveying prior to
and during construction of a project.

Upon successful completion of this course,

Specific Learning Outcomes
students should be able to:

 Describe the types and classes of

surveys
 Explain the principles and
equipment used in surveying
 Use common equipment for
engineering surveying
 Describe processes in data
collection, processing and
interpretation
 Perform quantitative mathematical
calculations for objects
 Use one of the software packages
commonly used in surveying (Total
Stations, ArcView, SURPAC

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 1. Fundamentals of surveying
Course Content The topic of geodesy
Plan of surveying
Geodetic surveying
Branches of surveying
Basic principles
The reliability of a survey
Maps and plans and their scales

2. Tape and offset surveying

Equipment used in tape and offset
surveying
Procedures in tape and offset surveying
Errors in linear measurement and their
correction
Fieldwork
Office work

Building surveying
3. Leveling
Elements of surveyor’s level
The surveyor’s level
Procedure in leveling
Use of leveling

4. Maps and Plans

Type and classification

 Topographic Maps
 Geologic Maps
 Soil and hydrological maps
 Geodetic coordinate systems
 Geodetic datum's

5. The Theodolite and GPS and their

uses/applications
 The transits vernier theodolite
 Modern instruments
 Trigonometric leveling
 Optical distance measurement
 Principles of Global Positioning
System (GPS)

6. Topographic maps and mapping

 What is a map?

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  Introduction to GIS
o Applications
o Raster vs. vector
o Introduction to
electromagnetic spectrum
and remote sensing
 Map distortions
 Map projection
 The Universal Transverse Mercator
Grid
 Other Survey grid systems
 Map scales
 Measuring distance/area
 Map orientation
 Color on maps
 Characteristic of contour lines
 Interpolating contour lines
 Development of a topographic map

7. Areas and Volumes

 The planimeter
 Areas enclosed by straight lines
 Irregular figures
 Volumes: earthwork calculations
 Mass – haul diagrams
8. Survey methods
 Co-ordinate systems
 Bearings
 Horizontal control
 Traversing
 Triangulation
 Detail surveying
 Orientation and positioning
 Determination of magnetic bearing
by compass
 Determination of true bearing by
gyroscope
 Determination of true bearing by
observation to the sun
9. Setting Out
 Accuracy
 Basic principles and point marking
 Horizontal control
 Vertical alignment
 Connection of surface and
underground lines

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 10. Curve ranging
 Circular curves
 Transition curves
 Vertical curves

Methods of Facilitating Learning This course will be facilitated through

modular lecturing, tutoring, group
discussions, directed self-study, and field
practicals.
Assessment Strategies Diversified Continuous Assessment will
apply, including tests, tutorials, assignments
and field practical reports. This course will
have a minimum of six assessment events
and a minimum Final Mark of 50% is
required to pass the course.
Quality Assurance Arrangements Moderation of assessments will be
conducted by internal and external
examiners
Periodic syllabus review to keep abreast
with advancing new knowledge and
changes.
Student Support & Learning Resources
1 SURVEYING. ARTHUR BANNISTER,
STANLEY RAYMOND, RAYMOND
BAKER.1997. PEARSON EDUCATION
LIMITED PUBLISHERS. LONDON

2 ARORA,K.P.2000, SURVEYING ,VOLUME

III, STANDARD BOOK HOUSE. NEW
DELHI

3 SINGH, G AND J.SINGA SURVEYING AND

LEVELLING. KHANNA PUBLISHERS.
NEW DELHI

4 SITE SURVEYING. JOHN MUSKET 1988

5 KAVANGH AND BIRD. 1995. SURVEYING.

PRINIPLES AND APPLICATIONS FOURTH
EDITION. PRENTICE HALL COLLEGE.
LONDON

6 AGOR,R. 2002. SURVEYING AND

LEVELING. KHANNA PUBLISHERS,
DELHI

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Definition – Engineering surveying is the science or art of making measurements to
determine or establish relative position of points.

DIVISION OF SURVEYING

There are two types of surveys namely;

i) plane surveying
ii) geodetic surveying.
In plane surveying, the curvature of the earth is neglected. The earth’s curve is
considered to be flat. Relatively small areas are under consideration (ie taken flat)
ie the line connecting any two points on the earth’s surface considered a straight
line and angles of polygons formed as plane angles.

In geodetic surveying, large distance and areas are under consideration. The
curvature of the earth is considered in all measurements taken on surface of the
earth. All the lines on the surface of the earth are curved lines and all the
polygons formed on the surface are spherical.

Geodetic surveying can also be called trigonometric surveying. The method of

trigonometrically surveying involves use of spherical trigonometric in its
computation works.

MAIN CHARECTARISTICS OF GEODETIC SURVEYING

i) very large distances and areas are under consideration
ii) there is use of very precise instruments
iii) there is use of refined methods of observation
iv) there is high degree of precision.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
Classification of surveys can be done based:
i) upon the nature of field of surveying
ii) on the object of surveying
iii) on the instruments in use
iv) upon the method employed in surveying

1. BASED UPON THE NATURE OF FIED OF SURVEY

i) Land survey
This survey work is done on the land only. The survey can be divided into the
following types.
a) Topographical survey – done for determination of the nature feature of the
country like rivers, lakes valleys, trills etc. This survey involves horizontal
and vertical location of points by taking linear as well as angular
measurement.

b) City surveys – conducted for laying out plots, construction of sewer, water
supply, pipeline, street overhead, bridges and other works.

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c) Cadastral surveys – these are done for fixing the property lines, position of
pathway, properties themselves, transfer of land from one owner to
another.

It is a survey used when fixing boundaries of districts, states, municipalities and

countries.

ii) Astronomical survey

Is conducted for fixing the absolute location and directions of points and lines on
the surface of the earth by viewing heavenly bodies like sun and stars etc.

iii) Marine/Navigation surveys/Hydrographic surveys

These are connected with the survey of bodies of water. The objective of
surveying maybe navigation water supply, harbour works or determination of mean
sea level.

The survey work includes measurement of discharge of rivers, preparing

topography of shores and banks, determining depth of water and observation
variation of sea level.

2. BASED ON THE OBJECT OF SURVEYING

i) Engineering surveys- This is done for the designing of engineering project

such as dams, canals, highways, railways, buildings, sewer lines etc.

Engineering surveys includes reconnaissance surveys (ie observing site),

preliminary surveys and location surveys.

Reconnaissance survey fixes the feasibility and rough cost of the project.
Preliminary surveys are for collecting data useful to choose the best location for
the work, quality of materials required for construction of the structure and
quantities are more exactly calculated.

Location surveys are used for setting out the work on the ground.

ii) Military surveying – Conducted for fixing points of strategic importance.

iii) Mine surveys – Used for exploring the mineral well ie coal, gold, copper
etc.

iv) Geological surveys – Used to determine the different earth strata in the
earth crust.

v) Archaeological surveys - Used for unearthing relics of antiquity.

3. BASED UPON INSTRUMENTS USED

Chain surveying

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 Campus survey
Plane survey
Tacheometric survey
Theodolite survey
Photographic survey
Aerial survey
Levelling

4. BASED UPON THE METHOD EMPLOYED IN SURVEY

Triangulation survey
Traverse survey

WORK OF THE SURVEYOR

Maybe divided into three district parts
i) field work
ii) office work
iii) care and adjustment of instruments

1. Field work
The surveyor has to perform the following functions in the field
i) establishing station points and benchmarks in the field
ii) measuring distances and angles
iii) locating the details such as building roads, boundary lines, rivers, bridges
and other also natural and artificial features.
iv) setting out the works like dams, building etc
v) finding the relative elevation of points
vi) setting grades of the lines
vii) setting lines parallel and perpendicular to given lines
viii) survey across the obstacles
ix) making observation of sun and stars
x) recording the field notes
Field notes are written statements recorded in the form of remarks during field
work. They should be concise, eligible, comprehensive and written neatly. The
following points must be considered while making field notes.
a) record directly in the field book as soon as observation are made
b) use sharp 2H and 3H pencil and never use ink of soft pencil
c) give neat reference sketches
d) never use eraser. If anything is to be corrected cross the wrong statement
and record the correct statement above the erased one.
e) make the field noted for each day and mention the title of the survey, date,
weather conditions and so on.
f) sign the field noted daily
The field notes may be further divided into three parts
1. recording numerical values

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2. drawing reference sketches
3. writing explanatory notes
Length should be measured to the nearest 0.01m and angle in degrees, minutes
and seconds i.e. 09º 02 1 0311.
Topographical features should shown by clear hand large size sketches.
Explanatory notes are written to clarify the things which cannot be appreciated
fully from numerical values and sketches. Important features are also mentioned in
the explanatory notes.

2. Office Work
Consist of:
a) preparing drawings like plans and elevation from data collected in the field
b) calculations of areas and volume
c) can help in development of a structure

3. Care and adjustments of survey instruments

The following precautions should be taken while using the delicate type of survey
instruments.
i) The position of the instruments must be thoroughly studied before it is
taken out of the box to facilitate correct placement in the box after use.
ii) Instruments must be transported from one station while in use by putting on
shoulders for safety.
iii) Clean the objective glass and eye-piece glass of the telescope by soft-brush
and also cover the objective glass by cap when the telescope is not in use.
iv) Instruments should be set on a tripod which is well fixed on the ground. Legs
of the tripod should be prevented from slipping when tripod is put on a
smooth floor.
v) Never leave the instruments unguarded when set on or near the road
vi) Don’t apply undue force on screw while opening and closing screws
vii) Keep the needle of the campus lifted on the pivot when instrument is not
in use.
viii) Kinked steel tape must not be pulled unless kink is opened to avoid breaking
the tape.
ix) Keep the instrument held by left hand while fixing the instruments on the
tripod to avoid slipping and falling of instruments.

SCALES
TYPES OF SCALES

The operation of making drawings to reduce size is known as drawing to scale. The
scale of the drawing or plans on map can be represented by the following three
methods:
i) engineer’s scale methods ;
ii) representative fraction method;

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iii) graphical scale methods

1 ENGINEER’S SCALE METHOD

In this method 1 cm on plan represent some whole number of metres on n the
ground ie if 1 cm on the map represent 20m on the ground. The scale on the map
is 20m to 1 cm often written as 1 cm = 20 m.

2 REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION METHOD

According to this method, one unit length on the plan represents so many units of
length on the ground. The ratio of distance to the corresponding ground distance is
dimensionless and is called representative fraction Representative Fraction of
1cm=20m.

RE  1 1
20 x100  2000

Engineer’s scale and representative fraction are known as numerical scale.

3 GRAPHICAL SCALE METHOD

This constructed on the plan by drawing a line of some convenient length and then
subdividing it. Each main division and subdivision represents units of length to the
scale in plan.

CHOICE OF SCALE

The primary consideration in the choice scales are

i) the use the map
ii) extent area to be represented by map
The length of the scale should be such that the smaller division is not smaller than
0.2mm.

COMMON SIZE OF SCALES USED VARIOUS SURVEYS

Types of Survey Scale

1. Survey of town planning and reservoir sites 1cm = 50m to 100m
2. Location survey 1cm = 50m to 200m
3. Survey of building sites 1cm = 10m or less
4. Small scale topographic maps 1cm = 0.25km to 25km
5. Graphical maps 1cm = 5km to 160km
6. Horizontal scale in L. –section 1cm = 10m to 200m
7. Vertical scale in L.-section 1cm = 1m to 2m
8. Horizontal vertical scales in cross section 1cm = 1m to 2m
9. Cadastral maps 1cm = 5m to 0.5km

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THEORY OF ERRORS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Accuracy – The degree of perfection obtained with observing instrument

used and method employed. It depends on;
i) precision of instruments
ii) precision of methods used
iii) perfectness of the planning
iv) perfectness of the observations
Atmospheric agencies affect the accuracy of survey
2. Errors – The different between the true value and the measured value of
anything.
3. Discrepancy –it is the difference between two measured values of the same
quantity. It is not an error, the discrepancy maybe small yet the error
maybe large.
4. Precision – It demotes related nearness to the truth and is based upon the
refinement of measurement and the size of discrepancies.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
Error in measurement fall into three categories
1. natural
2. instrumental
3. personnel

1. NATURAL ERRORS
These are caused by variations in wind, humidity, temperature, gravity, reflection,
magnetic fields and so on.

They are beyond the control of the surveyor and if proper precautions are not
observed against this effect, the resulting observation will be incorrect.

A tape made of steel maybe having standard length of 20m at 25ºC, the length of
the tape will be different.

2. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS

These result from imperfection in the construction or adjustment of instruments

and from the movement of individual parts. These can be completely eliminated
through applying a correction to all the readings for example zero error.

3. PERSONNEL ERRORS

These are errors out of limitations of the human senses of touch, sight and
hearing. These types of errors cannot be completely eliminated but can only
minimised through taking a number of reading for example parallax error.

TYPES OF ERRORS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

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Errors maybe the following three types
i) systematic error
ii) accidental error
iii) mistakes

1. SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Are errors also known as cumulative errors. They have the same sign, their
magnitude constant or variable depending upon their conditions. Their magnitude
can be computed and their effect can be eliminated by applying corrections.

2. ACCIDENTAL ERROR

They obey the law of probability and they are also known as compensating errors
since they tend to partially cancel themselves in a series of measurements.
Compensating errors remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been
eliminates. They are caused by factors beyond the control of the observer.

3. MISTAKES

Errors caused by carelessness, poor judgment and misunderstanding of the problem

or inexperience of the surveyor. Large of serious mistakes are referred to as
blunders.

PROBABILITY

The things which happen by chance or by accident are governed by mathematical

principle referred to as probability.

These principles apply in accidental errors and the characteristics of accidental

errors are;

a) small errors occur more often than large hence it means that they are more
probable.
b) large errors occur infrequently and they are therefore less probable. They
are generally mistakes rather than accidental errors.
c) positive and negative errors of the same size occur with equal frequency
meaning they are equally probable.

STANDARD DEVIATION OF STANDARD ERROR

The most used method of interpreting and evaluation the most probable value of a
group of measurements is based on the standard deviation

d 2
ds 
n 1

. Where ds = standard deviation or error of individual observation

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 d = residual of an individual observation (difference of mean and actual
reading)
n = number of observations

Most probable value

It is the value of a quantity which has more chances of being correct more than
any other vale of a quantity.
The most probable error is that quantity which when added to and subtracted from
the most probable value fixes the limits with which the true value of measured
quantity must lie.

The probable error is obtained from a single measurement is obtained from the
d 2
equation: PE  0.6745
n 1

The probable error of a number of observations of the same quantity of calculated

d 2 PE
from the equation PE mean  0.6745 or
nn  1 n

Example

Following levels were taken under identical conditions with the help of a
level while carrying out levelling along the axis of a river: 90.462; 90.675;
90.525; 91.025; 90.985; 91.250; 90.250; 90.325.

Compute:

i. the probable error

ii. the probable error of mean.
iii.
Solution:

  n x
Mean reading x 

90,462  90,675  90,525  91,025  90,985  91,250  90,250  90,325

=
8

725,497
= 8

mean = 90,687

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Reading (m) d mx  x  
d2 x x  2

90.462 0.225 0.050652

90.675 0.012 0.000144
90.525 0.162 0.026244
90.025 -0.662 0.438244
90.985 -0.298 0.088804
91.250 -0.563 0.316969
90.250 0.437 0.190969
90.325 0.362 0.131044

  725.497 d 2
 1.243043

d2
PE =  0.6745
n 1

1.243043
 0.6745
7

 0.2842334

PE
PEmean = n

 0.2842334

8

= 0.100492

ACCURACY IN SURVEYING

It is also referred to as permiable error. It is the maximum allowable limit by

which a measurement may vary from its true value.

The value of permeable error depends upon many factors such as

i. scale of map,
ii. purpose of survey,
iii. type of instruments available,
iv. time available for the work, and
v. competence of surveyor.

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TAPE AND OFFSET SURVEYING

There are a number of linear measurement methods and the most universal
method used in surveying is chaining. This is the most accurate method of
measuring distance. A chain or tape is used to measure distance. A chain is used
for works where ordinary precision is required but where large accuracy is
required, tapes or steel bands are used. The term chaining is used to denote the
measuring of distance with either the chain or the tape.

Instruments for measuring distance

1. Chains
2. Tapes or steel bands
3. Arrows
4. Pegs
5. Ranging rod
6. Offset rod
7. Plaster’s laths and white
8. Plumb bob

1 CHAIN
This is made of galvanised, mild steel wire. The wire is 4 mm in diameter and
made up of links of links that measure 200mm.
Swivelling brass handles is fitted at each end and the total length is measured over
the handles.

Tally markers of plastics are attached at every whole metre and those giving 5m
position were of different colours.

The chain is robust, easily and easily amended in the field if broken.

It was liable to vary somewhat in length because of wear on the metal to metal
surfaces, bending of the links used between the bearing surfaces.

2. STEEL BAND OR DRAG TAPE

Is much more accurate than a chain and is made of steel strip some 6mm in width.
A handle is fitted for returning the band into its frame after use and this also
provide locking device for returning the band.

Rawhide thongs are supplied for attaching to the small loops at the extremities of
the bands to allow them to be pulled or straightened.

Length of 30m, 50m, are normal but 100m band maybe encountered. The bond is
marked in metres, tenths and hundredths of metres and the first cast metres are
subdivided into mm.

Disadvantages

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  The steel bond cannot be read so easily
 It can break easily f sufficient care is not taken at the time of its use
 The steel bond can change in length by change in temperature or
pull.

3. TAPES
These maybe made of synthetic material, glass fibre, coated steel or plain steel.

The 10m, 20m or 30m tapes are the most desirable lengths. It is important that
tapes and bonds be wiped clean or be dried before rewinding into their cases and
on their frames.

Plain steel units need oil treatment with a rug to prevent rust.

4. ARROWS

When measuring the length of a long line, the tape has to be laid down a number
of times the portion of the ends marked with arrows which are steel skewers
about 40cm long and 3 to 4mm diameter.

A piece of red ribbon at the top enables tem to be seen more clearly. Always there
are 110 arrows in use.

5. RAISING RODS

These are rods of circular section 2m, 2.5m, 3m long painted with red and white
bands usually 0,5m, long and tripped with a steel shoe to enable them to be driven
into the ground.

They are used in the measurement of line with tapes and arrows and for marking
any points that need to be seen.

In hard or paved ground, a tripod is used to support the rods.

6. PEGS

Points that need to be permanently marked, such as intersection of survey lines,

are marked by nails set in the top of wooden pegs driven into the ground using
mallet. The length of the peg is 40cm by 40mm width. They should be left 4cm
above the ground so that they can be easily seen.

PROCEDURE IN TAPE AND OFFSET SURVEYING

Tape and offset survey consist of measuring with tape the length of a series of
straight lines. The position of which are governed by principles given and then
locating points on the ground and relative on this line by measuring other 2 lines
know as ties or by measuring offsets at night angles to the main line.

Measuring the length of a line

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Operation is carried out by two assistants known as chain men, one acting as lead
chain man and the other as follower. The chain men each take one end of each
steel band.

The bond is pulled full length and examined for defects. Leader is equipped with
chain arrows and ranging rods. The follower also takes the ranging rod.

Then to measure line AB having preciously positioned ranging rods at both A and B

Ranging rod

A A1 A2 A3 A4 B

1. The leader drags his end of steel bond to A (base one A,) and holds his
ranging rod about 30cm short of the end.
2. The follower hold his end firmly against A and the surveyor outside poles A
and B lines by closing one eye sighting poles A & B and signalling the lead
chain man till he/she brings the third ranging rod into line AB.
 The system of signalling usually adopted is to swing the left arm out
to the left as some instruction to the leader to move his peg in that
direction and the right arm is used in the right side while both arms
extended over and brought down the head indicates that the pole is
in line.
3. The leader straightens the bands past the rod by sending gentle snakes
between the pegs.
4. The follower indicated that the band is straight and the leader puts an
arrow at the A1

5. The leader then drags his lead to A2 taking the arrows and his poles.

6. The follower moves to A1 and put his pole behind the arrow. The surveyor
again line from A1.

 The above procedure is repeated the follower picking up the first

arrow before he moves from A1. The follower moves to A2 carrying
the arrow from A1.

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  If the line measured is longer than ten times the band length, the
leader will exhaust his supply of arrows so that when the eleventh
bond length is stretched out, the follower will have to hand back
arrows to the leader.

 The number of arrows held by the follower serves as a check on the

number of full bond length measured.

ERRORS IN LINEAR MEASUREMENT AN THEIR CORRECTIONS

A. Mistakes
1. Omitting an entire band length in booking. This is prevented by
noting down each band length, and by the leader keeping careful on
the arrows as described earlier
2. Misreading steel band. It is best for two people to make important
readings.
3. Erroneous booking which occur sometimes. It is prevented by the
chainman carefully calling out results and the surveyor repeating it
paying attention when calling 5, 9, 7 or 11.

B. Systematic or cumulative errors

Their effects, when known can be eliminated.
Standard
 The more careful measurement wont produce an accurate survey of
for example the band has been damaged and is therefore of incorrect
length because every time the bond is stretched out, it will measure
not 30m but 30 .
 By checking the bond against a standard, such as 2 marks measured
for that purpose, the exact error band length is known. If this error
cannot be eliminated, a correction can be applied which will enable
the effect of the error to be removed.

Correct length = Measured length x Length of band used

Length of standard band

SCOPING GROUND
Lines measured on slopping land must be longer than lines measured on flat land.
If slope is excessive, then correction must be applied. There are two methods;

Stepping – This is the best method on ground that is of variable slope and
needs no calculations. The measurement is done in short length of 5-10m
with the leader holding the length horizontally. The point on the ground
below the free end of band is best located by plumb bob.

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It is easier to work downhill than up the hill.

Measuring along the slope – The method is applicable where the ground
runs in long regular slopes. The slope is measured by an instrument called
Abney level or by levelling, a procedure which gives the surface height at
points along the slope.

Measure of slope angle

Correct length = measured length x Cos where sk1

Correction length

This method corrects only the total length of the line and if intermediate
measurements are to be corrected, adjustments must be made during
measurement.

This can be readily affected as follows;

In figure (2) AB one tape length say 30m, measured along the slope.

What we require is the point (c) beyond B such that a plumb bob at C will cut the
horizontal through A and D where AD is 30m on the horizontal ie we require the
correction BC that is to be added to each tape length measured along the slope.

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  2 5 4 
BC = AD 1         AD where  in a radiance
 2 24 

2
BC = AD
2

Slope can also be expressed as 1 in n which means a rise of 1 unit vertically for n
units horizontally for small angles = 1 radians.
n

The figure below shows the relationship between correction and slopes for 20m
lengths.

TAPE CORRECTIONS
Every chain or has its designated or standard length in some specified conditions of
use. The conditions of use are temperature, pull, slope of ground, tag in chain and
tension. In survey work the conditions under chain or tape has standard length do
no exist and hence their length are seldom correct. The following corrections are
made to the measured length to obtain its true length,

i) Correction for temperature

ii) Correction for pull
iii) Correction for sag

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 iv) Correction for slope

1. Correction for absolute or standardisation

If the actual length of the tape or chain is not equal to its normal length, the
correction will have to be applied to the length of the line. When the chain is o too
short respectively and a correction has to be applied. The correction for the
measured length is as follows;

LxC
Ca 
l

Where Ca = correction for absolute length

L = measure length of the line
l = normal length of the tape
C = correction for tape or chain

NB. Normal or designated length means designated length of 20m; 25m; 30m
etc. Absolute length means the actual length under specified conditions.

2. Correction for temperature

Rise in temperature cause increase in length for the tape bands and consequently
measured distances are too small and correction becomes positives.

Fall in temperature reduce length and consequently length measured is large and
correction is negative.

Correction in temperature is computed using the following formula;

Ct   Tm  ToL
Where Ct = correction for temperature
X = co-efficient of thermal expansion
Tm = mean temperature during measurement
To = standard temperature for the tape
L = measured length in metres
Ct will be positive if Tm To and negative when Tm To. Average value of α is
taken as 11.7 x 10-6.

3. Correction for pull

The correction to the measure length of a line has to be applied when the pull
used during measurements is different from that at which the tape is standardised.
When less than standard pull in applied length of tape be too short and measured
distance with it will be too long and correction to be applied will be negative and
vice versa. Correction for pull is computed as follows;

`
 P  Po
Cp  xL
AE

Where Cp= correction for pull

P = pull applied during measurement kg/N

Po = standard pull kg/N

A = cross sectional area of tape in cm2

E = modulus of elasticity of the steel (kg/cm2). The value of E for standard steel
tape is 21 x 106 kg/cm2

L= measure length in metres

4. Correction for sag

When a tape chain is stretched in air and supported on two points, the
unsupported length of the tape takes the form of catenary of which the curve is
assumed parabolic for all purposes. The distance measured along the catenary is
more than the horizontal distance between supported points. The difference
between horizontal distances and the distance measured along the catenary in
known as sag correction. This is computed as follows;
l Wl 
2
Cs 
24P 2

Where Cs= sag correction foe single span

Wl = weight of the tape suspended between support in kg/m

L = the distance between support in metres

P = applied pull in kg

If there are in equal span per tape length

nl Wl 
Cs 
24P 2

5. Correction for slope

The distance measured along the slope is always more than the horizontal
distance. The correction foe slope hence is always negative.
If L is the inclined measured distance with h as the difference in elevation of the
ends of the line, the slope correction Cs is given as follows;

Csl  l (l-cos )

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LEVELLING
Is the process whereby the relative height of the points on the earth’s surface is
determined.

Every kind of levelling operations is carried out from some horizontal or level
plane.

METHODS OF LEVELLING
There are three methods which are commonly used. These are;
1. Barometric levelling
2. Trigonometric levelling
3. Spirit levelling

It is spirit levelling which is actually referred to as levelling. In it vertical distances

of various points are measured with respect to the datum and relative difference
in elevation between the points determined.

LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS

The following instruments are required (i) level

(ii) levelling staff

The level instruments provide a horizontal line of sight and levelling staff is used
to measure the vertical distances of the points of which levels are to be found out
from the horizontal line of sight provided by the level.

THE LEVEL

It is a complicated instrument used to obtain the horizontal line of sight and is

always used by fixing over the tripod stand. The level exists of the following 4
essential points.

i) Telescope – used to provide the line of sight. It is also used to read the staff
from long distances
ii) Level tube – used to make the line of sight perfectly horizontal
iii) Levelling head – consist of three (3) foot screws base plate and upper plate
with the help of which the bubble o the level tube is brought to the centre
of its run. Levelling head also provide base for the telescope to be fitted
over it.
iv) Tripod – is a 3 legged stand used to support the level instrument when
levelling operation is being performed.

There are various types of levels but the most commonly used is the dump level,
tilting level and automatic level.

`
Different parts of a level and their function

i) Levelling head – consist of 3 level foot screws and 2 plates, one fixed at
bottom and other at top of the foot screw.
 The level instrument is fitted over the tripod by screwing the lower
plate of the level head.
 The level instrument is levelled with the help of the 3 screws except
the tilting level where micrometer is used for levelling.
 The plate fitted at the top side is known as tribrach .

ii) Telescope –focuses screw head and spinion. It is used for moving the lenses
forward and backward when focussing on an object.
The lens in front is known as the objective glass and the lens where eye is
put for focussing is an eye piece.

iii) Bubble tube – slightly curved glass tube in which sprit is filled but living an
air bubble.

iv) Clamp screw – for controlling the movement of telescope in horizontal

plane

v) Tangent screw or slow motion screw – works only when the clamp screw is
tightened. It is used to rotate the telescope through a small angle for
precisely sighting the level staff.

LEVELLING STAVES

Is used to determine the amount by which the point where staff is held is above or
below the line of survey. It is made up of wood and marked with graduation in
metres and decimals.

The following staves may be classified into two categories which are

Self reading staff

Target staff

Self reading staff – The staff is read by the level man through the telescope.

Target staff- This staff contains a movable target, the reading is taken by the
staff man.

Cross hairs

k
`
K K K K
K
TERMS AND ABREVIATIONS

i) Station – is that point where staff is held as it is the staff point whose level
is to be found.
ii) Height of instrument (HI) – height of instrument is the elevation of the
plane of sight with respect to the assumed datum.
iii) Back sight (BS) - it is the staff reading taken on a point of known elevation
(bench mark) or check point. It is the first staff reading and the level is set
u and levelled. Also known as plus site as it is always added to the level of
datum to get the height of instrument

iv) Fore sight (FS) – the staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be
determined and position of the level instrument has to be changed after
taking this site. It can be said to be the site taken on the staff change point
(CP). It is always a minus sign or always there F.S is subtracted.
v) Intermediate site (IS) – The first site taken on point is the BS. The last sight
which the position is changed is the F.S. All other sight between the B.S and
FS are IS.
vi) Change point (CP) or Turning point (IP) – This point marks the shifting of
the level instrument.
vii) Reduced level (RL) - The elevation point with respect to datum or BM is
known as reduced level. The elevation of point is plus if above datum line
and minus if below datum.

FUNDAMENTALS OF LEVELLING

1. When starting the level of operation, the first reading of the staff from the
first setting of the level instrument is always taken by holding staff on point
whose elevation or RL is known or assumed. This point is the B M The first
reading taken on the B.M is the B. S. When BS is added to the RL of BM, the
HI is obtained.
2. Now the level of instrument is maintained at its setting but the levelling
staff is shifted to the point whose RL is to be found. Take FS/IS on the staff.
This reading (FS) of the staff represent the height by which the point over
which the staff is kept is below the line of sight of telescope or the
horizontal plane containing the line of sight. When FS is deduced from HI we
get elevation RL of the point.

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PROFILE LEVELLING
 It is also known as longitudinal levelling

 The objective of this levelling is to determine the profile on the ground

along a predetermined line, which can be a centre of a road, railway line,
cancel or pipeline.

 The predetermined line maybe a straight line or may consist of series of

straight line or changing direction or connected by curves.

 The staff readings are taken on the points established on the predetermined
line at measured intervals, usually 20m intervals if it is a long line. This
levelling when plotted on drawing sheet or graph paper to a suitable scale
(ie horizontal scale of 1 in 1000 to 1 in 2500 and the vertical scale of 1 in
100 to 1 in 200) illustrates the profile of the ground along a predetermined
line.

 From the difference of levels of proposed formations and the actual profile
for a particular point, amount of cutting or filling is computed and the cost
of work is estimated.

FIELD METHOD OF CONDUCTING PROFILE LEVELLING

 The operation is started from Bench Mark ‘If the BM is not available near the
route of levelling, levels should be run from the permanent BM to an
established BM near the route of levelling.

`
  In profile levelling the level instrument is set up at appreciable distance
from the established BM but away from the established route.

 This is done so that staff readings on the point lying near the instrument on
the proposed route of levelling could be taken easily.

 The distance between BM and the instrument is kept substantial so that a

number if instrument readings could be taken on the points established on
the proposed routes at regulating measured intervals.

 Intermediate sites are continued to be taken from particular set up of the

instrument till the distance of the staff on the opposite direction of B again
becomes substantial.

 Foresight is taken and the instrument is shifted.

 B.S is taken from the new change point, with the staff being held at the
point where F.S was taken. The process is repeated.

 The following points should be noted during levelling.

`
1. The BS and FS distances should be approximately equal.
2. The reading taken on BMs and CPs should be taken more precisely and
accurately .
3. The bubble should be kept level at the centre while taking staff readings.
4. The positions of features such as rivers, roads etc crossed by the survey line
should be completely located by noting bearings at their centre lines and
their width.

CHECKING THE LEVELS

 The levels of the profile levelling should be checked by correcting them (the
level with BMs).
 The permanent BM maybe near the beginning, end or intermediate points of
the proposed route line.
 If the BM is not in the line, the work maybe checked by connecting the
levels of some points to the BM by running wheels.
 If the line is too long it should be divided into sections and each section is
checked before the next section is levelled.
 Check levelling maybe run along the original change points or along the
most convenient and shortest route.

CROSS SECTION

 These are sections at right angles to the longitudinal profile.

 Cross sections determine the general outline of the ground surface. The
length of the cross-section depends on the nature of the work
 Short cross-sections can be set out by eye while long cross-section can be
set out by optical square or theodolite.
 First of all, a line is set out perpendicular to on either side of the centre –
line.
 The staff held at each point fixed on the line at fixed interval and staff
reading is taken.
 The method in which the readings and distances are recorded in the level
book is shown on the next page.
 The difference between the ground level and formation level at any point
gives the depth of cutting height of embankment depending whether
formation is above or below G.L.

`
STATION DISTANCE B.S IS FS HI RL REMARKS

BM 0,850 250,850 250,000 BM

A 0 1,250 249,600 FP

1 20 2,500 248,350

2 40 3,350 247,500

3 60 2,750 248,100

4 80 2,250 248,600

5 100 0,550 3,500 247,900 247,350 CP1

6 120 2,350 245,550

7 140 0,250 247,650

8 160 0,950 246,950

9 180 1,500 246,400

10 200 1,750 2,150 247,500 245,750 CP2

11 220 1900 245,600

12 240 3,150 245,350

13 260 3,250 244,250

B 280 1,500 246,000 L.P

7,150 250,000

-3,150 -246,000 CHECKING

4,000 4,000 CHECKED

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METHODS OF CALCULATION OF REDUCED LEVELS

Two methods are used for computing R.L of points from the staff readings taken in
the field. These are

i) Collimation (HI) methods

ii) Rise and Fall method

1. COLLIMATION (HI METHODS)

 The HI is found out every set up of the instrument. Collimation at a point =

BS + RL of BM.

 The RLs of the intermediate points and the first change point are then
obtained by subtracting staff readings taken on those points from elevation
of the plane of collimation or height of instrument (HI).

Example (Table on Last Page)

RL of BM = 250, 000m

HI at BM = RLBM + BSBM

= 250,00m + 0,850

= 250,850

RLA = HI - ISA

= 250,850 – 1,250

`
 = 249,600m

RL1 = HI – IS1

= 250,850 -250m

= 248,350m

RL5 = HI – FS

= 250,850 -3,5

= 247,35

New HI = RL5 + BS5

= 247,35 + 0,55

= 247,900m

RL6 = HI – IS6

= 24, 79 - 2, 35

= 245,550m (Same procedure is repeated for all values)

ARITHMETIC CHECK

The correction of the computations work should be checked arithmetically and this
check is called arithmetic check.

NB. If  FS is greater than  BS , the RL of the last point will be less than the RL
of the first point and vice versa.

RISE AND FALL METHOD

In this method, difference of level between consecutive points is determined by

comparing the reading of each point with immediately preceding it. The different
between their staff readings indicates a rise or fall accordingly as the staff reading
at the point is smaller or greater than that at the preceding point.

The RL of each is then calculated by adding the rise to or subtracting the fall from
the RL of the preceding point.

ARITHMETIC CHECK

`
The difference between  BSand  FS is equal to the differences between  rise
and  falls . Also equal to the difference between the 1st and last point of Reduced
levels. There is a complete check on the intermediate sights since all sites are
involved in calculations. Table below same as on page 33 but using the Rise and
Fall method.

STATION DISTANCE B.S(m I.S F.S RISE FALL RL REMARKS

(m) )
BM 0.850 250.000 BM
A 0 1,250 0,400 249.600 FP
1 20 2,500 1,250 248.350
2 40 3,350 0,850 247.500
3 60 2,750 0,600 248.100
4 80 2,250 0,500 248.600
5 100 0,550 3,500 1,250 247.350 CP1
6 120 2,350 1,800 245.550
7 140 0,250 2,100 247.650
8 160 0,950 0,700 246.950
9 180 1,500 0,550 246.400
10 200 1,750 2,150 0,650 245.750 CP2
11 220 1,900 0,150 245.600
12 240 2,150 0,250 245.350
13 260 3,250 1,100 244.250
B 280 1,500 1,750 246.000 LP

8,950 250,000
-4,950 -246,00 CHECKING
4,000 4,000 CHECKED

CALCULATIONS

Rise /FallA = BSBM - ISA

= 0,850 – 1,250

= - 0,400 (Fall)

RLA = RLB – FallA

`
 = 250,000-0,4000

= 249,600m

Rise/Fall1 = ISA – IS1

=1,250 – 2,500

=-1,250 (Fall)

RL1 = RLA – Fall 1

= 249,600-1,250

= 248,350M (Continue same procedure up to station 5)

Rise/Fall = IS4 – F.S5

= 2,250 – 3,500

= - 1,250 (Fall)

RL5 = RL4 – Fall5

= 248,600 – 1,250

=247,350m

Rise/Fall 6 = BS5 – IS6

= 0, 55- 2,350

=-1,8 (Fall)

R1L6 = RL5 – Fall6

= 247,350m – 1,8

= 245,550m (Continue same procedure till the table is filled)

EXAMPLE

1. Following readings of staff were taken with the help of a level. If the R.L of
the first point is 200,00m and level was shifted at 3rd, 6th and 8th
observation. Compute the RL of the points using both the collimation
method as well as rise and fall method.

Readings 1.50; 1.350; 1.150; 1.850; 2.415;2.035; 1.950; 1.250; 1.450; 2.350

`
LEVELLING DIFFICULTIES
1. Levelling on steep slopes

 If levelling is done uphill the F.S will be near the foot of the staff and the BS
near the top of the staff. The reverse is the case when levelling downhill

 The sight taken towards the rise will be near the foot and that towards fall
will be near the top of staff.

 The error due to the imperfect adjustment of the collimation can be

avoided by keeping BS and FS equal though it is difficult to deal with steep
slope.

 If it is not possible to keep BS and FS equal, then instrument should be set

up on one side of the line along which the levels are to be taken and the
zig-zag sight should be taken

 In this types of terrain, a great judgement is necessary in selecting the

position of the instruments at change points.

2. Levelling across a summit or hollows

 In levelling across a summit, the instrument should be set up on the slope in

such a way that level can just sight across the summit similarly levelling
across a hollow require the instrument to be set slightly above the bottom f
the hollow so that staff kept at the bottom of hollow is read near the top.

`
 3. When levelling staff is too close to the level

In this case the figures on the staff are not visible and such condition should be
avoided as far as possible. If unavoidable a piece of paper maybe used as a target
to take the staff reading. When level is set up very near the staff station the
reading maybe taken by looking through the objective glass.

4. When staff is too low or too high

When staff is kept so low that the line of collimation passes above top of staff, the
staff man is directed to raise the staff unit it could be read.

The staff can be supported on a pole and raised height can be marked and
measured.

Methods 3 and 4 should not be used in case of BS and FS as they are not accurate.

5. When BM is above line of sight

staff inverted BS F.S

G.L

 This happens when the under sight of a canopy is used as BM or when the
elevation of the other side of a roof is to be found out.

`
  The difficulty is solved by holding the staff inverted on the point. This
reading being negative is entered in the level book with a minus sign (-ve)
and remark is commented.

 If the reading is BS, it is subtracted from the reduced level to obtain the HI.
If it is an IS or FS, it is added to HI.

6. Levelling across lakes too wide t be sighted

In this case advantage is taken of the foot that the surface of still water is a level
surface.

Peg C is drive on one side of the river which flush (end of water) with water, and
its level is determined.

Now set up the instrument on the opposite side of lake.

 Drive a peg D where ground flush water.

 The level this peg will be the same as level C. Taking the peg D as BM,
levelling is continued.

7. Levelling across a river

 If the width of the river is not much reciprocal, levelling maybe used on
transferring the level from one bank to the other.

 If river is very wide, fact 6 above can be used but in this case, points,
opposite bank should be at the same level of flow and also the river should
be flowing in regular section.

`
 8. Levelling past a high wall

 If wall is not much high find the RL of the top of the wall by using inverted
staff touching the top of the wall, now shift the instrument to the other side
of the wall and set it up.

 Keep the staff inverted touching the top of the wall of the other face and
take the B.S for the new set up of the instrument.

 Now top of the wall whose level has been formed act as BM and levelling
can proceed.

 If height of wall is quite large a suitable mark is made at the height where
the line of sight intersects the wall. The vertical distance between the mark
and the top of the wall is measured, and then RL of the top of the wall is
determined.

 The instrument is then shifted to the other side of the wall and a similar
mark at the collimation is made on the wall. The vertical height of the wall
is measured and HI is computed.

`
 THEODOLITES & TACHOMETRIC SURVEYING
Theodolites: - The Theodolite is use to measure vertical and horizontal angles

CLASSIFIVATON OF THEODOLOTES

This is done according to the rotation of telescope in vertical plane:

i) Transit, and
ii) Non transit
 The theodolite is called transit if it can rotate through 360oC about its axis that is
horizontal and vertical axis or plane.
 The theodolite whose telescope cannot be rotated or revolved for a complete
revolution is known as non transit theodolote which are outdated and no longer in use.

Theodolities can also be classified according to the method of reading the graduation.

i) Venire theodolite
ii) Micrometer theodolite
iii) Glass circle theodolite

The venire theodolite is no longer in use in the industry but some learning institutions have
one to teach students.

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES

To measure angle ABC, the instrument is set up over station B and levelled by means of foot
screws.

C Q C

`
  The telescope pointing to the target, the vertical circle will be right or left of the
telescope.
 Suppose it is to the left, the theodolite is said to be in the face left position.
 By rotating through 180o in the horizontal and vertical plane;
 The telescope will be pointing again at the point but with the gunsight on the other
side of the barrel, and the vertical circle to the right – that is the theodolite is in the
face right position.

OPERATION OF A THEODOLITE

Starting with all clamps tightened; then

a) The plates are unclamped and the horizontal circle is set at zero or an arbitrary value
near zero. The upper clamp is locked, holding the two plates together.
b) The telescope is directed onto station A using the gunsight. When the telescope is
closely pointing to A, the lower clamp is also locked and the vertical hair of the
diaphragm is accurately sighted onto the station using the lower tangent screw. The
horizontal circle reading is now taken.
c) With the lower clamp fixed, the upper clamp is released and telescope is swung in a
clockwise direction until directed towards station C using the gunsight.
d) The upper clamp is then fixed and upper tangent screw is used to align telescope
accurately onto station C. The horizontal circle reading at C can be obtained.
e) The upper clamp is then released and theodolite is turned through 180o. Telescope is
also turned through 180o in the vertical plane and gunsight is used to sight roughly at
station C.
f) The upper clamp is locked, the tangent screw is used to align the telescope onto
station C and horizontal circle reading is reread.
g) The upper clamp is unlocked, the telescope is directed towards station A with the
gunsight.
h) The upper clamp is unlocked, the telescope is directed towards station A with the
gunsight.
i) The upper clamp is locked and upper tangent screw is used to align screw onto station
A. The horizontal circle can then be read for point A.

`
 j) Angle ABC is obtained as follows;

POINTING FACELEFT FACERIGHT

Station C 930 34’ 40’’ 2730 34’ 40’’

Station A 010 15’ 20’’ 1810 15’ 40’’

920 19’ 20’’ 920 19’ 00’’

92 019'20' '92 019 ' 00 ''

ABC 
2

 92 019 '10 ''

MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES

Definition: Vertical angle is the angle between the inclined line of sight and the horizontal.

 The vertical angle is measured from the horizontal plane passing through the
horizontal axis.

`
  If the vertical angle is above the horizontal plane passing through the horizontal axis
of the instrument, it is known as angle of elevation and if below horizontal, it is
known as angle of depression.
 While measuring the vertical angle, the instrument should be levelled by the help of
the altitude bubble and not the bubble or level.
 In most theodolites, the altitude level is attached to the index.
 The method of measuring a vertical angle with a theodolite in which the bubble is to
the index is as follows;
i) Set the theodolite over P and level it accurately with respect to the altitude
bubble. Let O be the position of the trunnion axis
ii) Set zero of the vertical venire exactly to the zero of the vertical circle ie done
with the help of the vertical circle clamp and tangent screw.
iii) If the altitude bubble has moved off centre, it is centred with the help of clip
screw. Now the line of collimation OC is horizontal and the vernier reads zero.
iv) Unclamp the vertical circle clamp screw and direct towards A whose angle of
elevation has to be measured. Sight the point A exactly using vertical circle
clamp screw and tangent screw.
v) Read both veniers. The mean of 2 readings give the value of the required
vertical angle AOC.
vi) Similarly observations maybe made by changing the face. The average of the
2 gives the required vertical angle AOB.
vii) If the vertical angle of depression, then the method is similar. The only
difference is that instead of sighting point A sight point B which lies below the
horizontal plane through trunnion axis.

If it is required to measured the vertical angle AOB in which point A is above and B is below
the horizontal plane through O, first sight the higher point A and take the reading on the
vertical circle as explained above. The sight the lower point B and take the reading. The value
of the angle AOB will be sum of or difference of those readings. If one point is above and the
other below will be sum of the readings. If both points are on the same side of the horizontal
plane, the value of the same sick of the horizontal plane, the value of the angle will be the
difference of these readings.

`
POINTING FL FR VERTICAL CIRCLE MEAN

A 270 24’ 31’’ 2010 08’ 20’’ -1480 13’ 00’’

C 1440 471 3011 3230 331 3011 -200 131 0011

FL  FR  180 0
Collimation =
2

27 0 241311  2010 081 2011  180

Collimation error horizontal =
2

= 030 0810511

Correction in face right A = 2010 0812011  030 0810511

= 1980 0011411

144 0 4713011  3230 3313011  180

Collimation error horizontal =
2

= 0 0 3710011

Correction in face right C = 3230 3313011  0 0 3710011

= 322 0 5613011

FL  FR  360 0
Vertical angle collimation correction =
2

TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING

 Is a methods of surveying in which horizontal distance and vertical heights of the

points are computed by instrumental observations. Use of claim and tape are
completely eliminated.
 Though less accurate it is the most rapid and convenient. It is adopted in obstacles
such as sleep broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of swamps where ordinary
chaining is inaccurate, difficult and slow.

`
  The primary objective of tachometric surveying is the preparation of contour maps
and plans.
 It is extremely used on typographic surveying, location surveys for railways, roads
reservoirs, locating contours and filling cretails in topographic surveys.
 Can be used for checking more precise distance measured with caain or tape.

INSTRUMENTS

i) Tacheometer
ii) Levelling staff of stadia rod

TACHEOMETER

 Is a transit theodolite filled with a stadia telescope. The stadia telescope is fitted with
a stadia diaphragm.
 The stadia diaphragm can be of different patterns but each diaphragm has 3 horizontal
hairs beside the vertical hairs.

The essential features of a tacheometer:-

f 
i) The value of multiplying constant   should be 100 and the error embedded in
i 
this value must not exceed 1 in a 1000.
ii) The telescope should be fitted with anallatic lense.
iii) The magnification of the telescope should lie between 20mm to 30mm diameter.
In other, words, telescope must be very powerful.
iv) In order to obtain height image, the aperture of the objective should be 35 – 45mm
in diameter.

`
 v) Magnifying power of eye piece should be large so as to view the graduations of
the staff clearer at a long distance.

Stad rod or levelling staff

 Usually of one piece and is quite long

 Maybe folding type or telescopic so as to facilitate its transport
 Length varies from 3 – 5m
 It is graduated in metres, centimetres and decimetres.

Tacheometric Methods of Surveying

1) Stadia method
a) Fixed hair method
b) Movable hair method
2) Tangential method

STADIA METHOD

1) Fixed Hair Methods

 Stadia hair interval remains fixed, being engraved permanently on the glass
diaphragm plate.
 Readings on the staff corresponds to all three horizontal hairs are taken
 When the staff is sighted through the telescope a certain length of staff (staff
intercept) is intercepted by other stadia lines and from this value of the staff intercept,
the distance from the instrument to the staff station is found.
 For inclined sites, the staff maybe held normal or vertical to the line of sight.
2) Movable Hair Method
 In this method, a special diaphragm is used and the stadia hairs are not fixed.
 Can be moved by means of micrometer screws and thus the interval between stadia
hairs can be changed.
 The staff is provided with two targets or vanes fixed a known distance. In this method
staff intercept is kept fixed whereas the stadia interval varies.

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PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD

 The stadia method is based upon the principle that in similar triangles the ratio of the
corresponding sides is constant.

 Referring to the following diagram

 OC is a horizontal line of sight while OA and OB are 2 points equally inclined to OC.
 Let AB, A1 B1 and A2 B2 be the staff intercepts. Let C C1 and C2 be the intersection of
line OC with staff intercepts.
 Let AÔB be α

OC2 OC1 OC
   Constant M
A2 B2 A1 B1 AB

 Constant M = 1 cot  . To make M = 100, the value of α should be 341 2211.

2 2
 In this case, the distance between the staff and point zero will be a 100x the staff
intercept
 The line of sight maybe horizontal or inclined similarly the staff maybe kept
horizontal or normal to the line of sight.

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DERIVATION OF DISTANCE ELEVATION FORMULA FOR HORIZONTAL
SIGHTS

1) Internal Method

V U B

Diaphragm Staff

Objective

Vertical axis

Where ACB equals points where the line of sight from stadia hairs and horizontal hairs cut
the staff, acb equals top, central and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.

ab = δ that is stadia interval

AB = S, that is staff intercept

F = focal length of the objective glass of the telescope

U = horizontal distance of the staff from optical centre of the objective

V = horizontal distance of the diaphragm from the optical centre

d = distance of vertical axis of the instrument from zero

D = horizontal distance of staff from the vertical axis of the instrument

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P = normal axis of the instrument from triangle AOB and aob.

OC U AB S
  
oc V ab i

If OF = f (focal length of objective glass.

AB
Hence U  V
ab

AB
 F f
ab

f
 S f
i

The horizontal distance D from the vertical axis of the tachometer to the staff is obtained by
adding d and U between objective glass and staff.

Dud

s  f  d
f
D
i

D  MS  C

 Formula D  MS C is known as distance formula and is used in stadia measurement

when the line of sight is horizontal and the staff held normal to the line of sight.
 The quantities   i  and  f  d  are the constant of the instruments.
 Constant   i  is called the multiplier constant and has been abbreviated M  100 .
 Constant  f  d  is called the additive constant and is denoted by letter C .
 The value of C varies from 30 to 60cm in case of an external focussing telescope and
8  20cm in case of internal focussing telescope.

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2. EXTERNAL METHODS

V U B

a a1 staff

C P F

C
O

d f

Vertical axis A

C D-C

 F is the external principal focus

 Rays aA and bB pass through O and remain undeviated

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  Rays bB and Aa1 passing through the exterior or the principal focus F become parallel
to optical axis.
 From similar triangles AFB and a1Fb1

FC OF OF f
  
AB a1b1 ab i

f f
 FC  D  C  AB  S
i i

D f S C
i

D  MS  C

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CONTOUR MAPS

Slopes

Defination; A slope is the rise or fall of the land surface. It is important for the
farmer or irrigator to identify the slopes on the land.

A slope is easy to recognize in a hilly area. Start climbing from the foot of a hill
toward the top, this is called a rising slope (see Fig. 1, black arrow). Go downhill,
this is a falling slope (see Fig. 1, white arrow).

Fig. 1. A rising and a falling slope

Flat areas are never strictly horizontal; there are gentle slopes in a seemingly flat
area, but they are often hardly noticeable to the naked eye. An accurate survey of
the land is necessary to identify these so called "flat slopes".

Method of expressing slopes

The slope of a field is expressed as a ratio. It is the vertical distance, or difference

in height, between two points in a field, divided by the horizontal distance
between these two points. The formula is:

An example is given in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. The dimensions of a slope

The slope can also be expressed in percent; the formula used is then:

Using the same measurements shown in Fig. 2:

Finally, the slope can be expressed in per mil; the formula used is then:

With the figures from the same example:

NOTE:

Slope in ‰ = slope in % x 10

QUESTION

`
What is the slope in percent and in per mil of a field with a horizontal length of
200 m and a height difference of 1.5 m between the top and the bottom?

ANSWER

Field slope in ‰ = field slope in % x 10 = 0.75 x 10 = 7.5‰

QUESTION

What is the difference in height between the top and the bottom of a field when
the horizontal length of the field is 300 m and the slope is 2‰.

ANSWER

thus: height difference (m) = 0.002 x 300 m = 0.6 m.

The following table shows a range of slopes commonly referred to in irrigated

fields.

Slope % ‰
Horizontal 0 - 0.2 0-2
Very flat 0.2 - 0.5 2-5
Flat 0.5 - 1 5 - 10
Moderate 1 - 2.5 10 - 25
Steep more than 2.5 more than 25

Fig. 3a. A steep slope

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Fig. 3b. A flat slope

Cross slopes

Place a book on a table and lift one side of it 4 centimetres from the table (Fig.
4a). Now, tilt the book sideways (6 cm) so that only one corner of it touches the
table (Fig. 4b).

Fig. 4a. Main slope

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Fig. 4b. Main slope and cross slope

The thick arrow indicates the direction of what can be called the main slope; the
thin arrow indicates the direction of the cross slope, the latter crosses the
direction of the main slope.

An illustration of the main slope and the cross slope of an irrigated field is shown
in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. The main slope and cross slope of an irrigated field

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Elevation of a point

In figure 6, point A is at the top of a concrete bridge. Any other point in the
surrounding area is higher or lower than A, and the vertical distance between the
two can be determined. For example, B is higher than A, and the vertical distance
between A and B is 2 m. Point C, is lower than A and the vertical distance between
A and C is 1 m. If point A is chosen as a reference point or datum, the elevation of
any other point in the field can be defined as the vertical distance between this
point and A.

Fig. 6. Reference point or datum "A"

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Thus, the height or elevation of B, in relation to the datum A, is 2 m and the
elevation of C, also related to the datum A, is 1 m.

As a reminder that a point is above or below the datum, its elevation is prefixed by
the sign + (plus) if it is above the datum, or - (minus) if it is below the datum.

Therefore, in relation to the datum A, the elevation of B is +2 m and the elevation

of C is -1 m.

Bench mark and mean sea level

A bench mark is a permanent mark established in a field to use as a reference

point. A bench mark can be a concrete base in which an iron bar is fixed,
indicating the exact place of the reference point.

A bench mark can also be a permanent object on the farm, such as the top of a
concrete structure.

In most countries the topographical departments have established a national

network of bench marks with officially registered elevations. All bench mark
heights are given in relationship to the one national datum plane which in general
is the mean sea level (MSL) (see Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. A bench mark (B.M.) and mean sea level (M.S.L.)

EXAMPLE

In Figure 7, the elevation of point A in relation to the bench mark (BM) is 5 metres.
The BM elevation relative to the mean sea level (MSL) is 10 m. Thus, the elevation

`
of point A relative to the MSL is 5 m + 10 m = 15 m and is called the reduced level
(RL) of A.

QUESTION

What is the reduced level of point B in Figure 7.

ANSWER

The elevation of B relative to BM = 3 m

The elevation of BM relative to MSL = 10 m

Thus, the reduced level of B = 3 m + 10 m = 13 m

QUESTION

What is the difference in elevation between A and B? What does it represent?

ANSWER

The difference in elevation between A and B is the reduced level of A minus the
reduced level of B = 15 m - 13 m = 2 m, which represents the vertical distance
between A and B.

Contour lines

A contour line is the imaginary horizontal line that connects all points in a field
which have the same elevation. A contour line is imaginary but can be visualized
by taking the example of a lake.

Contour line - A line on a map joining points of equal elevation above a given
level, usually mean sea level.

Contour interval - Change in elevation between one contour line and the next.

What are the Characteristics of Contours?

Contours show distinct characteristic features of the terrain as follows:

i) All points on a contour line are of the same elevation.

ii) No two contour lines can meet or cross each other except in the rare case
of an overhanging vertical cliff or wall
iii) Closely spaced contour lines indicate steep slope

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 iv) Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle slope

v) Equally spaced contour lines indicate uniform slope

vi) Closed contour lines with higher elevation towards the centre indicate
hills

vii) Closed contour lines with reducing levels towards the centre indicate
pond or other depression.

viii) Contour lines of ridge show higher elevation within the loop of the
contours. Contour lines cross ridge at right angles.

ix) Contour lines of valley show reducing elevation within the loop of the
contours. Contour lines cross valley at right angles.

x) All contour lines must close either within the map boundary or outside.

The water level of a lake may move up and down, but the water surface always
remains horizontal. The level of the water on the shore line of the lake makes a
contour line because it reaches points which are all at the same elevation (Fig.
8a).

Fig. 8a. The shore line of the lake forms a contour line

Suppose the water level of the lake rises 50 cm above its original level. The
contour line, formed by the shore line, changes and takes a new shape, now
joining all the points 50 cm higher than the original lake level (Fig. 8b).

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Fig. 8b. When the water level rises, a new contour line is formed

Contour lines are useful means to illustrate the topography of a field on a flat
map; the height of each contour line is indicated on the map so that the hills or
depressions can be identified.

Maps

Fig. 9 represents a three-dimensional view of a field with its hills, valleys and
depressions; the contour lines have also been indicated.

Fig. 9. A three-dimensional view

Such a representation gives a very good idea of what the field looks like in reality.
Unfortunately, it requires much skill to draw and is almost useless for the
designing of roads, irrigation and drainage infrastructures. A much more accurate
and convenient representation of the field, on which all data referring to

`
topography can be plotted, is a map (Fig. 10). The map is what you see when
looking at the three-dimensional view (Fig. 9) from the top.

Interpretation of contour lines on a map

The arrangement of the contour lines on a map gives a direct indication of the
changes in the field's topography (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. A two-dimensional view or map

In hilly areas, the contour lines are close together while they are wider apart on
flat slopes. The closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope. The wider the
contour lines, the flatter the slopes.

On a hill, the contour lines form circles; whereby the values of their elevation
increase from the edge to the centre.

`
In a depression, the contour lines also form circles; the values of their elevation,
however, decrease from the edge to the centre.

Mistakes in the contour lines

Contour lines of different heights can never cross each other. Crossing countour
lines would mean that the intersection point has two different elevations, which is
impossible (see Fig. 11).

Figure. 11. WRONG; crossing contour lines

A contour line is continuous; there can never be an isolated piece of contour line
somewhere on the map, as shown in Figure 12.

Figure.12. WRONG; an isolated piece of contour line

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Scale of a map

To be complete and really useful, a map must have a defined scale. The scale is
the ratio of the distance between two points on a map and their real distance on
the field. A scale of 1 in 5000 (1:5000) means that 1 cm measured on the map
corresponds to 5000 cm (or converted into metres, 50 m) on the field.

QUESTION

What is the real distance between points A and B on the field when these two
points are 3.5 cm apart on a map whose scale is 1 to 2 500? (see Fig. 13)

Fig. 13. Measuring the distance between A and B

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ANSWER

The scale is 1:2 500, which means that 1 cm on the map represents 2 500 cm in
reality. Thus, 3.5 cm between A and B on the map corresponds to 3.5 x 2 500 cm =
8 750 cm or 87.5 m on the field.