Critical, normal boiling, and triple point temperatures of cryogenic fluids

Characteristics of a cryogenic fluid

1. Critical, normal boiling, and triple point

temperatures of cryogenic fluids
2. Vapor pressure of liquids
3. Liquid Helium
4. Superfluids Note log temperature scale

1 atm

Normal Boiling Temp

Figure adapted from Cryogenic Engineering by Thomas M. Flynn, Dekker:NY (1997), p. 80

Vapor pressure of liquids Helium

• Spherical shape
• Two isotropic forms: 3He and 4He
• Low mass
• Van der Waals forces  low critical
and boiling points
• Remains a liquid even at absolute zero
(unless external pressure is applied)

Figure adapted from Cryogenic Engineering by Thomas M. Flynn, Dekker:NY (1997), p. 81

Name that man 1882-Helium liquefied at Leiden University

In whose laboratory was helium first

liquefied? H. Kamerlingh Onnes was
one of the first professors in
experimental physics at
A. Sir James Dewar Leiden University. His lab first
B. Cailletet to liquefy helium (1908), for
C. Wroblewski which he was awarded the
D. Onnes Nobel prize in 1913, and he
E. Van der Waals discovered superconductivity
in 1911. He liquefied
hydrogen to pre-cool the
helium gas in his liquefier.

1
 Spelling Bee • In 1882, Onnes was
appointed Professor of
How do you spell the word for making a gas Experimental Physics at
Leiden University. In
into a liquid? 1895, he established
Leiden Laboratory
A. liquify • His researches were
B. liquefy mainly based on the
C. liquafy theories of J.D. van der
Waals and H.A. Lorentz
D. liquifi
• Was able to bring the
E. liquiphy temperature of helium
down to 0.9 °K, justifying
the saying that the coldest
spot on earth was situated Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (left)
at Leiden. and Van der Waals in Leiden
at the helium 'liquefactor' (1908)

Who would have ever thought… Why Not A Solid?

• Zero-Point Energy
• E = (3h^2)/(8mV^(2/3)) energy of a free
particle in a small box
• E decreases as V increases  the effect of
the Zero-Point is to raise molar volume
• Kinetic energy exceeds the interaction
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes potential energy
His stamp, and (right) showing his helium liquefier to some
casual passers-by: Niels Bohr (visiting from Kopenhagen),
Hendrik Lorentz, and Paul Ehrenfest (far left).

Superconductivity-1911 Regular substance Phase Diagrams

Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes discovered
4He
superconductivity, the
total lack of electrical
resistance in certain
materials when cooled
to a temperature near
absolute zero.
3He

2
 Why so low? Helium-4 Phase Diagram
Superfluidity occurs in 4He at about 4.2 K but only • At 2.17K 4He
below about 0.002 K in 3He. Why? undergoes a
transition to the
A. 3He is rarer than 4He in nature superfluid state
• The lambda line
B. 3He is always in smaller containers than is 4He separates He I and
C. 3He has different chemical properties than 4He He II
D. 4He superfluidity is an electronic process while • 3He does not become
3He superfluidity is a nuclear process a superfluid until
3
E. He superfluidity is an electronic process while below 2mK
4He superfluidity is a nuclear process

Do superfluids mix? Helium Mixtures

There are two isotopes of helium--under
what circumstances do their liquid states
mix?

A. They do not mix-it would violate

thermodynamics to have a mixture at
absolute zero.
B. They only mix when at absolute zero
C. 3He can mix in 4He but not the other way
around at absolute zero

1931: Keesom discovered lambda-specific heats in Superfluidity in Helium 4 in 1938

helium at Leiden Science 24 • Superfluidity is a dramatic
October 1997: visible manifestation of
Allen and Misener and Vol. 278. no. quantum mechanics, being the
5338, pp. 664 -
Kapitza (1939) 666
result of Bose–Einstein
Density condensation in which a
macroscopic number of 4He
4He atoms occupy the same, single-
(Boson)
particle quantum state. It was
discovered simultaneously by
He I Fig. 2. (A through C) Microscope Figure 3. Microscope
Kapitza, Allen and Misener
He II
images showing an edge-on view of image of a superfluid drop working separately, though
superfluid drops on a horizontal Cs on a Cs substrate inclined at
substrate. The dark bar in the upper 10° to the horizontal. A
only Kapitza received the
half of the image is the capillary drop hanging off of the Nobel prize. It is also amusing
tube. The pictures show the outline capillary is also seen in the
Heat of the drop as well as its mirror upper right. The drop on the to note that Allen was a
Capacity
image in the reflective substrate. As inclined substrate is “classical physicist” at heart,
the volume of the drop increased stationary. The downhill
from (A) to (B), the contact angle edge of the drop has the who didn’t much care for the
T=2.17K
remained constant. When fluid was same contact angle as subatomic world. He
withdraw as in (C), the contact angle shown in Fig. 2B, whereas
decreased but . the uphill edge has a discovered superfluidity with a
Temperature [Frank Pobell, 1992] the diameter remained constant vanishing contact angle. pen light.

3
 Superfluidity of the Quantum Fluid, 4He The Fountain Effect-1938
Thermal de Broglie wavelength of 4He at
2K:
Superfluids • In February 1938 J.F. Allen
and H. Jones had found that
when they heated superfluid
h helium on one side of a porous
T   8.9Å
The viscosity of liquid
medium or a thin capillary, the
3mkT helium 4 vanishes below
pressure increased sufficiently
 mean interparticle distance to produce a fountain effect at
2.17 K
of 4He  3.6 Å the end of the tube which
Breaker experiment: The thermal conductivity contained the liquid. The
becomes very large “fountain effect” was a
spectacular phenomenon that
A spectacular thermo- was impossible to understand
mechanical effect: the within classical
"fountain effect" thermodynamics.

[Frank Pobell, 1992]

Two Fluid Model– Landau in 1941 Quantization of Superfluid Circulation

(oscillating disc viscometer)
Two Fluid model density viscosity entropy Quantization of superfluid circulation:
Viscosity
(P) Two Super- s s =0 Ss =0
fluids fluid
  nh
  s  d   9.97104 n cm2 / s
4He

normal n = n Sn=SHe m
fluid

[W.H. Keesom, 1938]

Two-fluid equations for He II: (postulated separately by Onsager and Feynman)
The angular velocity  is
  
Fluid density      0 (mass conservation) (a) 0.30 /s, (b) 0.30 /s, All superfluid vortex lines align along
t
(c) 0.40 /s, (d) 0.37 /s, the rotation axis with ordered array of
=n +s  0.14g/cm3 s  
   s n  0 (entropy conservation) (e) 0.45 /s, (f) 0.47 /s, areal density= length of quantized
 t vortex line per unit volume=
  (g) 0.47 /s, (h) 0.45 /s, 
s Ds s  s     2

  s
  ( s  ) s   (i) 0.86 /s, (j) 0.55 /s,   2000 lines/cm2
56 %  Dt t  
(k) 0.58 /s, (l) 0.59 /s.
J i Pi 1. Circulation round any circular path of radius r concentric
  0 (momentum conservation)
t r with the axis of rotation=2r2 
n
stress tensor Pij  p ij   n n ,i n, j   s s ,i s , j [Yarmchuk, 1979] 2. Total circulation=r2n0h/m (n0: # of lines per unit area)
T (K)    
total mass flow J     n n   s s 3. n0=2  m/h=2 /
0 2.0 T [S.J. Putterman, 1974]

Properties of Superfluids
Rotating bucket of Superfluid
• All of their atoms are in the same quantum state
 they have identical momentum; if one
moves, they all move
• Ordinary Sound
• Second Sound (Temperature/Entropy Waves)
• Third Sound (Surface Waves)
• Fourth Sound

4
 Second sound is a-- 1962 Nobel – Lev Landau

A. Echo of regular sound

B. Pressure/Density wave • Constructed the
C. Sound on the surface of liquid helium complete theory of
D. Temperature/Entropy wave quantum liquids at
very low temperatures
E. Sound in a pure superfluid where there is
• He developed theories
no normal fluid motion
on both the Bose and
Fermi type liquids

http://www.nobel.se/physics/laurea
tes/1962/index.html

Discovery of superfluidity in helium-3

1971 – Superfluidity discovered in 3He (US) Douglas D. Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson (US)

- Super fluidity was first discovered in helium-3 by American physicists In a cryostat, figure 1, a container of 3He was cooled to about 2mK. While the 3He was
David M. Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff, and Robert C. Richardson. It being slowly compressed at a constant rate, the inner pressure was measured and when
occurs at temperatures a few thousandths of a degree above absolute 3.4 MPa was reached, the helium was allowed to expand. As the volume decreased
zero and is distinguished by either an A phase or a higher-pressure, and then increased, small changes in the slope of the pressure curve were observed, and
lower-temperature B phase. Helium-3 is anisotropic, which means it
displays different properties when measured in different directions, and also small kinks. These observations were the first evidences of transitions to
as such, its study has become valuable to scientists in the fields of big- superfluid phases in 3He. Two superfluid phases were discovered,
bang theory and superconductivity. “A” and “B”, figure 2.
Figure 2.
Pressure inside a sample containing a mixture
of liquid 3He and solid 3He ice.

David M. Lee Douglas D. Osheroff Robert C. Richardson

Cornell University Stanford University Cornell University Figure 1.
Ithaca, NY, USA Stanford, CA, USA Ithaca, NY, USA Schematic diagram of the
Pomeranchuck cell used in the
discovery.
MN-09/09/03
Pictures taken from:http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1996/osheroff-lecture.pdf

Ways to the Superfluid State Microscopic Picture of Superconductivity

• 4He (even number of elementary particles
(6) each with intrinsic angular momentum
½  integral angular momentum: BOSON;
Bose Statistics
• 3He (odd number of elementary particles
(5)  half-integral spin: FERMION; Fermi
Statistics

S = 1, L= 1 S = 0, L= 0 S = 0, L= 0
Hard core interaction No pairs required

5
 Helium 3
Length Scales in Superfluid 3He

Superconductivity-How do electrons attract? Cooper Pairs

A passing electron attracts Another electron traveling
by is attracted to the • The “ripple” propagates as a wave down the lattice
the lattice and causes a
small ripple in its path slightly positively charged through which momentum can be carried
ripple • A phonon has been emitted
• The second electron is attracted to this momentum
• The electron absorbs the phonon
• The electrons have interacted through the exchange of a
phonon
• “Its like the following electron surfs on the virtual
Cooper Pair lattice wake of the leading electron.” Stephen Godfrey
• Result is a boson!
Different view of lattice
www.physics.carleton.ca/courses/ 75.364/mp-2html/node16.html
Pictures From
http://sina.sharif.edu/~varahram/hts-course/coop.htm

Cooper Pairs Properties of Cooper Pairs

• Weakly Bound Which of the following is true for Cooper pairs?

• Continuously breaking up and reforming
• Large in size-- ~100 nm or more A. All Cooper pairs have total spin S = 0
B. All Cooper pairs are the same size
• Degenerate Energies
C. If the particles making up the Cooper pair have a
• Must have anti-parallel spins S = 0 if electrons hard core interaction, then total orbital angular
• Must have parallel spins S = 1 if 3He momentum of the pair L = 0
• Linear momentum must be equal in magnitude but opposite D. If the particles making up the Cooper pair have spin
in direction 1/2, then total spin angular momentum of the pair
S=0
E. 3He Cooper pairs have S = 1 and L = 1
Picture Adapted From http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu