(https://chemistryadda.com/home.

php)


 Periodic table
By: Er Mohit Dalal
B.tech: IIT, Dhanbad


(This page was left empty intentionally)


3


(This page was left empty intentionally)


IA H Li Na K Rb Cs Fr

हे ल  के  से यद

IIA Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra

ेट मगे क कूट प 

IIIA B Al Ga In Tl

ग आलू ग इ थैल

IVA C Si Ge Sn Pb

कह सत  सुो भु

कौ स गत स
ु े भ

VA N P As Sb Bi

 पटे क ऐवय स के

यूज़ पेप आ स के
य पड़ोस आे से स गड़े

VIA O S Se Te Po

औ सचि सहवग त दल
ु क पोल

VIIA F Cl Br I At

 कल ह आय आम

VIIIA He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn

ह  औ कैट क Xray  ग

IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIII IB IIB

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Science टि very cruel मगे स य ह कु कुये दग
सचि त दल
ु क very crazy man  कोई य centuary े

Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd

य  भ मौत तक ोते ोते पढ़ आगे कूद


(This page was left empty intentionally)


 Periodic properties of elements

Properties of elements can be divided into two categories –

(1) Properties of individual atom: Properties like valance, atomic or ionic radius, ionisation
enthalpy, electron–gain enthalpy, electronegativity etc. are the properties of individual atom
and are directly related to their electronic configuration

(2) Properties of group of atoms: Properties like melting point boiling point heat of fusion and
vaporisation, density etc are the bulk properties or the properties of group of atoms.

Periodic properties: In periodic table elements are arranged in their electronic configuration,
so the properties which are directly or indirectly related to their electronic configuration and
which show a regular pattern when we move from left to right in a period and from top to
bottom in a group are called Periodic properties.


(1) Atomic radius: If an atom is considered as a sphere then “The distance from the centre of the
nucleus to the outermost shell containing electron” called atomic radius.

Difficulty in determining in atomic radius –

(1) The size of an atom cannot be determined precisely since the electron cloud surrounding
the atom does not have a sharp boundary. Because probability of finding an electron does
not becomes zero even at large distance.

(2) It is not possible to isolate a single atom for purpose of determining of its radius.

Type of atom radius: Despite the above limitation we can find atomic radius by following
approaches.

(a) Covalent radius

(b) Metallic radius
(c) Vander Waal radius
(a) Covalent radius: It is defined as one half of the distance between the nuclei of two
covalently bonded same atoms in a molecule.

Ex: H2 molecule

Internuclear distance of atom=74pm

Covalent radius =74/2=37pm

(b) Metallic radius: Metallic radius is defined as one half the internuclear distance between
the two adjacent metal atoms layers in the metallic lattice.

Ex: for Mg the value of ‘d’= 320 pm

320
rmetallic (Mg)   160pm
2

rmetallic  rcov alent


(b) Vander waals radius: It is defined as one half distance between two nuclei of two
identical non bonded isolated atoms.

Ex: For example the internuclear distance between two adjacent neon atom of the two
neighbouring atoms in solid state in 320 pm.

So Vander–wall radius =320/2=160 pm

rvanderwaal's  rmetallic  rcov alent


Variation of atomic radius in periodic table–

(I) Along the period– As we move from left to right in a period, atomic radius decrease.

Period 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
A.r(pm) 152 111 88 77 70 74 72 160
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
(pm) 186 160 143 117 110 104 99 191

Covalent/metallic radius vander waals

radius

Explanation:

Element Na Mg Al Si
Electronic conf. 1s22s22p63s1 1s22s22p63s2 1s22s22p63s2 3p1 1s22s22p63s2 3p2
No of shell 3 3 3 3
Nuclear charge 11 12 13 14
Atomic rad. (pm) 186 160 143 117
Nuclear charge increases so radius decreases
 

Explanation: As the number of shell no are same while nucleus is getting more and more
proton as we move from left to right in a period, so the attraction of nucleus on outermost
electron increases that’s why the atomic radius decreases.

In case of inert gas atomic number is expressed in term of Vander–wall radius since they do
not form covalent bonds.

(II) Along the group: Down the Group number of shell increases so the radius increases.

Atomic radius(pm) No of Atomic radius(pm) No of

Shell Shell
Li 152 2 F 72 2
Na 186 3 Cl 99 3
K 231 4 Br 114 4
Rb 244 5 I 133 5
Cs 265 6 At 140 6

Explanation: as the number of shell increases, the distance of outermost shell increases so
atomic radius increases.

10


(2) Ionic radius: Ionic radius, rion, is the radius of an atom's ion in ionic crystals structure.

Comparison of ionic radius with corresponding atomic radius

(I) The radius of cation is always smaller than that of its parent atom.

Na Na+
Electrons 11 10
Nuclear charge 11 proton 11 proton

Atomic(pm) Ionic (pm)

Li 152 Li+ 76
Na 186 Na+ 102
K 231 K+ 138
Rb 244 Rb+ 152
Cs 265 Cs+ 167

Reason: (I) electron electron repulsion decreases.

(II) If number of shell decreases the radius of cation is smaller than atomic radius

(II) Radius of anion is always larger than that of its parent atom–

Cl Cl
Electrons 17 18
Nuclear charge 17 (+) 17 (+)

Atomic /ionic size (pm) Atomic /ionic size (pm)

F 72 F 133
Cl 99 Cl  181
Br 114 Br  196
I 133 I 220

Reason: (I) electron electron repulsion increases.

Note: (I) rM  rM  rM2

(II) rM  rM  rM2

(III) for isoelectronic species rMg2  rNa   rF  rO2

(IV) rF  rCl  rBr   rH  rI

(V) rMg2 (66 pm)  rLi (76 pm)  rNa  (102 pm)

(V) rBa2  rK 
11


(3) Effective nuclear charge, screening effect

In a multielectron atom the electrons of the valency shell (outermost shell) are attracted
toward the nucleus due to positive charge in nucleus but also those electrons are repelled by
electrons present in the inner shells. On account of later, actual force of attraction decreases.

The decrease in the force of attraction due to repulsion of inner e– is called screening or
shielding effect.

Effective nuclear charge= actual nuclear charge — shielding effect

Z*  Z  

The order of shielding effect is:-

s-orbital > p-orbital > d-orbital > f-orbital

12


(4) Ionisation energy: Ionisation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove
the most loosely bounded electron from an isolated gaseous atom as so to convert it into a
gaseous cation is called its ionisation energy (or ionisation enthalpy or ionisation potential).

 M  e 
M(g)  energy 
 M  e 
M  ; Hi

Successive ionisation enthalpies:


M(g) 
 M(g)  e Hi(1)

M(g)  M2  e Hi(2)

M2 
 M3  e Hi(3)
Hi(3)  Hi(2)  Hi(1)

I.E(joule)
IE(eV) 
(1.6  1019 )

Explation: when 1 e  has been removed from the neutral gaseous atom, a positively charged
ion formed and radius is decreased. As a result electrostatic attraction between nucleus and
remaining e  increase so the nucleus of +ve ion holds its remaining electron more firmly. So
Hi(2) is greater than Hi(1) .

Factors affecting ionization energy–

(I) Number of shell: (Along the group from top to bottom)

no of shell  atomic radius  distanceofe  from nucleus  so ionisation 

(II) Nuclear charge: Along the period from left to right

Nuclear charge  IE 

(III) Stability of half-filled and fully filled orbital

Half-filled orbitols=(p3,d5,f7 )

Or fully filled orbital=(s2,p6,d10,f14)

Have greater stability than other.

Stability of fully filled orbital> half-filled orbital.

(IV) Penetration effect of electron: with in the same shell more closely the orbital harder
to extract e 

Order is s  p  d  f

13


 Variation along Period

Perios -2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Hi(1) (KJ/mole) 520 899 801 1086 1402 1314 1681 2080

Variation along group

Atomic no  size  Ionisation energy 

Li 520
Na 496
K 419
Rb 403
Cs 374

Q: Arrange the following in increasing IE. Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar

Sol=Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl < Ar

Q: the first five ionisation potential of an element are 9.1, 16.2, 24.5, 35 and 205.7 eV
respectively. What is the number of valence electron in the atom?

Ans – (4)

Q: Arrange the following ionisation energy in the increasing order.

Hi(1)Na Hi(2)Na Hi(3)Na

(I) (II) (III)
 Hi(1) Mg  Hi(2) Mg  Hi(3) Mg
(IV) (V) (VI)

Sol: (I)<(IV)<(V)<(II)<(III)<(VI)

As the data says

Hi(1)(KJ/ mol) Hi(2)(KJ/ mol)

Na 496 4562
Mg 737 1450

Q: The increasing order of the IE1 of B, P, S and F would be

Ans : B < S < P < F

14


(5) Electron gain enthalpy or Electron Affinity: Electron gain enthalpy HE.G or electron
affinity of an element is defined as the energy released or spent when an electron is added to
a neutral atom in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.

Process is represented as:

X(g)  e  
 X(g) HE.G (1)  ve or  ve

Successive electron gain enthalpies:

 2
X(g)  e 
 X(g) HE.G (2)   ve

2 3
X(g)  e 
 X(g) HE.G (3)   ve

First electron gainenthalpy:

 
O(g)  e(g)  O(g)
 Heg  141KJ / mole
second electron gainenthalpy :
 2
O(9)  e 
 O(g) Heg  780KJ / mole
similarly
S(g)  e 
 S  200KJ / mole
 2
S(g)  e 
 S(g)  590KJ / mole

Q. Why the 2nd and heigher electron gain enthalpies are endothermic?

Ans: After the addition of one electron to atom, it becomes negatively charged ion and now second
electron is to be added to a negatively charged ion.

So the addition of second electron is opposed by electrostatic repulsion and hence the energy
has to be supplied for addition of second electron. That’s why the 2nd and the other
successive electron gain enthalpies are endothermic in nature.

Q. Why the electron gain enthalpies of 3rd period elements are larger than 2nd period
elements?

VI A VI A
O (–141 KJ / mol ) F (–328 KJ / mol )
S (–200 KJ / mol ) Cl (–349 KJ / mol )
Se (–195 KJ / mol ) Br (–325 KJ / mol )

(I) This is because Oxygen atom is smaller in size than Sulphur atom.

(II) This is because Fluorine atom is smaller in size than Chlorine atom.
15


The negative electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less than that of chlorine. It is due to small
size of fluorine atom. As a result, there are strong inter electronic repulsions in the relatively
small 2p orbitals of fluorine and thus, the incoming electron does not experience much
attraction.

For group VII A:

Cl(328 KJ / mol)  F(349 KJ / mol)  Br( 325 KJ / mol)  I( 295 KJ / mol)

16


Variation in the periodic table:

Left to right in period electron affinity 

 
Down the group
electron affinity

Period-2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
HE.G (1) (KJ/mol) –59 +66 –26 –121 +31 –141 –328 +116

Period-3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
HE.G (1) (KJ/mol) –52 +67 –41 –134 –72 –200 –348 +96

Along the group:

HE.G (1) (KJ/mol)

Li –59
Na –52
K –48
Rb –47
Cs –45

Difference between electron gain enthalpy & electron affinity.

Electron affinity is defined at absolute zero temp. At this temp E.A and electron gain enthalpy
are equal but at any other temp.

5
Heg   Ae  RT
2

So there is a difference of 5/2RT.

As value of 5/2RT at 298 K is small so it is generally neglected.

Q: which of the following species is most unstable.

(A) Li (B) N  (c) C (D) O

Ans : N ,as no metastable state for N exist so N is most unstable.

17


Q: Which of the following gas phase reaction would proceed spontaneously.

(A) Kr  He 
 Kr   He
(B) Si Cl  
 Si  Cl
(C) Cl  I 
 I  Cl
(D) O S 
 S  O

Ans =A, B

18


(6) Electronegativity: Electronegativity of an element is the tendency of an atom to attract the
shared pair of electrons toward itself in a covalent bond. It is represented by symbol  (kii) .

It is differ from IE and EGE etc in the sense that in IE and EGE the atom in isolated state is
considered while in electro negativity property of an atom in bonded state is considered.

The electronegativity of an element is not constant but depends upon the following factors:

(I) State of hybridization: electronegativity of an atom varies as

sp  sp2  sp3

More the s character more tendency to attract e  as s orbital is nearer to the nucleas.

(II) Oxidation state of element: as the O.S of element increase Electro negativity increase.

Fe  Fe2  Fe3

(III) Nature of substituent’s attached to the atom:

(C inF3C I)  (C inH3C I)

Trend in group & period=

electronegativity  
left to right in period


Electronegativities based on Pauling scale

Left to right in period electronegativity 

 
Down the group
electronegativity

19


Along the period:

Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Along the group:

N 3.0 O 3.5
P 2.1 S 2.5
As 2.0 Se 2.4
Sb 1.9 Te 2.01
Bi 1.9 Po 1.76

Trend of electronegativity:

F  O  Cl  N  Br  I S  C  H

20


(7) Lanthanide contraction:

1
2 B
80
3 Al
126
4 Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga
144 132 122 117 117 117 116 115 117 125 125
5 Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In
162 145 134 129 127 124 125 128 134 141 150

6 La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl
169 144 134 130 128 126 126 129 134 144 155

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
165 164 164 164 166 185 161 159 159 158 157 156 170 156
Lanthanide series

Lanthanide contraction is the steady decrease in the atomic radius of lanthanides series
(from cerium (Z=58) to lutetium (Z= 71)). For each consecutive atom in lanthanide the
nuclear charge is more positive by one unit, but 4f electrons imperfectly shield the positive
charge of the nucleus, so that the effective nuclear charge steadily increases, resulting in
successive reductions of the atomic radii.

Result of Lanthanide contraction:

1. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have almost identical atomic radius
as the elements immediately above them. Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic
radius as zirconium, and tantalum have same atomic radius as niobium, and so on.

2. The second and third rows of d-block transition elements are quite close in chemical
properties. Consequently, these elements occur together in natural minerals and are
difficult to separate.

d contraction: rB  rGa  rAl  rIn  rTl

21


Inert pair effect:

The inert pair effect is the tendency of the two electrons in the outermost
ns atomic orbital to remain unionized or unshared in compounds of post-transition
metals.

Inert pair effect is responsible for the increasing stability of oxidation states that are two
less than the group oxidation state for the heavier elements of
groups IIIA, IVA, VA and VIA.

As an example in group 13 the +1 oxidation state of Tl (Thallium) is the most stable and
TlIII compounds are comparatively rare. The stability of the +1 and +3 oxidation state
increases in the following sequence:

AlIII  GaIII  InIII  TlIII while AlI  GaI  InI  TlI

The same trend in stability is noted in groups 14, 15 and 16. As such the heaviest
members of the groups, e.g. lead, bismuth and polonium are comparatively stable in
oxidation states +2, +3, and +4 respectively.
Note: Tl is thallium
12J

C: C:
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p

X 10J C 10J X X
10J
Total energy released:20J X 10J C 10J X
10J
X
Total energy released:40-12=28J

12J

Pb: Pb:
6s 6p 6s 6p

X 5J Pb 5J X X
5J
Total energy released:10J X 5J Pb 5J X
5J
X
Total energy released:20-12=8J

22


Miscellaneous Chemical Properties:

1. Periodicity of oxy acids:

(a) Acidic character of oxy acid increases from left to right in a period.
H2CO3  HNO3  H2SO4  HClO4

(b) Acidic character of oxy acid decreases from top to bottom in a group.
HNO3  H3PO3

2. Periodicity of nature of oxide:

(a) On moving from left to right in a period, acidic nature of oxide generally increases.
e.g. CO2  P2O3  SO2  ClO2
(b) On moving from top to bottom in a group, acidic nature of oxide generally decreases.
NO2> P2O3  As2O3
3. Periodicity of nature of hydroxide:
(a) On moving from left to right in a period, basic nature of hydroxide generally
decreases.
e.g. KOH  Ca(OH)2  Fe(OH)2  Zn(OH)2
(b) On moving from top to bottom in a group, basic nature of hydroxide generally
decreases.
LiOH  NaOH  KOH  RbOH

4. Solubility of salt in water:

(a) Hydration energy decreases along a group.
(b) Lattice energy decreases along a group.

Trends In Physical Properties:

Physical properties are mostly dependent on. Atomic weight and so not regular trend.
Mark out exception in the graph and think out of the reasons?

23


Some Commonly Used Terms:

1. Noble Gases: Element of group 18 are called noble gases. These are also called as inert
gases because their outermost ns and np orbitals are completely filled (except He and 1s2
) and these gaseous are non-reactive in nature under ordinary conditions.

2. Representative elements: All the s and p block elements are known as representative
elements except zero group.

3. Transition elements: All the d-block elements (except IIB group) are called transition
element. It comprises into 4th , 5th , 6th and 7th period. They lie between s and p block
elements.

4. Inner transition elements: All the f-block elements or 4f and 5f block elements are
called inner transition element. Total number of these elements is 28. They lie in IIIB and
placed at the bottom of periodic table.

5. Typical elements: Elements of second and third period are known as typical elements.

6. Diagonal relationship: Properties of elements of second period resemble with the

element of third period. These resembled properties between two periods or this type of
relation between two periods are called diagonal relationship.

(i) Resemblance between Li and Mg :

(a) Unlike the other members of the group, lithium reacts with N2 to form a nitride in the
same way as magnesium does.
(b) Lithium hydroxide, carbonate and nitrate decomposes on heating to give Li2O as like Mg
but other alkali hydroxides and carbonates are unchanged on heating whereas the nitrate
decompose to give nitrite.

(c) Lithium hydroxide carbonate and fluoride are much soluble than the corresponding sodium
or potassium compounds. The solubilities are comparable to those of corresponding
magnesium compound.

24


ii) Resemblance between Be and Al:

(a) The ionic radius of Be2 is nearly same as that for the Al3
(b) Like aluminium, beryllium is not readily attacked by acids because of the pressure of an
oxide film.
2–
(c) Beryllium dissolved in alkali to give the beryllate ion B (OH)4  just as aluminium does
3
to give [Al(OH)6 ] .
(d) The oxides BeO and Al2O3 are hard high melting insoluble solids. The oxides as well as
their hydroxides amphoteric and dissolve in sodium hydroxide solution.
(e) Beryllium and aluminium from fluoro complex anion, BeF42 and AlF63 in solution, the
other group II metals do not form stable fluoro complexes in solution.
(f) Beryllium chloride BeCl2 is essentially covalent and has a bridged polymeric structure
just as aluminium trichloride is covalent forming a bridged dimer, Al2Cl6 . Both the
chlorides are soluble in organic solvent and are strong Lewis acid.

(iii) Resemblance between B and Si :

(a) Boron and silicon form numerous hydride which spontaneously catch fire on exposure to
air and are easily hydrolysed.
(b) Boron halide like silicon halides hydrolysed by water. Aluminium halides are only
partially hydrolysed by water.
(c) Boron forms binary compounds with several metals known as borides just as silicon
forms metal silicides some of the borides and silicides undergo hydrolysis to yield boron
and silicon respectively.
(d) B2O3 and SiO2 are acidic in nature, Borates and silicates have tetrahedral BO4 and SiO4
structural units respectively. Boro silicates are known in which form can replace silicon
in three dimensional lattice. However boron can also form planer BO3 unit.
(e) Both B and Al are semiconductors.

25


 () () () () ()

Contact Us: [email protected] (mailto:[email protected])