Rethinking Our Sister Planet:

A Handbook For The Development Of Venus

First Edition

KAREN R PEASE
Venus Labs

2017 Venus Labs

55 Beatrice Street
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
M6J 2T2
[email protected] / 1-647-771-3742
Table of Contents
1. The Case for Venus 8
2. Getting There and Back 16
Transfer to and from Venus 17
Airdocks 19
Propellant options 21
Staging options 26
Scaling 33
Improving the situation 35
Analysis 35
3. Deployment: Where and How 37
Entry and deployment 41
Docking, ascent and descent 44
Advanced Concepts 49
Airbreathing engines 49
Air augmentation 49
Nuclear thermal 49
Kinetic suspended structures 51
Buoyancy control 52
Climate control 55
4. Design 61
Structural integrity 62
Components 65
Fairing limitations 68
Lightning 71
Movement around the habitat 72
Habitat propulsion 73
Control 80
Power considerations 81
Wind power 81
Solar power 83
5. Chemical Environment and Resource Considerations 87
Middle cloud species of interest 91
Deuterium and power storage issues 95
In-Situ Resource Utilization 103
Atmospheric scrubbing 104
Can wet scrubbing be utilized? 109
Improving the process 111
Scrubber-free scrubbing? 116
Collection rates 117
Boiling and distillation 123
Basic industrial feedstocks 129
Sulfuric acid and hydrogen 129
Halides, hydrogen halides, and hydrohalic acids 129
 Ammonia 130
Oxides of nitrogen and nitric acid 130
Carbon monoxide, syngas and oxygen 131
Methane 132
Ethylene 132
Hydrogen cyanide 133
Caustics 133
Secondary feedstocks 133
Cyanogen 134
Higher alkanes 134
Methanol 134
Acetylene 135
Ethylene oxide 135
Trichloromethane 135
Chloroethane feedstocks 136
Tetrachloroethylene 137
Tertiary feedstocks 137
Aromatic hydrocarbons 137
Naphthalene 138
Acetic acid 138
Ethylene glycol 139
Ammoxidation-based feedstocks 139
Chlorofluorocarbon feedstocks 140
Other feedstocks 140
6. Manufacturing 141
Envelope 142
Surface layers / coatings 143
Biaxial reinforcement and barrier layers 146
fibre reinforcement 150
Other polymers of note 155
Layering discussion 156
Permeation calculations 158
UV tolerance improvement 159
Creep improvement 161
Infrared rejection 161
Other additives 162
Ballute considerations 163
Manufacturing - nonrigid components 165
fibre manufacture 165
Film production 166
Spinning and weaving 168
Gore assembly and maintenance 169
Manufacturing - rigid components 170
Extrusion 171
Metalworking 171
Ceramics 174
 Solar cells 175
Wiring 175
General discussion 177
7. Food 178
Nutrition 179
Essential fatty acids 179
Minerals 180
Vitamins 181
Protein 182
Essential amino acids 183
Summary 184
Agriculture 184
Phototropism 187
Photoperiod 187
Plant nutrition 188
Air pressure 189
Transpiration 189
Mushrooms 191
Animal products 192
General philosophical issues 192
Eggs 193
Dairy 196
Meat 202
Aquaculture 203
Apiculture 205
8. Mineral Resources and Economics 208
Surface access 209
Surface resources 213
Gemstones 220
Decorative / collectible stone 221
Agricultural products 223
Indirect export of energy 224
Manufactured isotopes 225
High energy research 226
Computation 226
Electronics 226
Science 227
Services 227
VISA fees 228
Distribution of labour 229
9. Other Considerations 231
Scientific Mission 232
In-transit 238
Entertainment 239
Medicine 240
Radar and communications 248
 Orbital hardware 250
Preliminary steps 251
Studies and prototypes 251
Missions 254
Mass budget 254
10. The Future of Venus 267
Expansion 268
Terraforming 271
Proposals 273
Discussion 275
Glossary 279
Aerial vehicle terminology 279
Rocketry terminology 280
Spacecraft / probes 282
Materials 285
Chemistry / physics 288
Geology 289
Atmosphere and illumination 291
Venus locations 291
 Since the realization that the planētai
our ancestors had watched since time
immemorial were, in fact, entire worlds, people
have speculated about their nature. Venus,
having already been subject to frequent
allusions in prose and poetry as the morning
star and goddess of beauty, was no exception.
In 1761, watching the transit of Venus through
a small refracting telescope, Mikhail Lomonsov
first observed a distortion that he correctly
attributed to an atmosphere.1 Soon, "faint and
changeable spots" quickly became attributed to
cloud features. Morning Star (ca. 1900) by Eugen Bracht.

While occasionally speculated to be a dry and arid expanse, the common consensus
seemed to be that - being entirely shrouded in clouds - Venus must be a wet, lush world,
akin to a primitive Earth. Early science fiction played upon these themes, such as Edgar
Rice Burroughs' Venus Series and C.S. Lewis's Space Trilogy, with characters encountering
vast oceans and swamps inhabited by dinosaurs and other great beasts. In his 1950 short
story "The Long Rain", Ray Bradbury wrote of weather on Venus:

"It as a hard rain, a perpetual rain, a s eatin and steamin rain; it as a

Mizzle, a do npour, a ountain, a hippin in the e es, an underto at the ankles;
it as a rain to dro n all rains and the memor o rains."2

By this time, however, science had begun to diverge from fiction. Repeated attempts
to detect water in Venus's cloudtops had failed. Radio telescopes suggested an
unexpectedly hot surface - so hot, given Venus's albedo, that there was reluctance to accept
the data as a valid surface temperature reading.3 With the landing of the Soviet probe
Venera 7 on the surface, there could no longer be any question: with a surface mean
pressure of 93 bar and a temperature of 467°C, this was a hellish planet.

There would, in short, be no dinosaurs.

1
Shiltsev, V. (2014). The 1761 discovery of Venus's atmosphere: Lomonosov and others . Journal of Astronomical History
and Heritage, 17(1), pp. 85-112
2
Bradbury, R. (1980). The stories of Ray Bradbury . New York: Knopf.
3
Taylor, F. W. (2014). The scientific exploration of Venus . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
 With the surface conditions highly hostile
to life, interest in the settlement of Venus waned
in favor of Earth's much smaller, more distant
neighbor Mars. But it can be argued that Venus is
perhaps an unfortunate victim of happenstance.
Had its atmosphere stopped in its middle cloud
layer, few would be focusing on Mars today. In
this layer, between 51 and 57 km above the
surface, exists generally earthlike air pressures
and temperatures, on a world with earthlike
Artist’s conception of Venus, 1977 (Rick Guidice, gravity.4 The atmosphere overhead, massing
NASA / ARC).
around the same as half a dozen meters of
water, provides sufficient shielding that a solar radiation event of historic scale would not
deliver a life-threatening dose.5 Launch windows to and from Venus are frequent. Wind and
solar energy are almost unfairly abundant. The science benefit of reduced latency for surface
probes on Venus is far greater than on Mars. The scientific unknowns are greater, and with
great implications for the formation of Earthlike
worlds, the fate of Earth's climate, and the
search for habitable exoplanets. Even the sparse
smoggy particulate matter is more of a benefit
than a hindrance - compatible with a significant
range of structural materials, and readily
decomposed with heat to yield oxygen and water
or hydrogen.6 The diversity of in-atmospheric
resources on Venus outshines that of any other
planet in the solar system. While local life has
A sparse fog on Earth, analogous to Venus’s
been argued to be possible,7 reduced risks of
middle cloud layer. Sunlight is diffuse with no distinct sun
contaminating the environment8 makes manned disc, only variations in brightness relative to direction and
and unmanned missions cheaper and simpler. cloud density.

In short, habitats based around airships in this earthlike layer of the atmosphere -
lifted by the very air that people breathe - is a scenario that begs comparison:

4
Pätzold, M., Häusler, B., Bird, M. K., Tellmann, S., Mattei, R., Asmar, S. W., . . . Tyler, G. L. (2007). The structure of Venus
middle atmosphere and ionosphere. Nature, 450(7170), 657-660. doi:10.1038/nature06239
5
Dartnell, L. R., Nordheim, T. A., Patel, M. R., Mason, J. P., Coates, A. J., & Jones, G. H. (2015). Constraints on a potential
aerial biosphere on Venus: I. Cosmic rays . Icarus , 257, 396-405. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.05.006
6
Barbarossa, V., Brutti, S., Diamanti, M., Sau, S., & Demaria, G. (2006) . Catalytic thermal decomposition of sulphuric acid in
sulphur iodine cycle for hydrogen production. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , 31(7), 883-890.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.08.003
7
Landis, G. A. (2003) Astrobiology: The Case for Venus . Journal of the British Interplanetary Society; Volume 56; No. 7/8;
250-254
8
Planetary Targets for All Mission Categories . NASA Office of Planetary Protection. Venus is Category II ( only a remote
chance that contamination carried by a spacecraft could compromise future investigations ), while Mars orbiters are
Category III; Mars landers are Category IV.
 Earth Mars (median / Moon Small solar Venus (54.5km,
(equatorial) Curiosity) (equatorial) system bodies 70° latitude)
Gravity (g) 1 0.38 0.17 Very low 0.9
Air pressure (atm) 1 0.006 0 0 0.5
Day temp. (avg., °C) 25A -40B -25C Usually low 25D
Diurnal variation (°C) 8-15E 90B 300C Very high 15D
Day length (h) 24 24.5 336 Widely varied 48F
Local mobility Moderate Low Low High High
Radiation shielding,
meters of water mass 10.3G 0.06G 0G 0G 5.3G
equivalent
Weak, induced; Weak, induced;
25-65 μT, 20-40 nT MPR, 40-80 nT MPR,
Magnetic field None None
intrinsicH 5-20nT 10-40nT
magnetosheath I magnetosheath I
Corrosive acid
Fine, abrasive dust
Those which mists; numerous
/ silicosisJ; Highly abrasive Highly abrasive
Health hazards humans
perchloratesK; dust / silicosisJ dust / silicosisM
known and
evolved to theorized
chromium(VI) L
chemicalsN
Solar storms.
MarsquakesO; MoonquakesO; Lightning? Gusts /
Those which Outgassing?
landslides; dust landslides; shear? Icing?
Other local hazards humans
storms; solar solar storms.
Landslides?
Storms? Limited
evolved to Poorly
storms. Others? Others? data.P
quantified.
Planetary protection Not applicable Category IVQ Category IIQ Category I to IIQ Category IIQ
As low as 3.8,
Delta-V to destination, 0 4.5R 6.1R but usually well 3.5R
from LEO (km/s) moreS
Low to extremely
Delta-V to LEO (km/s) 10.1R 5.9R 5.6R 11.8R
low
Transit time (mo) 0 9R 0.1R Widely varied 5R
Launch window 0 25T
Several days
Widely varied 19T
frequency (mo) per month U
Aerobraking Available Available Absent Absent Available
Parachute decel. Significant Limited Absent Absent Significant
Surface hazards Present Present Present Present Not approached V
Peak solar energy ~50X, up to 129; 400Y (but two
(29% triple junction <290W sometimes almost weeks w/o Widely varied 500Z
W/m²) none light)
Wind energy Moderate Effectively none None None High F
resources
Probably moderate Probably high, but
Diversity of resources Baseline Probably low AB Low
to low AA arid AC
Probably moderate Moderate to
Valuable resources Moderate High AD Probably high AE
to low AA low AB
High but
Accessibility of High atmospheric,
Moderate Moderate Moderate hindered by
resources low surface
microgravity
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of different destinations. Transits assumed to be minimum energy and use
aerocapture. Basic planetary statistics from Moore (2000) 9

9
A: CRU TS3.0
B: Spanovich, N., Smith, M., Smith, P., Wolff, M., Christensen, P., & Squyres, S. (2006) . Surface and near-surface
atmospheric temperatures for the Mars Exploration Rover landing sites . Icarus , 180(2), 314-320.
doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.09.014
C: Vasavada, A. R., Bandfield, J. L., Greenhagen, B. T., Hayne, P. O., Siegler, M. A., Williams, J., & Paige, D. A. (2012).
Lunar equatorial surface temperatures and regolith properties from the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment. J ournal of
Geophysical Research: Planets, 117(E12). doi:10.1029/2011je003987
D: (2005) Venus Global Reference Atmospheric Model (Venus-GRAM) . NASA/MSFC; 8.6°C greenhouse effect assumed
(ambient = 16.6°C)
E: CRU TS3.0, in Timothy C. Bonebrake and Curtis A. Deutsch. 2012. Climate heterogeneity modulates impact of warming
on tropical insects . Ecology 93:449 455.
F : VeRA-derived zonal winds (~70m/s) from Piccialli, A. (2010) . Cyclostrophic wind in the mesosphere of Venus from Venus
Express observations . Berlin: Uni-Edition.; diameter = 6051.8 + 54km; circumference = 38364km; at 70° = 12444km;; day
 It may be best to look upon Venus as akin to an ocean-world, with the middle cloud
layer as its surface . Down below, the environment is inhospitable and crushing; we do not
explore and settle the oceans by living on the seabed. We live on their shores, spend time
sailing their surfaces, and send submersibles down into their inhospitable depths. The same
can be said for Venus: its hostile depths are adjacent to balmy tropical "shores", a cloudy
environment upon which a lighter-than-air vehicles can float.

length = velocity / circumference. Note that VIRTIS suggests a slower, ~40m/s windspeed; however, the VeRA
measurements are evaluated to be more reliable due to its higher resolution deep sounding.
G : Based on pressure from (2005) Venus Global Reference Atmospheric Model (Venus-GRAM) . NASA/MSFC.
H: Finlay CC, Maus S, Beggan CD, Bondar TN, Chambodut A, Chernova TA, et al. International Geomagnetic Reference
Field: the eleventh generation. Geophys J Int. 2010;183:1216 30.
I: Bertucci, C., Mazelle, C., Slavin, J. A., Russell, C. T., & Acuña, M. H. (2003). Magnetic field draping enhancement at
Venus: Evidence for a magnetic pileup boundary . Geophysical Research Letters , 30(17). doi:10.1029/2003gl017271
J : Lam, C., James, J. T., Mccluskey, R., Cowper, S., Balis, J., & Muro-Cacho, C. (2002). Pulmonary Toxicity Of Simulated
Lunar And Martian Dusts In Mice: I. Histopathology 7 And 90 Days After Intratracheal Instillation. Inhalation Toxicology ,
14(9), 901-916. doi:10.1080/08958370290084683
K: Davila, A. F., Willson, D., Coates, J. D., & Mckay, C. P. (2013). Perchlorate on Mars: a chemical hazard and a resource
for humans . International Journal of Astrobiology , 12(04), 321-325. doi:10.1017/s1473550413000189
L: Wise, J. T., Xie, H., Wise, J. P., Jr., Mason, M., Jeevarajan, A., Wallace, W., & Wise, J. P., Sr. (2015). Comparative toxicity
of lunar, martian dust simulants and urban dust in human skin fibroblast cells . Gravitational and Space Research, 3(1),
51-58.
M: Asteroidal regolith hazards treated as equivalent to lunar regolith
N: Barsukov, V. L., Khodakovskii, I. L., Volkov, V. P., Sidorov, I. I., Dorofeeva, V. A., & Andreeva, N. E. (1982). Metal chloride
and elemental sulfur condensates in the Venusian troposphere - Are they possible. Lunar and Planetary Science
Conference, 12th, Houston, TX, March 16-20, 1981, Proceedings. Section 2. (A82-31677 15-91) New York and Oxford,
Pergamon Press , 1517-1532.
O : Knapmeyer, M., Oberst, J., & Spohn, T. (n.d.). Of Moonquakes and Marsquakes . Final Colloquium DFG Schwerpunkt
1115,
2008-02-28 - 2008-02-29, Münster (Germany).
P: V. Linkin, V. Kerzhanovich, A. Lipatov, K. Pichkadze, A. Shurupov, A. Terterashvili, A. Ingersoli, D. Crisp, A. Grossman, R.
Young, A. Seiff, B. Ragent, J. Blamont, L. Elson, R. Preston (1986). VEGA Balloon Dynamics and Vertical Winds in the
Venus Middle Cloud Region. Science.
Q: Planetary Targets for All Mission Categories . NASA Office of Planetary Protection.
R: Minimum energy Hohmann transfer between LEO / habitat with aerocapture; other transfers covered in Transfer to and
from Venus .. Atmospheric and gravity losses assumed at 2 km/s for Earth, 0.2 km/s for Mars, 0.1 km/s for Luna, and 1km/s
for Venus; 0.9 km/s assumed for Mars landing, 0.5 km/s for the moon.. No budget for transfer contingency is made.
S: Benner, L. A. (2017, January 20). Near-Earth Asteroid Delta-V for Spacecraft Rendezvous. Retrieved from
http://echo.jpl.nasa.gov/~lance/delta_v/delta_v.rendezvous.html
T: Synodic period PSYN= 1 / (1 / P1 - 1 / P2) ; PVENUS = 243.025d; PEARTH = 365.256d; PMARS = 686.971d.
U: Wheeler, R. (2009). Apollo lunar landing launch window: The controlling factors and constraints . Retrieved from
https://history.nasa.gov/afj/launchwindow/lw1.html
V: Does not land on surface; precision in location targeting not required.
W: Nominal clear-sky Earth surface 1000W/m² * 0.29. Operating condition baseline. Clouds and dust reduce generation.
X: Opportunity surface flux ~145W/m² from Lemmon, M. T., Wolff, M. J., Bell, J. F., Smith, M. D., Cantor, B. A., & Smith, P. H.
(2015). Dust aerosol, clouds, and the atmospheric optical depth record over 5 Mars years of the Mars Exploration Rover
mission. Icarus, 251, 96-111. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.03.029. Multiplying * 0.29, unadjusted for temperature, flux or
spectrum. Contrarily, the base flux of 591W/m² minus ~25% non-storm atmospheric absorption and times 0.29 is 129W.
Y: Earth/moon solar constant (1336W/m²) * 0.29. Not adjusted for temperature, flux or spectrum.
Z : Data from Landis, G. A., & Haag, E. (2013). Analysis of Solar Cell Efficiency for Venus Atmosphere and Surface Missions.
11th International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference. doi:10.2514/6.2013-4028. Interpolating between 50 and
54.5km height data to represent latitude-related losses and increasing by 1.6x for bidirectional exposure.
AA: West, M. D., & Clarke, J. D. (2010). Potential martian mineral resources: Mechanisms and terrestrial analogues .
Planetary and Space Science, 58(4), 574-582. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.06.007 - bolide-formed ore deposits being the most
interesting.
AB: Crawford, I. A. (2015). Lunar resources: A review. Progress in Physical Geography , 39(2), 137-167.
doi:10.1177/0309133314567585 - most interesting being lunar KREEP resources, but processes for further enrichment are
limited.
AC: Covered under Chemical Environment, Envelope and Crew Considerations .
AD: James, W. W., Zacny, K., Craft, J., Chu, P., & Cohen, M. M. (2014). Robotic Asteroid Prospector (RAP) NIAC Phase 1
Results . 7th Symposium on Space Resource Utilization. doi:10.2514/6.2014-0500
AE: Covered under Mineral Resources and Economics .
Other : Moore, P. (2000). The Data Book of Astronomy . CRC Press. ISBN 9781420033441 - CAT# IPE702
 An analysis of such cities in the clouds was considered by Geoffrey Landis in 2003.
10
When considering how to loft aerial vehicles on Venus, it became apparent that two lifting
gases are most readily available: nitrogen and oxygen, both of which are lighter than carbon
dioxide and yield around half as much lift as an equivalent volume of helium on Earth. One
immediately notes the consequence: in a Landis habitat, the air inside the envelope is thus
breathable, rendering large amounts of space therein available for habitation, agriculture, etc.
This stands in contrast to that of alternative proposals, such as the early phases of HAVOC,
where housing is slung underneath the envelope,11 and is thus subject to the same size
constraints that dog habitats on the surface of Mars.

While it may be instinctive to assume that the choice of Venus as a destination

stands in competition with the settlement of other locations in the solar system, in practice it
proves far more complimentary. With delta-V requirements similar to Mars, shorter transit
times, ample sunlight en-route and an easier descent, the same transfer vehicle developed
to take cargo and crew to Mars can be readily designed to be suitable for Venus service as
well. Misalignment of synodic periods between Venus and Mars provide an opportunity to
use transfer stages that would otherwise be sitting idle. And while basic habitats and
resources on Mars are quite different, production chains converge. The Haber process does
not care whether its nitrogen came from the atmospheres of Venus or Mars, or whether its
hydrogen came from Venusian sulfuric acid or Martian permafrost. Synthesis of
polyethylene from syngas is independent of whether that syngas came from the Sabatier
reaction on air from Venus or Mars. And so forth - while there can occasionally be
differences due to gravity or impurities in feedstocks, much of the same hardware developed
for Mars can be used on Venus, and vice versa - from 3d printers to pipe extrusion to the
countless small items, from power sockets to kitchen appliances.

Counterintuitively, Mars and the

asteroid belt are more accessible from Venus
than from Earth. As the diagram to the right
illustrates, minimum energy trajectories are
advantaged by the high angular momentum of
Venus, a phenomenon known as the Oberth
effect.

Complicating the matter, the delta-V

involved in minimum energy transfers from
Venus and Earth to the asteroid belt do not
involve the same minimum energies; the
minimum energy from Venus is significantly
higher. For an equivalent comparison, one
needs to compare transfer times for equivalent
amounts of delta-V. Let us do so for transits Reproduced from Landis 200312
between Earth, Venus and Mars:
10
Landis, G. A. (2003). Colonization of Venus . AIP Conference Proceedings. doi:10.1063/1.1541418
11
Arney, D. C., & Jones, C. A. (2015). High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC): An Exploration Strategy for
Venus . AIAA SPACE 2015 Conference and Exposition. doi:10.2514/6.2015-4612
12
Landis, G. A. (2003). Colonization of Venus . AIP Conference Proceedings. doi:10.1063/1.1541418
 One can see that for the
same amount of delta-V, transfers
from Venus to Mars would appear
to take slightly longer than from
Earth. However, this can be
deceptive. As Venus's synodic
period is shorter, launch windows
open up more frequently from
Venus than from Earth; the above
figures are only valid for closest
Transfers will be discussed in greater detail under
approach, and are vastly
Transfer to and from Venus increased when the bodies' orbital
positions
are mismatched.

Even when Earth is relatively lined up for a short conjunction transfer, this serves to
open up an Earth gravitational assist for craft from Venus, decreasing their transit times
significantly. Indeed, frequent gravitational assist opportunities are one of the great benefits of
Venus's orbital environment; probes from Earth to the outer solar system frequently launch
toward Venus to take advantage of one or more gravitational assists, often including Earth
assists on the way back out.

The trajectory of NASA's Cassini probe, making use of two Venus flybys followed by an Earth flyby to boost it to Saturn13

While human habitation of other worlds is often seen as a way to provide a backup in
case of a disaster on Earth, these far more fragile outposts are themselves much more likely
to suffer a catastrophe. And in the event of a catastrophe on Mars or elsewhere in the solar
system, Venus is more likely to be better positioned than Earth to send aid, should the type

13
Cassini Mission to Saturn. (NASA / Jet Propulsion Laboratory -Caltech). Retrieved from
https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/1776/
of aid needed be on hand. Venus and Mars are not competitors in terms of expanding the
human presence; they are allies.

Developing an environment for the safe, long-term sustainable habitation of Venus is

not trivial. The favorable orbital environment of Venus is tempered by having to deal with the
very factors that makes Venus such a good location for human health; being Earthlike
means that it's hard to reach orbit, just as on Earth. Like Earth, Venus has storms, with
turbulence reminiscent of Earth's troposphere.14 Like Earth, lightning is present on Venus,
although its nature and location is still uncertain.15 Venus's atmospheric chemical
environment, while a source of resources, also must be dealt with properly in habitat design.
And Venus's surface, while likely holding a wealth of resources and great potential to
advance our scientific knowledge, is a harsh environment for probes to operate in.

The purpose of this book is to address all of these issues, and many more, in order to
observe how they influence the design and development of an initial Venus habitat, as well
as the future habitation of Venus.

14
V. Linkin-V. Kerzhanovich-A. Lipatov-K. Pichkadze-A. Shurupov-A. Terterashvili-A. Ingersoli-D. Crisp-A. Grossman-R.
Young-A. Seiff-B. Ragent-J. Blamont-L. Elson-R. Preston (1986). VEGA Balloon Dynamics and Vertical Winds in the Venus
Middle Cloud Region. Science.
15
Majid, W. (2015). A Low-Cost Approach to the Investigation of Venus Lightning. EGU General Assembly 2015, 12-17 April.
Bibtex:.147002015EGUGA..1714700M
Transfer to and from Venus
As discussed previously, Venus in an excellent location for reaching other
destinations due to the Oberth effect.

In the above graphs, we plot the time between different destinations versus delta-V
on conjunction-class missions. On the left, low orbits are assumed (150km for Mars, 250km
for Earth, 350km for Venus). On the right, extremely elliptical orbits are assumed, with
apoapsis at the radius of the planet s sphere of influence (57007km for Mars, 911969km for
Earth, 606119km for Venus), as an upper bound. Only the energy required to enter a transfer
orbit is plotted (that is, as if the transfer stage were aerocaptured16).

It becomes immediately clear that Venus is in a very favorable position from an

orbital dynamics perspective, while Mars is in a poor one. Excepting minimal energy
16
Lockwood, M. K., Paulson, J. W., Kontinos, D. A., Chen, Y.K., Laub, B., Olejniczak, J., ... (2006). Systems Analysis for a
Venus Aerocapture Mission. NASA STI Program, NASA/TM-2006-214291: Concerning the TRL of HYPAS aerocapture to
Venus: Based on this study there are no enabling technologies required to accomplish this mission. There are, however,
strongly enhancing technologies that will significantly help such missions "
transfers, a transfer from Venus to Mars is nearly as fast as a transfer from Earth to Mars -
not accounting for the potential of Earth gravitational assists and the benefit of more frequent
launch windows. Unlike Mars, the strong Oberth effect at Venus allows for very fast, efficient
return trajectories to Earth.

Like Mars, Venus also has a number of cycler trajectories available to it - although
not as well studied as in the case of Mars. Cyclers allow one to have a large amount of
mass (such as radiation shielding and passenger facilities) repeatedly making flyby passes.
While small spacecraft carrying crew still need to expend the same or greater delta-V as for
a direct transfer in order to dock with a cycler, the large shielding / habitation mass does not
need to be accelerated each time.

A particularly studied case of cyclers for Venus use is the E-E-V-V-V cyclers - that is,
two consecutive Earth passes followed by three consecutive Venus passes. Of the 12 orbits
studied in Hollister et al 1970,17 we select, in order of priority:

● #3: This cycler orbit offers the shortest transit times on the Earth-Venus and
Venus-Earth legs.
● #2: Offering the fourth shortest average transit times, this route is staggered from the
#3 cycler by as much as 2 months at times.
● #8: Similar to the #3 orbit, this yields the second shortest transit times and
occasionally is staggered vs. #3 and #2.

A sample cycler timetable, based on the figures from the above paper, can be seen
below, with the day of closest approach indicated and transit times (in days) in parentheses.

Departure Arrival
#3 #2 #8 #3 #2 #8
780 (134) 914
E→V 819 (189)
877 (132) 1009 1008
1462 (78) 1458 (81) 1540 1539
V→E
1470 (150) 1620
1979 (107) 2086
E→V
2034 (115) 2034 (115) 2149 2149
2599 (98) 2599 (98) 2697 2697
V→E
2643 (119) 2762
3127 (125) 3252
E→V
3190 (118) 3190 (118) 3308 3308
3758 (127) 3758 (131) 3885 3889
V→E
3809 (118) 3927
4293 (133) 4426
E→V
4374 (118) 4374 (118) 4485 4485
4873 (235) 5039 5039
V→E
4935 (104) 4935 (104) 5108
5473 (117) 5590
E→V
5533 (108) 5534 (111) 5641 5645
6091 (135) 6095 (203) 6226
V→E 6147 (112) 6259
6298

More diverse launch windows (sometimes including shorter transfer times) can be
achieved by Earth-Venus-Mars three-body cyclers.
17
Hollister, W. M., & Menning, M. D. (1970). Periodic swing-by orbits between Earth and Venus . Journal of Spacecraft and
Rockets , 7(10), 1193-1199. doi:10.2514/3.30134
 Conversely, if the goal is to deliver maximum payload from Low-Earth Orbit to
Venus, solar-electric propulsion can be employed. Delinitz et al (2006) calculated a 1.8 year
trajectory (without aerocapture) at slightly less than 4000 m/s dV.18 Similarly, Kemble (2003)
calculated a 1.23 year trajectory requiring 3800 m/s dV and a 2.8 year trajectory requiring
2700 m/s dV.19

To determine what sort of trajectories are best to deliver manned and unmanned
payloads to Venus, we first must look at what may constrain the size of the habitat, and how
that will affect the delta-V requirements of the transit stage.

Airdocks
If one wishes to avoid the expense of constructing a new building, the maximum size
of an initial habitat is limited to the size of existing airship hangars. As even a large envelope
packs well into a variety of extant rocket fairings without excessive weight, targeting as large
of a habitat as possible is desirable for maximizing local capabilities and simplifying transport
of manned payloads.

Due to the decline of lighter than air transport on earth in the 20th century, some large
airdocks have high availability. Others are in service for various purposes, generally of a far
lower value than the cost to construct such a building. The largest airdocks in the world in the
world are, in increasing order of height:

1) Tillamook Hangar B
59m x 90m x327m

Built in 1942 near Tillamook, Oregon, it

remains the world s largest clear-span wooden
structure. The reason for its construction was to
simultaneously house eight large dirigibles for
hunting submarines. Today it functions as the
Photo: Sam Beebe home of the Tillamook Air Museum.

2) Moffett Federal Airfield, Hangar One

60m x 90m x 343m

Built in 1933 to house the USS Macon and

USS Akron, it is today one of the most recognizable
landmarks in Silicon Valley. The hangar is currently
owned by NASA and leased to Google; the
colocated Hangar Two is apparently being used to
build a large rigid airship of unknown purpose.20
Photo: NASA

18
Dellnitz, M., Junge, O., Post, M., & Thiere, B. (2006). On target for Venus set oriented computation of energy efficient low
thrust trajectories . Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy , 95(1-4), 357-370. doi:10.1007/s10569-006-9008-y
19
Kemble, S. (2003). Interplanetary Missions Utilising Capture and Escape Through Lagrange Points. 54th International
Astronautical Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, the International Academy of Astronautics, and the
International Institute of Space Law. doi:10.2514/6.iac-03-a.1.01
20
Vance, A (25 Apr. 2017) With Secret Airship, Sergey Brin Also Wants to Fly . Bloomberg.
 3) Goodyear Airdock
64.31m x 99m x 358m

Built in 1929 in Akron, OH, it served as the

construction site for the USS Macon and the USS
Akron. The Goodyear Airdock has changed hands
many times over the years, and is currently owned
by Lockheed Martin.

Photo: Conring Automation Services

4) Lakehurst Hangar No. 1

68m x 110m x 294m

Built in 1921 in Lakehurst, NJ and used for

storage and maintenance of the largest airships at
the time when on the east (including the LZ 127
Graf Zeppelin, USS Macon, USS Akron and the LZ
129 Hindenburg). Today it houses a fake flight deck
for naval training.
Photo: Horace Hagen

5) CargoLifter Aerium:
106m x 220m x 360m

The only large airship hangar constructed

after the Second World War, as well as by far the
largest ever built and the only of the giant hangars
remaining outside the US (with the arguable
exception of the old Zeppelin hangar outside Rio de
Janeiro). The $110M CargoLifter Aerium in
Brandenburg, Germany was completed in 2000 -
shortly before CargoLifter s bankruptcy in 2002. It
Photo: Immanuel Giel was thereafter purchased by a private company at
a
small fraction of its construction cost and converted into a tropical theme park; while the
company ran at a loss for several years due to disappointing attendance figures, it finally
began to turn a profit in 2008.

From looking at existing airdocks that could be used for construction (eg. Hangar
One) and assuming that one requires a minimum of ten meters extra on each axis for
construction and maneuvering, then we get a maximum sized ellipsoidal airship of
~50x80x330 meters. This has a volume of 691 thousand cubic meters. Floating at a daytime
average of 0.5 bar pressure (see Deployment: Where and How) and with a 60%/40% N2/O2
internal mixture, with the interior temperature at 25°C and the exterior temperature 17°C, the
exterior air density is 0.93 kg/m³ and the interior air density s 0.60 kg/m³, yielding a net lift of
0.33 kg/m³. Thus, we arrive at a maximum daytime lift of 228 tonnes. At night, lift drops and
the craft descends to denser, warmer air - offsetting Venus s cooler nighttime conditions.

Next, in order to determine our trajectory we must consider how much delta-V an
ascent vehicle on the Venus end can provide, to determine whether the Earth-Venus transfer
stage must go to a Low-Venus orbit or may enter into an easy-to-escape highly elliptical
orbit.

Propellant options
There is no shortage of potential options for propellants that can be used and which
have been researched extensively. However, Venus s environment changes the calculus, in
a number of manners:

1) Staging and recovery is more complicated

2) Hydrogen is rarer. Fluorine all the moreso. Metallic additives or propellants are
difficult to acquire.
3) Cryogenics are challenging to deal with on Venus due to convective heat transfer.
4) ISRU (in-situ resource utilization) requires that all propellants be locally
manufacturable without excessively complex production chains

Let us examine a variety of propellant combinations that meet ISRU-simplicity

standards.21

21
All specific impulses cited are vacuum, calculated with CEA2 in equilibrium conditions at a 70 bar and a 40:1 expansion
ratio; all are assumed at their boiling point, except propane, which is assumed to share a common bulkhead with LOX be at
100°K, and RP1, which is assumed to be at 25°C. Mixture boiling points and densities assumed to scale linearly, excepting
nytrox densities. Listed boiling points are for 1 bar. Mixture percentages are by mass.
 ISRU Boil. ISRU O:F ISP Density Comb.
Oxidizer Boil. °K Fuel %H
diff. °K diff. ratio (sec) (g/cm³) temp. °K
LOX 90.2 1 LH 20.7 1 4.70 455 0.31 3197 18
LOX 90.2 1 CH4 112 1.5 3.37 371 0.82 3566 5.8
LOX 90.2 1 C3H8 231 2.6 2.98 365 1.02 3649 4.5
LOX 90.2 1 RP-1 420 3 2.66 356 1.03 3741 4.2
LOX 90.2 1 CO 81.6 1 0.53 281 0.88 3452 0
LOX 90.2 1 C2N2 252 3.2 0.85 349 1.03 4431 0
LOX 90.2 1 C2H2 191 3 1.79 391 0.87 4196 2.8
N2O4 295 2 MMH 364 5 2.37 341 1.20 3125 3.9
N2O4 295 2 LH 20.7 1 6.85 397 0.41 3031 13
N2O4 295 2 CH4 112 1.5 5.36 337 1.05 3361 4.0
N2O4 295 2 RP-1 420 3 4.32 334 1.26 3524 2.5
N2O4 295 2 CO 81,6 1 0.79 276 0.99 3292 0
N2O4 295 2 C2N2 252 3.2 1.37 330 1.18 4047 0
N2O4 295 2 C2N2- CH4 10% 238 3.4 1.77 331 1.18 3767 0.9
N2O4 295 2 C2N2- CH4 20% 224 3.4 2.15 332 1.18 3652 1.6
N2O4 295 2 C2N2- H2 5% 240 3.3 1.76 337 1.19 3754 1.8
N2O4 295 2 C2H2 191 3 2.86 357 1.07 3950 2.4
N2O 303/253/193 2 LH 20.7 1 12.8 348 0.40/0.51/0.56 3065 7.3
N2O 303/253/193 2 CH4 112 1.5 10.7 316 0.60/0.91/1.06 3308 2.2
N2O 303/253/193 2 CO 81.6 1 1.56 281 0.68/0.91/1.01 3247 0
N2O 303/253/193 2 C2N2 252 3.2 3.01 318 0.68/1.00/1.16 3799 0
N2O 303/253/193 2 C2H2 191 3 6.27 331 0.62/0.99/1.09 3777 1.1
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 LH 20.7 1 9.55 374 0.41/0.47 3111 9.5
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 CH4 112 1.5 7.69 330 0.76/0.98 3392 2.9
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 CO 81.6 1 1.15 283 0.82/0.96 3309 0
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 C2N2 252 3.2 2.02 328 0.88/1.10 3996 0
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 C2N2- CH4 10% 238 3.4 2.64 328 0.85/1.07 3744 0.7
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 C2N2- CH4 20% 224 3.4 3.21 328 0.83/1.04 3642 1.2
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 C2N2- H2 5% 240 3.3 2.60 337 0.76/0.92 3741 1.4
Nytrox 20% 253/193 2.2 C2H2 191 3 4.19 348 0.79/1.00 3922 1.5
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 LH 20.7 1 7.83 393 0.41 3108 11
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 CH4 112 1.5 6.31 340 0.90 3440 3.4
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 CO 81.6 1 0.95 283 0.91 3345 0
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 C2N2 252 3.2 1.62 334 1.03 4108 0
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 C2N2- CH4 10% 238 3.4 2.10 334 1.00 3821 0.8
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 C2N2- CH4 20% 224 3.4 2.57 335 0.97 3709 1.4
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 C2N2- H2 5% 240 3.3 2.10 344 0.85 3804 1.6
Nytrox 35% 193 2.2 C2H2 191 3 3.38 358 0.93 3998 1.8
 Many examples analyzed for this work are not included in the above table. For
example, oxidizers such as nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide offer limited performance while
involving significant amounts of hydrogen. UDMH involves more complicated production
chains than MMH, DETA more complicated than UDMH, Syntin and other strained-ring
hydrocarbons more complicated still. Any hydrocarbon fuels, such as varying alkanes,
simply have performance intermediary to entries on the above table and are not worth
breaking down individually.

Hydrolox famously has a superb specific impulse, tempered by its low density; it is
commonly used, particularly effectively on upper stages. On Venus its advantages are
further tempered by its extreme use of hydrogen resources and its deeply cryogenic nature.

The various simple alkane mixtures with LOX still require moderate cryogenic
conditions for the LOX, regardless of whether the propellant itself requires it. However, they
significantly reduce the hydrogen requirement.

We list one conventional hypergolic combination, N2O 4 / MMH. N2O 4 is generally

utilized as MON (Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen), containing small amounts of NO, ranging from
around 1% to 30%. This helps control corrosion, increase vapour pressure and lowers the
freezing point, at the cost of a small amount of specific impulse.22 The main disadvantage to
this fuel and oxidizer combination, apart from somewhat poorer specific impulse, is that the
dependency chains for MMH production are fairly long.

MON, however, raises interesting possibilities. It s not cryogenic, and thus very
storable. Its reduction in specific impulse comes with increased density. It burns with a
higher O:F ratio, and thus uses less fuel - including any hydrogen in that fuel. And lastly, it
lowers the combustion temperature. A downside is its toxic nature.

When burned with fuels like hydrogen, and to a lesser extent alkanes, its benefits are
somewhat tempered. The chamber temperature reduction is not very significant, while the
specific impulse reduction can be significant. But with two exotic fuels - carbon monoxide
and cyanogen - its benefits really stand out.

Carbon monoxide is a relatively little studied fuel, with some experiments done for the
potential of ISRU on Mars (burned with LOX).23 It is completely hydrogen free, and simple to
produce - for example, via a SOFC similar to MOXIE on Mars 2020.24 Its benefits somewhat
trail off at this point; its density is unimpressive, it is cryogenic (moreso than LOX), and its
specific impulse is poor.

22
Sutton, G. P., & Biblarz, O. (2001). Rocket Propulsion Elements (7th ed.) (pp .254-255). John Wiley & Sons.
23
Linne, D. L. (1991). Carbon Monoxide and Oxygen Combustion Experiments: A Demonstration of Mars In-Situ Propellants .
AIAA-91-2433. NASA Technical Memorandum 104473
24
Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE). Retrieved from
http://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/instruments/moxie/for-scientists/
 The use of cyanogen as a propellant is even less mature than for carbon monoxide,
although it has drawn some limited interest.25 While it too boasts of being completely
hydrogen-free and having a decent specific impulse (as well as the ability to be polymerized
into a solid/hybrid fuel), it has the second-highest known adiabatic flame temperature of any
naturally-occurring compound after dicyanoacetylene26 (the latter being unsuitable for use as
a fuel due to its explosive nature). While high temperature, reusable ceramic engines are
possible, they are immature and pose significant challenges. The most significant
demonstration of a ceramic engine thusfar was in the Akatsuki spacecraft (ironically, a
mission to Venus), which suffered a nozzle failure en route and nearly led to the failure of the
mission.27 While the failure was the fault of out-of-design combustion conditions due to a
stuck valve and not of the ceramics themselves, they do expose the risk of a ceramic
engine for a Venus habitat: a shattered ceramic nozzle is not a form of damage that could
potentially be repaired in-situ.

Two alterations to the propellant mixture, however, make cyanogen much more
appealing. One is to burn it with MON rather than LOX, which drops combustion
temperatures by 400°, giving up a small amount of ISP in exchange for greater density and a
non-cryogenic oxidizer. The other is to burn a small amount of a hydrogen-bearing material,
such as methane or hydrogen, along with the cyanogen.

The net effects of these on performance can be seen below. In each of the first two
graphs, pure methane is on the left and pure cyanogen is on the right.

In each of the next two graphs, pure hydrogen is on the left and pure cyanogen is on
the right.

25
Brotherton, T. K., & Lynn, J. W. (1959). The Synthesis and Chemistry of Cyanogen. Chem Rev., 59(5), pp 841 883.
doi:10.1021/cr50029a003
26
Kirshenbaum, A.D. & Grosse, A. V. (1956) The combustion of carbon subnitride, C4N2, and a chemical method for the
production of continuous temperatures in the range of 5000-6000°K. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 78 (9),
2020-2020. doi: 10.1021/ja01590a075
27
Lakdawalla, E. (2010, December 10). Akatsuki update: Failure to enter orbit due to insufficient fuel pressure. Retrieved
from http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2010/2821.html
 As can be seen, the majority of the benefits occur at only very small amounts of
hydrogen addition, while the majority of the negatives do not. These properties make
cyanogen + methane (CyMet) and cyanogen + hydrogen (CyHy) appealing options. It is not
clear whether MON would be hypergolic with either, although given MON s tendency toward
hypergolic ignition, it would not seem unlikely.

An interesting alternative to MON where self-pressurization is desired is nitrous oxide

and its mixtures with oxygen (Nytrox). Nitrous oxide is much less toxic than nitrogen
tetroxide; mixtures with oxygen increases specific impulse and safety. Pressures range from
insignificant (low temperatures and oxygen fraction) to a high 65 bar (room temperature, low
oxygen fraction) to a very high 120 bar (low temperature, high oxygen fraction). A downside
to Nytrox is its lower density vs. MON; specific impulse is lower at low oxygen fractions but
becomes more LOX-like at higher oxygen fractions; the same trend follows for flame
temperatures.28 In general, Nytrox would be more appealing than MON where high levels of
self-pressurization and/or use with low temperature fuels are desired.

On the fuel side, acetylene presents an interesting alternative to cyanogen mixtures

or triprops. Versus CyHy, for a given propellant hydrogen percentage it offers 10-15 sec
greater ISP but 100-150°C higher chamber temperature. Density is around 90% that of CyHy
for MON and pure nitrous oxide, but becomes superior as the oxygen fraction increases in
Nytrox. Acetylene is moderately cryogenic, with a boiling point 63°C below that of cyanogen
at its minimum liquid pressure (1.27 atm). All of these properties suggest that acetylene
would be a more preferable fuel for upper stages while cyanogen fuels would be superior for
lower stages. Unlike cyanogen, acetylene is not particularly toxic; however, while stable as a
liquid, it becomes increasingly unstable and prone to self decomposition at higher
temperatures. It has been considered for use as a propellant on Mars.29

A note on toxicity: while of relatively limited importance on Venus, the use of toxic
propellants can increase development and handling expenses on Earth. Of fuels in the above
table, monomethylhydrazine, carbon monoxide, and cyanogen have significant toxicity. Of

28
Karabeyoglu, A. (2009). Mixtures of Nitrous Oxide and Oxygen (Nytrox) as Oxidizers for Rocket Propulsion Applications .
45th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit. doi:10.2514/6.2009-4966
29
Landis, G. A., & Linne, D. L. (1992). Acetylene fuel from atmospheric CO2 on Mars. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets,
29(2), 294-296. doi:10.2514/3.26350
the latter two, cyanogen has an LC50 approximately 1/10th that of carbon monoxide30.
However, cyanogen is irritating at low concentrations, while carbon monoxide s symptoms
are subtle up to the point of incapacitation. Cyanogen also has, unlike carbon monoxide, an
antidote (amyl nitrite) and a better post-exposure prognosis.

Now that we have some of our options for getting off of Venus, let us examine the
staging required, and the implications that has for the Earth-Venus transfer stage.

Staging options
Returning to our 228 tonne-lift airship: roughly how much lift do we have for the
ascent vehicle? In part, it depends on how many crew we wish it to support. Some visions
for colonization seek to start small, with only a few colonists, while others seek to start off
with dozens or even hundreds. Let us begin by arbitrarily selecting a 10 person target for the
initial habitat.

Most things in the habitat are surprisingly light. Physically largest is the envelope - in
this case, taking up 54k m². Typical envelopes for proposed robotic Venus missions range
from around 40g/m² for the VEVA balloon/multi-dropsonde concept31 to 173.2g/m² for
VALOR.32 Ballute entry was estimated by McRonald to only require a 22g/m² envelope for
one of their test scenarios (57g/m³ when all of the associated hardware is counted along with
the envelope).33 34 While envelope design is a complex aspect which will be discussed later,
there is some thickness which is required regardless of scale - such as to resist chemical
attack and gas permeation - as well as some thickness which scales with the radius of the
habitat, such as tensile strength. Tensile stresses also correlate with overpressure (which is
much higher for probes than for a habitat). On Earth, airship envelope fabrics range widely in
density based on what materials they're made out of, but generally in the low hundreds of
grams per square meter (e.g., Zeppelin NT, PVF+polyester at 250g/m²)35. Airships on Earth
must deal with a high permeation gas (helium). High mass lifting gases (oxygen, nitrogen)
and advanced materials can reduce the envelope mass, as can various options for rigid
reinforcement (see Design). Large scales, hostile environments and the unknowns of Venus
can increase it.

Without sufficient data to arrive at a more precise figure, we will for the sake of
argument choose a baseline target of 250g/m², including reinforcement. We thus arrive at an
envelope plus reinforcement mass of 13.5 tonnes (versus, say, 54.4 tonnes LEO launch

30
Patnaik, P., & Patnaik, P. (2007) . A comprehensive guide to the hazardous properties of chemical substances (3rd ed.)
(pp. 326-327, 403-404). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
31
Kerzhanovich, V. V., Cutts, J. A., & Hall, J. L. (2003) Low-cost balloon missions to Mars and Venus . 16th ESA Symposium
on European Rocket and Balloon Programmes and Related Research. SA Publications Division, ISBN 92-9092-840-9 (pp.
285 - 291)
32
Hall, J., Fairbrother, D., Frederickson, T., Kerzhanovich, V., Said, M., Sandy, C., . . . Yavrouian, A. (2008). Prototype design
and testing of a Venus long duration, high altitude balloon. Advances in Space Research, 42(10), 1648-1655.
doi:10.1016/j.asr.2007.03.017
33
Hall, J. (2000). A review of ballute technology for planetary aerocapture. 4th IAA Conference on Low Cost Planetary
Missions, Laurel, MD, May 2-5.
34
McRonald, A.D. (1999). A lightweight inflatable hypersonic drag device for Venus entry . AAS/AIAA Astrodynamics
Specialist Converence, Girdwood, AK, August 16-19
35
Achat, D (2008). Zeppelin NT - Technical Data. Retrieved from https://www.carnetdevol.org/zeppelin/Technical.html
capacity for the Falcon Heavy,36 and 70-130 for SLS37). Such an envelope can be readily
packed into a typical heavy lift rocket fairing.38

We now add payload. Ten people at 75kg each, with 50kg furnished housing with
15kg of water stored and 25kg worth of personal possessions does little to add to the mass
(1.7 tonnes). Twenty months of stored food at 3000 kcal/day and 2kcal/g does more to
increase the mass, but not tremendously so (9.2 tonnes). As for food production, 2015 US
corn harvests were 169.3 dry bushels per acre,39 or 1.06 kilograms per square meter. Dry
corn is approximately 4,200kcal/kg40 - in short, a person requires the annual caloric output of
around 250 square meters. This matches estimates of estimates of land requirements for
vegetarian diets on Earth.41 In the bright, lit-from-all-sides never-winter environment of
Venus, we will assume the equivalent of two crops per year, thus halving the area to 125 m².

Assume that on Venus, averaged, between all crops (including less productive
ones), and including any animal conversion of agricultural waste, no starting of seedlings in
reduced space, that the average person requires the output of 200 square meters (2000 m²
total, versus a habitat cross section of around 21000 m²). Let us assume also a running
average of 5kg of plant + hydroponics mass per square meter (covered under Agriculture).
This works out to 10 tonnes. Water, common facilities and hardware, control/propulsion,
scrubbing, power storage / lift maintenance, manufacturing, stockpiled materials, ballonet
fabric, ISRU / atmospheric control and so forth add at least a few dozen tonnes (see Mass
budget). In short, a mature habitat of this size with a 10-person crew would mass at least 60
tonnes of dead mass, leaving no more than around 170 tonnes to spare for the ascent
vehicle.

Therein lies the rub: one cannot carry a conventional chemical rocket with the
potential to take everyone to a highly elliptical, near-escape orbit with a loaded mass of 170k
tonnes. Based on existing and proposed crew vehicles on Earth, a 10-person
Venus-reusable capsule with no cargo (less if cargo is being returned) is likely to mass
10-12 tonnes fully loaded, even if built light and reentry heating is minimized. The following
table lists examples of how a selection of various rockets would perform merely for
Low-Venus Orbit (LVO = ~8.6 km/s delta-V, including ascent losses and orbital maneuvering
/ deorbit).

36
SpaceX. Falcon Heavy . Retrieved from http://www.spacex.com/falcon-heavy
37
Boeing. Space Launch System. Retrieved from http://www.boeing.com/space/space-launch-system/
38
At a packing density of 3:1 and a fabric mass density of 1.3g/cm³, the packing size is 42m³, taking up on the order of
10-20% of the volume of a typical heavy lift rocket fairing, and a tiny fraction of the fairing of a super-heavy lift system such
as SLS or ITS. See Fairing limitations for more details.
39
United States Department of Agriculture (2015, Nov. 10). Crop Production. Retrieved from
http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/CropProd/2010s/2015/CropProd-11-10-2015.pdf.
40
Corn, dried, yellow. Retrieved from http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/ethnic-foods/10000/3
41
Peters, C. J., Wilkins, J. L., & Fick, G. W. (2007). Testing a complete-diet model for estimating the land resource
requirements of food consumption and agricultural carrying capacity: The New York State example. Renewable Agriculture
and Food Systems, 22(02), 145-153. doi:10.1017/s1742170507001767
 dV Mass Dry mass Payload
Stage Propellant Isp Propellant (t)
(km/s) frac. (t) (t)
1 MON/CyMet 322 3.7 0.05 5.9 117.6
9.1
2 MON/CyMet 342 4.9 0.05 1.8 35.6
1 MON/CyMet 322 2.9 0.05 5.2 103.1
10.7
2 LOX/CH4 381 5.7 0.06 2.9 48.1
1 LOX/CH4 358 3.7 0.06 6.6 110.4
11.9
2 LOX/CH4 381 4.9 0.06 2.3 38.7
1 LOX/CH4 358 2.2 0.06 4.7 78.3
15.6
2 LOX/LH 455 6.4 0.075 5.0 66.3
1 LOX/LH 428 3.6 0.075 7.3 97.9
17.9
2 LOX/LH 455 5.0 0.075 3.3 43.6
ISP figures and associated propellant combinations arbitrary; assuming high pressure, high expansion engines; first stage
impulse reduced for atmospheric operation starting at ~0.5 atm

As can be seen, while the dry masses of ascent vehicles make them quite
deliverable to Venus, their performance is a bit disappointing. The easier propellants to make
and store yield under 10 tonnes payload, and even the more difficult propellants don t greatly
exceed our needs - just to LVO.

Now let's see what happens when we try the same propellant and staging
combinations for a highly elliptical HVO (~10.6 km/s delta-V)

dV Mass Payload
Stage Propellant Isp Dry mass (t) Propellant (t)
(km/s) frac. (t)
1 MON/CyMet 322 4.8 0.05 6.7 133.2
4.2
2 MON/CyMet 342 5.8 0.05 1.2 24.7
1 MON/CyMet 322 4.3 0.05 6.3 125.7
5.1
2 LOX/CH4 381 6.3 0.06 1.9 31.0
1 LOX/CH4 358 4.8 0.06 7.6 126.6
5.9
2 LOX/CH4 381 5.8 0.06 1.7 28.2
1 LOX/CH4 358 3.6 0.06 6.5 108.7
8.3
2 LOX/LH 455 7.0 0.075 3.3 43.4
1 LOX/LH 428 4.7 0.075 8.6 114.7
9.9
2 LOX/LH 455 5.9 0.075 2.3 34.2

The problem is actually even worse than this scenario would suggest, as reentry
heating and other factors become more challenging. Mass fractions and impulses have not
been changed in the above table.

We could add another stage - say, a MON/CyMet booster to get the stack out of the
atmosphere where it can be vacuum optimized - but that doesn't help as much as one might
hope:
 dV Mass Payload
Stage Propellant Isp Dry mass (t) Propellant (t)
(km/s) frac. (t)
1 MON/CyMet 322 2.7 0.05 5.3 96.9
2 MON/CyMet 342 4.0 0.05 2.6 47.3 4.7
3 MON/CyMet 342 4.0 0.05 6.9 12.5
1 MON/CyMet 322 2.0 0.05 4.4 80.4
2 MON/CyMet 342 3.6 0.05 3.1 55.9 5.4
3 LOX/CH4 381 5.1 0.06 1.3 19.5
1 MON/CyMet 322 1.2 0.05 2.9 52.4
2 LOX/CH4 381 4.8 0.06 5.4 82.7 6.2
3 LOX/CH4 381 4.8 0.06 1.2 19.2
1 MON/CyMet 322 0.5 0.05 1.5 26.5
2 LOX/CH4 381 3.8 0.06 5.9 91.2 8.2
3 LOX/LH 455 6.3 0.075 2.7 34.0
1 MON/CyMet 322 0.5 0.05 1.5 26.5
2 LOX/LH 455 5.1 0.075 7.7 96.6 10.0
3 LOX/LH 455 5.1 0.075 2.1 25.7

In an environment as challenging as Venus, one doesn't want to complicate the

ascent any more than necessary. Adding an extra stage for these sorts of marginal
improvements does not seem justified.

Given the difficulty in getting to an elliptical orbit from the habitat, we should look into
offloading the energy requirements to the transfer stage: having it aerocapture to LVO rather
than HEVO. In that case, the question also arises as to what sort of orbit the transit vehicle
should utilize on the Earth end.

Since we need at this point to specify a transfer architecture for the sake of
argument, we will consider SpaceX's proposed Interplanetary Transport System, which
involves a very large stage, refuelled in LEO, and designed for aerocapture at its
destinations.

Recalculation of ITS launch capabilities to Mars based on design specs, in comparison to stated payload to dV ratios.42 To
match the stated Mars landing curve, required landing propellant ranges from 440t (28% of the total) at 130t payload to 940t
(48% of the total) at 600t payload.

42
Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (2016). Mars Presentation. Retrieved from
http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/mars_presentation.pdf
 All transfer stage performance figures below use minimum energy direct transfers :

● 250km LEO to VTO aerocapture, plus 125m/s contingency, requires a delta-V of 3.62
km/s.

● 350km LVO to Earth aerocapture, plus 125m/s contingency, requires a delta-V of

3.43 km/s

Thus, from LEO to LVO and back requires around 7.05 km/s delta-V and can deliver
approximately 200 tonnes in 146 days outbound and 146 days inbound. There are, however,
many possibilities for faster transfers, and hence we will need to create a table (taking into
account our reserve propellant requirements).

Tonnes to Tonnes to km/s to km/s to Days to Days to Mars (LMO) days for Mars (surface) days for
Venus Earth Venus Earth Venus Earth equiv. payload equiv. payload

200 200 3.62 3.44 146 146 177 169 90 161

200 100 3.81 4.02 106 79 144 150

200 100 4.00 3.81 95 91 125 166 90 137
200 100 4.17 3.62 86 112 111 192

200 50 3.95 4.43 98 67 137 143

200 50 4.24 4.06 84 77 116 157 90 127
200 50 4.51 3.73 80 97 104 187

100 200 3.68 3.63 125 110 151 159

100 200 3.76 3.57 111 119 131 174 80 161
100 200 3.83 3.50 107 131 115 195

100 100 4.17 3.98 87 85 116 157

80 137
100 100 4.44 3.71 81 99 102 184

100 50 4.04 4.69 93 64 133 138

100 50 4.44 4.26 81 71 108 150 80 127
100 50 4.83 3.84 107 89 97 178

50 200 3.72 3.73 116 97 151 155

50 200 3.83 3.64 107 109 128 170 74 161
50 200 3.94 3.54 98 124 110 191

50 100 3.93 4.37 99 69 137 142

50 100 4.25 4.07 84 76 113 154 74 137
50 100 4.59 3.76 78 94 98 180

50 50 4.08 4.82 91 62 131 135

50 50 4.54 4.36 79 69 104 147 74 127
50 50 5.00 3.90 71 86 93 174
Excepting the 200 tonnes outbound / 200 tonnes inbound case, all payload cases are presented in three options: 1)
remaining delta-V given 25% to the outbound (to Venus) / 75% to the inbound (to Earth) leg; 2) 50% to outbound and 50% to
inbound; and 3) 75% to outbound and 25% to inbound. Two Mars scenarios are given for comparison: to LMO (without
refuelling), and to the surface (with refuelling). The latter implies that the full dV of the spacecraft can be used on each leg,
but 0.9 km/s dV is needed for descent and 3.83 km/s dV is needed for ascent.
 To the right are plotted
round-trip transfers between
Earth and Mars or Venus.
Payloads are assumed
equivalent in both directions.
Any extra delta-V is allocated
evenly inbound / outbound in the
circular-circular transfer cases,
65% / 35% in the Venus elliptical
case, and 20% / 80% in the
Earth elliptical case (the latter
nonetheless still leaving a
significant difference between
inbound and outbound times).
For the Mars surface ISRU case, the craft can expend all of its propellant in each direction,
but is taken to require 3830 m/s dV for ascent and 440-940m/s dV for landing. In the ISRU
case, the outbound leg is capable of much more payload, but the return leg is not, thus
truncating its curves on the above graph.

In the below graphs we break down the inbound and outbound legs in the above
graph:

It becomes immediately clear that LEO-LVO-Return has hands down a faster

transfer versus LEO-LMO-Return in time, but loses in terms of maximum payload. Versus a
Mars ISRU scenario, Venus wins easily on inbound times, but the Mars ISRU scenario
offers more favourable outbound times. It can additionally be noted that the lower payload /
faster transfer scenarios are more favourable to Venus. Lastly, HEEO-HEVO-Return wins in
all regards versus all other options, offering the potential for immense payloads and very
short transits.

As discussed previously, using a highly elliptical orbit at Venus requires the presence
of a large habitat or advanced propulsion concepts in order to be able to carry a sufficiently
large ascent vehicle to reach HEVO. However, even the use of a high energy orbit on the
Earth end of the transfer would be a great improvement.
Is this prohibitive? In a "HEEO-LVO-Return" scenario, the transit vehicle either
remains in a high orbit at Earth, or returns to LEO or the surface and then is later re-launched
to a high orbit. Particularly interesting possibilities (not analyzed here) are the Earth-Moon
lagrange points, heavily investigated by Farquhar in 1970.43 L2, for example, can be reached
via a 3-day, 4.45 km/s transfer or a 5-day, 3.47 km/s transfer employing a lunar gravity
assist.

Reproduced with reformatting from Farquhar 1970.

From L2, a craft can be placed into a highly elliptical low-perigee trajectory for landing
or transfer burn to Venus, at a cost of only 335 m/s dV. An unmanned craft could potentially
be be returned for as little as 50 m/s, at the cost of a long (~100 day) transit time.

Reproduced from Farquhar 1970.

To fill the ITS spaceship at L1 or L2 requires that two additional tankers be fueled in
LEO. Each tanker holds 2500t of propellant.44 They successively burn to intercept the
incoming vehicle, one after the next. At a HEEO intercept, each vehicle has approximately
1045t propellant remaining (not accounting for contingency reserves). After filling the ITS
spaceship for its outbound trip to Venus, each has ~70t of propellant remaining for entering
an Earth-flyby trajectory for aerobraking to orbit or landing. This equates to 2.15km/s dV
remaining for this purpose and contingency.

As SpaceX has not announced their plans for crew and cargo loading / unloading, we
cannot analyze whether a crew could be transferred in a high orbit scenario.

43
Farquhar, R. W. (1970). The Utilization of Halo Orbits in Advanced Lunar Operations . Goddard Spaceflight Center,
X-551-70-449
44
Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (2016). Mars Presentation. Retrieved from
http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/mars_presentation.pdf
 Using SpaceX's cost breakdown, for a high orbit the number of tanker launches
increases from 5 to 13; the number of booster launches from 6 to 14; and the ship remains at
its current estimate. The resulting cost is $89M per trip, versus their estimated $62M for
Mars surface/ISRU. However, the performance improvement is dramatic. For the below
figures we will use the same inbound/outbound allocation of delta-V described previously:

● Maximum payload: 930 tonnes / 146 days each way (vs. 200t / 146d for
LEO-LVO-Return, 350t / 259d for LEO-LMO-Return, and 650t outbound / 330t
inbound, 259d for LEO-Mars Surface/ISRU-Return).

● 200 tonnes: 64 / 65 days (vs 146d / 146d for LEO-LVO-Return, 139d / 184d for
LEO-LMO-Return, and 90d / 161d for LEO-Mars Surface/ISRU-Return)

● 100 tonnes: 59 / 60 days (vs. 87d / 81d for LEO-LVO-Return, 116d / 157d for
LEO-LMO-Return, and 80d / 137d for LEO-Mars Surface/ISRU-Return)

● 50 tonnes: 58 / 56 days (vs. 79d / 69d for LEO-LVO-Return, 105d / 145d for
LEO-LMO-Return, and 75d / 127d for LEO-Mars Surface/ISRU-Return)

It should be reiterated that one does not, of course, need to be dependent on any
particular system architecture coming to pass; we simply bring up the ITS in order to give a
specific transfer stage example. More traditional, smaller, more expensive launch scenarios
are possible as well.

Scaling
From the above, delivery options to and from a Venus habitat such as described
above can be seen to be quite workable, but ascent vehicle performance is somewhat
lacklustre in terms of payload / delta-V in comparison to Mars. How can we alter the
scenario to improve our crew delivery to orbit and transfer stage s throughput? Let us
examine how various factors influence it.

● House fewer people per habitat. This reduces both mass related to feeding the
residents, as well as the required size of the launch vehicle.

● Not have the ability to launch everyone per cycle. This allows return stages to be
smaller.

● Sink deeper. Perhaps counterintuitively, sinking deeper into the atmosphere actually
increases the launch capacity. While it means poorer engine expansion and more air
mass to go through, buoyancy for a habitat of a given volume is directly proportional
to the exterior air pressure; within practical bounds for human heat tolerance, a lower
flight altitude yields a greater launch capacity. A habitat taking on a greater-heat
environment shortly before launch would go through "seasons", with summer being
 pre-launch, and winter immediately thereafter. Contrarily, a cooling system could be
employed (see Climate control)

● Lifting body. Discussed in more detail in Buoyancy control, a lifting body would
allow for more daytime payload capacity at a given altitude - but the habitat would
sink down to a lower level at night when propulsion power is reduced. Some degree
of day and night altitude differences is desirable, but the balance of this height loss
vs. other factors is an implementation-specific detail that must be balanced.

● Go nuclear. Nuclear thermal rockets (see Nuclear thermal) can have far higher
payload fractions, even in a single stage, than chemical rockets. Some nuclear
thermal designs can additionally offer the ability for protracted periods of hover when
docking.

● Go big. One is not restricted to the use of current US hangars. If one were to
repurchase the CargoLift hangar in Germany, or to build a similar or larger hangar
($150-300m), larger and more mass-optimally shaped airships could be built. The
scaling factors all make "big" more favorable:

○ Lift scales proportionally to the radius cubed.

○ Airship structural mass scales greater than the radius squared but less than
radius cubed. Examples:
■ Permeation-resistance envelope layers increase with area, and thus
radius squared.
■ Chemical / weathering-resistance envelope layers increase with area,
and thus radius squared.
■ Tensile reinforcement needs increases proportional to area times
thickness, and thus radius cubed. For a spherical shell, stress equals
σ=(P R / 2 t); thus, to maintain constant stress at a constant pressure
P, the thickness t of material bearing tensile loads must increase
corresponding to radius R.
■ Rigid framing, if present, tends to scale at a rate between the radius
squared and cubed.
○ Agriculture and solar power - and thus crew capacity - scale with the surface
area, and thus radius squared.
○ Internal hardware ranges from constant to linear to scaling with crew / surface
area (radius squared)
○ ISRU needs scale with crew and with total airship mass..
○ Rocket mass scales at less than linear with crew capacity, and thus less than
radius squared.

In short, the larger your habitat is, the easier it is to launch crew and cargo to
returning vehicles, as well as doing just about everything else. A large habitat does however
come at the cost of higher capital costs / risk, and fundamentally requires a super-heavy
launch system.
Improving the situation
As habitat sizes grow, the transit situation improves. Let us examine the case where
the lift of the habitat is sufficient to support reusable ascent vehicles that can go to to HVO.
For example, a habitat double the radius and four times the population (40 people) has 1824
tonnes lift, with about around 200 tonnes of mass not dedicated to the ascent vehicle. This
allows for an ascent vehicle nearly ten times larger than our last calculations. If we 10x our
previous case for a two-stage ascent to HEVO, we get:

dV Mass Dry mass Propellant Payload

Stage Propellant Isp
(km/s) frac. (t) (t) (t)

1 MON/CyMet 322 4.8 0.05 67 1332

42
2 MON/CyMet 342 5.8 0.05 12 247
1 MON/CyMet 322 4.3 0.05 63 1257
51
2 LOX/CH4 381 6.3 0.06 19 310
1 LOX/CH4 358 4.8 0.06 76 1266
59
2 LOX/CH4 381 5.8 0.06 17 282
1 LOX/CH4 358 3.6 0.06 65 1087
83
2 LOX/LH 455 7.0 0.075 33 434
1 LOX/LH 428 4.7 0.075 86 1147
99
2 LOX/LH 455 5.9 0.075 23 342

Even the smallest of these is far more than necessary to carry 40 people. Studies on
Space Shuttle passenger variants, for example, were to replace its cargo bay (which could
carry 27.5 tonnes to LEO) with 30-74 seats for passengers.45 ascent vehicles such as these
- fed by ISRU, fed in turn by Venus's great energy reserves - could take basically whatever
cargo is desired wanted offworld - as well as enabling far more than the aforementioned 40
people to live in the habitat.

The improvements need not stop there. As agriculture scales, a habitat can
provision food for return trips. With the deveopment of sufficient local ISRU production, the
habitat could refuel transfer stages for return trips. Each step taken on the Venus end vastly
improves transit times, cargo throughput, and economics.

Analysis
It is naturally compelling to want to starting a project small, eliminate the risk, and
then scale up. Indeed, there have been many programmes that one could argue that tried to
achieve too much, too soon.

However, the benefits of scale are quite compelling for a Venus habitat. It s difficult to

45
L David, R Citron, T Rogers & C D Walker, April 25 28, 1985, "The Space Tourist", AAS 85-771 to −774. Proceedings of the
Fourth Annual L5 Space Development Conference held April 25 28, 1985, in Washington, D.C
avoid the question: is it not worth building a larger hangar, larger assembly hardware,
recruiting greater manpower, launching it with a larger launch vehicle, etc? This would yield a
habitat that is not only capable of being home to vastly more people and local manufacturing
capability, but its larger, higher-dV ascent vehicle would allow for a greater delivery capacity
to Venus, and/or significantly decrease transfer time per trip. It's difficult to say that this, too,
is not compelling. Contrarily, the extra habitat lift could be dedicated to larger scale ISRU and
manufacturing capability. If unmanned missions can retire enough risk, is it not worth
asking: should the first manned mission not be larger?

Building large airships is not trivial - building them for Venus, all the less so. But at the
end of the day, large airships are something that we can and do build, and not at unrealistic
expense. Had fixed-wing aircraft proven impractical on Earth, lighter-than-air vehicles are
how we would all be engaging in air travel today. And indeed, one of the great advantages of
Venus as a destination is that it s similarity to Earth - temperature, pressure, gravity, etc -
make it easier to test for on Earth. With minor modifications, the same habitat designed for
use on Venus can be lofted on Earth with heliox (a mixture of helium and oxygen used for
diving), and support a crew inside of it - just as on Venus. Even ISRU can be effected to
some extent, condensing water from the atmosphere as if it were Venus s acid mists. That
said, to raise the TRL for habitat hardware to be used in the Venus environment, deploying
an unmanned small-scale demonstrator habitat on Venus would be an essential step (in
addition to a wide range of other requirements; see Preliminary steps).

If having a small manned habitat is desirable, however - and potentially even if it s

not - a nuclear thermal ascent vehicle presents an appealing alternative to chemical rockets.
 While the powerful zonal winds leave one with little control over longitude on Venus,
altitude and latitude can be selected. Altitude is determined by buoyancy, while latitude is
determined by propulsion against the relatively weak north/south (meridional) winds as
necessary. The combination of latitude and altitude determines the daily balance between
temperature and pressure, while latitude (and to a lesser extent, altitude) determines the
effective day length (via superperrotation).

The balance of these factors can be seen in the following graph (VIRTIS data):46

When considering the graph, internal daytime temperatures should be inflated

somewhat due to the presence of a greenhouse effect in the habitat. The bottom of the
graph, 55 km altitude, corresponds to 0.49 bar.47 The lifting gas mixture would be
approximately 40% oxygen. The blue dashed line corresponds to the level in which a pure
oxygen atmosphere has the same O 2 partial pressure as sea level on Earth (0.2 atm). The

46
Based on Piccialli, A. (2010). Cyclostrophic wind in the mesosphere of Venus from Venus Express observations . Berlin:
Uni-Edition.
47
VenusGram (2005) Venus Global Reference Atmospheric Model (Venus-GRAM) .
purple dashed line matches the O 2 partial pressure in Quito, Ecuador (2850m altitude) -
roughly the maximum comfort limit for your average individual. The top, red line represents
the Armstrong limit, the pressure at which water boils at body temperature.

Note that there are other data sources, and they re not entirely in agreement. While
VIRTIS data comes from IR cloud tracking, VeRa data comes from radio sounding and
yields these results for 60.0 km and 54.8 km, respectively:

Piccialli (2010) 48

VeRa does not provide a quality day/night breakdown; however, it provides greater
sensitivity and spatial resolution within the habitable zone.

We can make a number of general observations from these datasets.

● Staying near the equator is a bad option all around. In addition to a day that is six
earth days long, the habitat must be at quite low pressures to be able to have
earthlike temperatures after factoring in greenhouse heating. These low pressures
mean potential issues for health and comfort (discussed shortly), but more
importantly, reduced lift for the ascent vehicle.

● A broader range of latitudes and altitudes could be achieved by use of a climate

control system, although such systems are large and consume significant amounts
of power (see the sections Climate control and Transpiration)

● 70° latitude provides an interesting balance, including a 48-72 hour day length
(depending on whether VIRTIS or VeRa data is more accurate), little meridional drift,
and earthlike temperatures at around 0.5 atm. These sorts of pressures (provided for
by losing only nitrogen, not oxygen) correspond with little adverse negative health
effects (the only known one of significance is that the lungs are less effective at
coughing), and a number of advantages, including easier breathing,49 reasonable
plant growth and longer times for food spoilage (see Agriculture).

48
Piccialli, A. (2010). Cyclostrophic wind in the mesosphere of Venus from Venus Express observations . Berlin: Uni-Edition.
49
Parker, J. F., Jr., & West, V. R. (1973). Bioastronautics Data Book . NASA / BioTechnology, Inc. NASA SP-3006
 ● Further poleward allows for even shorter days and even higher pressures. However,
in addition to further reducing sunlight from the 70° environment, this places the
habitat close to the polar vortices:

(Photos: ESA/VIRTIS-VenusX/INAF-IASF/LESIA-Obs. de Paris (G. Piccioni, INAF-IASF)

How dangerous is turbulence in the polar vortices? It is difficult to say; no probe has
ever passed through them. While efforts continue to correlate our limited probe data with
longer-term satellite observations, without a longer-term presence in the clouds, our ability to
make firm conclusions is limited.
 Shifting weather systems observed in infrared by Akatsuki. Photos: ISIS / JAXA

To sum up, it appears that around 70° latitude and around 54-55km, around 0.5 atm,
appears to be an optimal location for an initial habitat. The climate is favorable and lift
significant. The geology around 70°N is arguably more interesting and diverse than 70°S,
including passing over Ishtar Terra. This considered a possible granitic remnant,50 has
conductive/semiconductive frosts in certain areas, is the location of Venus s highest
mountain (Maxwell Montes),51 and high terrain in general (least hostile surface conditions).
Consequently, would appear to be the preferred hemisphere for initial insertion. However,
transfer across the equatorial regions to the opposite hemisphere should be possible when
ascent vehicle propellant masses are low, allowing the habitat in order to float at higher
altitudes.

Entry and deployment

The traditional approach for Venus atmospheric entry - used by Vega, and proposed
for use in future unmanned balloon probes (such as VME) - is to use an aeroshell, a small
parachute, and a source of inflation gases to inflate the airship.

This system is functional, at least on the small scale. However, a typical

deceleration profile for a habitat tends to involve either problematically high velocities during
deployment or problematically high air density. As noted in the manned HAVOC habitat
proposal:

50
Shellnutt, J. G. (2013). Petrological modeling of basaltic rocks from Venus: A case for the presence of silicic rocks. Journal
of Geophysical Research: Planets, 118(6), 1350-1364. doi:10.1002/jgre.20094
51
Treiman, A., Harrington, E., & Sharpton, V. (2016). Venus radar-bright highlands: Different signatures and materials on
Ovda Regio and on Maxwell Montes . Icarus, 280, 172-182. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.07.001
 Analysis of point cases drawn from the
human mission design space showed that
dynamic pressures at parachute deployment
exceed the valid environment due to the relatively
low altitude at which the vehicle reaches Mach 2.1,
and resultant high density. The high dynamic
pressure is beyond the survival capability of
commonly used parachutes (such as
disc-gap-band) used in current planetary
exploration. Thus a different technology such as a
ribbon parachute or ballute must be used to slow
the vehicle enough to permit the airship to inflate
Mark 82 high-drag bombs utilize a ballute for
while under parachute 52 deceleration from high speeds. Photo: USAF

This is a key issue worthy of consideration; if you have to engineer a new

entry/deployment system regardless, you might as well focus on the version that provides
the greatest potential benefit to the mission. And in this case, this is arguably a ballute
(deceleration device based on a self-inflating balloon), for two main reasons.

Venus is arguably the most suitable body in the solar system for direct ballute entry.
TRL (technology readiness level) on ballutes for in-atmospheric use is high;53 for ballute
entry, it remains low, as such a system has never been deployed. However, ballutes allow
for much lighter system mass versus aeroshell entry, with much lower reentry temperatures
and somewhat lower decelerations.54 55 The ballute could remain a fully independent system
( towed ), or involve an integrated portion of the airship s envelope that is retained after full
inflation ( attached or cocoon ), optionally including the burble fence.

Reproduced from Hall (2000)

The other benefit is the provision of an initial inflation of the ballonets during reentry, a
concept previously researched for inflatable reentry systems. The gas is warmed by entry

52
Lugo, R. A., Ozoroski, T. A., Van Norman, J. W., Arney, D. C., Dec, J. A., Jones, C. A., Zumwalt, C. H.. High Altitude Venus
Operations Concept trajectory design, modeling and simulation. AAS 15-223.
53
Numerous examples in parachutes and air-dropped weaponry. As a spaceflight-related example, non-reentry ballutes
were used as a parachute stabilization system on Gemini; see
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/ch8-4.htm
54
Hall, J. (2000). A review of ballute technology for planetary aerocapture. Presented at the 4th IAA Conference on Low Cost
Planetary Missions, Laurel, MD, May 2-5, 2000.
55
McRonald, A. (1999). A light-weight inflatable hypersonic drag device for Venus entry . Presented at the AAS/AIAA
Astrodynamics Specialist Converence, Girdwood, AK, August 16-19, 1999.
heating, providing temporary buoyancy 56 - and thus helping reduce the time pressure to
complete inflation.

A ballute design is additionally useful one considers lift requirements. The mass of a
Venus habitat is overwhelmingly dominated by the heavy ascent vehicle slung underneath,
which is in turn overwhelmingly dominated by the mass of the propellant used by it. Other
significant sources of mass, such as plants and water, likewise come later. Thus, the entry
mass - and lift required to loft it - is far lower than the final mass and final lift requirements. As
a consequence, at arrival the ballonets need to be filled to their maximum inflation level, with
the initial lifting gas 57 only needed to fill the small habitable space not taken up by the
ballonets. Using a ballute system for inflation speeds the time to full deployment versus
relying only on the ballute fans.

In order to advance the tech readiness level for ballutes, it will be necessary to
demonstrate reliable deployment after months of storage packed, with aerodynamic stability
and heating in line with calculations. Successful demonstration of ballute entry for an
unmanned Venus probe would not only aid in the deployment of a Venus habitat, but
additionally be of use for payloads to Earth, Mars, Titan, and the gas and ice giants. NASA s
Low Density Supersonic Decelerator project is actively working to develop ballutes for use
on Mars.58

Photo: NASA

We will cover ballutes in more detail under Ballute considerations . A great deal of
additional information about ballute design and construction can be found in Griebel (2010).59

A somewhat similar alternative to ballutes has been proposed for the VAMP concept
(Venus Atmospheric Maneuverable Platform), and researched in general under the LEAF
(Lifting Entry / Atmospheric Flight) project.60 In this scenario, the craft is fully inflated in
56
NASA / Duvant, J. C., & Scher, S. H. (1970). U.S. Patent No. US 3508724 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office.
57
While initial gas in the habitable area would be helium from Earth, over time, local production of gases ultimately yields the
desired O 2 + N2 atmosphere therein. As an example, for 400 tonnes of the higher-energy-to-produce gas fraction, (oxygen
from CO 2, − H=393509 J/mol, byproduct CO, H=−110525 J/mol, 2 CO 2 → 2 CO + O 2, 1 MJ/mol-O 2, 31.5 MJ/kg) is 12.6 GJ.
Produced at 50% efficiency with 200kW peak power at 25% capacity factor would require only 2.9 Earth days to produce.
Practical limitations lie more on the production sdte - see In-Situ Resource Utilization.
58
Clark, I (2014). Low Density Supersonic Decelerator. Retrieved from
https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/IClark_LDSD(1).pdf
59
Griebel, H. (2011). Reaching high altitudes on Mars with an inflatable hypersonic drag balloon (Ballute) . Wiesbaden: Vieweg
Teubner Verlag.
60
Lee, G., Polidan, R.S., Ross, F. (2016). Venus Atmospheric Maneuverable Platform (VAMP) - A Low Cost Venus
Exploration Concept. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2015
space, with no openings/burble fence as in a ballute. The inflated shape then acts as a
hypersonic lifting body to maintain altitude as long as possible, while steadily adding gas
from tanks as it descends. While not providing for the filling of the ballonets, a lifting body
offers the potential to reduce peak envelope heating during entry.

There are many options for initial gases for inflation. For spacecraft, hydrogen and
helium are the most common inflation gases; however, tankage masses are typically much
higher than the mass of the gases themselves, a factor only worsened by increasing
pressures. Hydrogen can be produced from the decomposition of hydrogen-bearing
compounds, but the hydrogen only makes up a minority fraction of the mass. However, if the
remaining fraction is useful, then this seems a convenient means to transport hydrogen. For
example, ammonia decomposition over a catalyst (investigated as a means to generate
hydrogen for a hydrogen economy )61 proceeds as:

2 NH3 → N2 + 3 H2

The hydrogen (useful for fuel cell power generation, water production, and many other
applications) can be separated for the nitrogen (an important lifting gas) by a molecular sieve
or selective membrane. There is an almost unlimited number of compounds which can be
decomposed to yield lifting gases; most are exothermic, additionally increasing lift via
heating. Additional moles of light gas could be created via the endothermic reverse water gas
shift reaction (up to the maximum saturation vapour pressure of water in the envelope):

CO 2 + H2 → H2O + CO

Alternatively, accelerated atmospheric CO 2 removal (e.g. ethanolamine stripping)

could potentially yield nitrogen fast enough to inflate the habitat during its descent.

Docking, ascent and descent

As discussed previously, one of the greatest challenges with Venus is getting people
to and from the habitat. Beyond simple considerations of propellants and staging, we must
consider the details of docking, fuelling, and restaging.

There are many problems with docking a heavy

object anywhere but the underside of the habitat -
including weight balance, increased risk of damage,
greater difficulty mounting docking hardware on the
upper side, and so forth. An underside docking location
would be equivalent to the trapeze docking of
airplanes on the USS Macon and USS Akron.
F9C-2 Sparrowhawk fighter docked with the
Analysis argues against many means of airship USS Macon. The USS Macon and Akron
served as airborne aircraft carriers in the 1930s.
maintaining lift and maneuvering into docking position. Photo: Naval History Center.

61
Bell, T. E., and L. Torrente-Murciano. H2 Production via Ammonia Decomposition Using Non-Noble Metal Catalysts: A
Review. Topics in Catalysis 59.15-16 (2016): 1438-457. Web.
Rockets (traditional or rotary), battery- powered propellers (rotary or fixed wing craft)
turboprops, and so forth always yield short flight times, high system masses, and have
catastrophic failure modes. In practice, only one sort of non-nuclear system combines low
mass, long flight times and gentle failure modes: lighter-than-air vehicles. A lighter than air
vehicle can maneuver to underneath the habitat, where an arm or tethered drone can
connect a docking cable to a mast on the top. Once tethered, the arriving vehicle reduces its
lift to tension the cable and is then winched into place.

Assuming that crews must climb, suited up into the habitat, this implies an airlock on
the bottom of the habitat. Thankfully, since there is little pressure differential between inside
and outside, an airlock on Venus is quite simple, comprised of 1) a section of framed, loose,
doubled-up envelope film; 2) a platform to stand or rest cargo on inside; and a 3) system to
evacuate air out of the space between layers, then blow in air from the opposite side. A
person or cargo inside briefly becomes shrink wrapped before being free to open the seal
and emerge on the other side.

Implementing docking by means of lighter-than-air vehicle means that it faces the

same requirements as the habitat itself faced on arrival, and thus the ideal solutions are the
same. While disposable vehicles are possible and potentially economically viable in the short
term, for long-term viability, ascent vehicles need to be able to be used multiple times. Thus,
we will consider the sort of ascent and descent cycle that could take crew and supplies to
orbit for rendezvous and return back to the habitat for reuse.

One of the first challenges faced by the ascent vehicle is to provide an abort
scenario. If the vehicle is dropped from the habitat and then needs to abort, it cannot be
recovered. A balloon, sized to bring an empty returning vehicle to the habitat, will not have
the lift to counter the mass of a fully fuelled vehicle, and would face a heavy wind load in free
fall. There is grossly insufficient time in which to empty the stage of propellant. Stages could
potentially be jetisoned as an abort scenario, but would thus be lost.

Another problem arises with launching the ascent vehicle, this time for the habitat: the
ascent vehicle represents a large portion, if not the majority, of the habitat s mass. This
sudden change in the mass/buoyancy of the habitat and the resultant stresses pose a
serious risk to the its structural integrity.

The solution to both of these is to provide an equivalent to hold-down for a launch by

having the ascent vehicle tethered to the habitat on a winch - for example, with 500m of
cable available. As the brake is let off, the vehicle begins falling, building up inertia while the
habitat begins accelerating upward. Once the two are sufficiently far apart, and with sufficient
downward velocity in the ascent vehicle, the engines can be ignited without risk to the
habitat. If ignition is successful, the cable can be detached; the ascent vehicle finishes
cancelling its downward velocity and ascends (at an angle), while the habitat vents gas to
reduce lift and uses its upward velocity to funnel air into its ballonets. If instead an abort is
required, within seconds 62 the engine can be shut off, the vehicle (and habitat) braked to a

62
Free fall without accounting for wind resistance: t =sqrt(2d/a). In 8.7 m/s² gravitational acceleration with 250m for
acceleration and 250m for deceleration at the same rate yields 7.6 seconds, more than ample for a go/no-go decision.
stop, and then winched back up. The cable and winch masses in such a scenario are
reasonable.63

Boost stages of ascent vehicles appear to present a frustrating scenario: that new
stages would have to be continually imported from Earth. Building a rocket stage locally is
anything but a near-term scenario. Working from this, one arrives at moderately-term in-situ
alternative: drop tanks. Unlike a full stage, a drop tank - lacking engines - can be a very
simple structure to build, requiring relatively little imported hardware. Hence, a stage and a
half approach would appear to be an improved ascent architecture. Any drop tanks
produced in the habitat must be able to fit through the central channel and out the bottom
airlock. Despite such tanks being much simpler than building a rocket locally, they still
represent a significant manufacturing challenge and are not a near-term solution.

A potentially superior solution arises when one considers what happens when you
drop a tank or stage on Venus. It descends in the atmosphere, which becomes
progressively denser and hotter, heating up the residual propellant and oxidizer64 and thus
providing counterpressure on the stage; sufficient pressure to resist collapse is easy to
achieve.65 Should it have a net density lighter than Venus s 67 kg/m³ median surface density
- which most empty rocket stages and tanks do - it eventually hits an atmospheric layer in
which it floats. So long as the heat does not compromise its structural integrity, it could be
recovered.66
Taking this even further, we arrive at the
concept of deliberately floating returning tanks or
stages in middle cloud layer - akin to how returning
crew vehicles would dock with the habitat. As with
before, the best way to do that would be a
restowable balloon or ballute. Hence all of our
stages follow the same principle: a tank or rocket
that returns to the habitat by inflating an envelope of
light gas, redocks, restows its envelope, and is
carried underneath the habitat for future use. As
unusual as a buoyant rocket may sound, the Concept artwork from the 1960s Douglas OOST /
ROOST / ROMBUS design study.
concept is not new; it was investigated for ROOST, Image: San Diego Air & Space Museum.
intended as a VTVL successor to the Saturn V.67

63
For example, a 100kW Emrax 268 motor at 12kg paired with a 8kg inverter yields a power density of 5kW/kg. To raise a
140 tonne loaded ascent vehicle against a gravitational field of 8.7 m/s^2 for 0.5km requires ~609MJ. To do this in 1 hour
thus requires a motor + inverter mass of 34kg. 0.5km of cable at a static loading of 1GPa (allowing for dynamic loadings
several times higher, plus a reasonable safety margin) holding said mass requires 3.5cm² of cross section; at 2g/cm³ the
added mass is 1.2 tonnes. While structural and braking hardware adds to the total, there is little complication to the mass
budget.
64
NASA MSFC (1971) Saturn V launch vehicle flight evaluation report AS-509: Apollo 14 Mission, MPR-SAT-FE-71-1: Saturn
V S-IVB residual/reserve propellant = 3.4% of total; Saturn V S-II = 1.3%
D. R. Jenkins (1993),"Space Shuttle: The history of developing the National Space Transportation System; The beginning
through STS-50. Waldworth Publishing Company, Marceline: Space Shuttle residual propellant = 0.7% of total
65
As an example, 1% residual propellant at 1 g/cm³ and a molecular weight of 16, boiled off at 25°C, yields (PV=nRT) a
pressure of ~1.52MPa (~15 atm) - not accounting for residual pressurant.
66
Based on calculations from Jonathan Goff; retrieved from http://selenianboondocks.com/2013/11/venusian-rocket-floaties/
67
OOST. Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved from http://www.astronautix.com/o/oost.html
 Before refilling and relaunch, stages must be remounted to each other. In a
conventional mounting configuration, this would require the importation of an interstage, or at
least explosive bolts, for each launch. Unconventional staging options, such as clamping or
magnetic connections, can also be considered during the design phase.

While there may be some initial inflation potential from residual fuel or oxidizer (having
boiled off while the craft was in orbit / on reentry), calculations suggest that this would be
insufficient in most cases.68 Hence, the rocket needs to have extra propellant or pressurant
onboard for inflation. The same factors that govern initial habitat inflation affect the initial lifting
gas choice, and thus the optimal solution is likely the same: catalytically decomposed
ammonia, optionally combined with the reverse water gas shift reaction or atmospheric
nitrogen.

Lastly, the balloon has to be able to be restowed if the vehicle is to be reused. Various
systems for automatically restowing parachutes on aircraft have been considered in the
past.69 70 Manual balloon restowing is also possible, within the constraints discussed under
Chemical Environment and Resource Considerations .

In addition to vehicles designed for crew ascent/descent, it would be beneficial to

have a small cargo vehicle for use in sending unmanned payloads from Earth. The same
design principles apply to it as to manned designs. Such a vehicle would be much simpler
and cheaper by means of not needing to return to orbit. It could likewise be disassembled for
parts after being emptied.

As discussed previously, a number of good-performing propellants are cryogenic,

raising the issue of storage. On Earth, LOX is generally stored in vacuum tanks, which tend
to be very heavy and would need to be imported from Earth. Vacuum tanks are used not
only because of the high degree of insulation required, but because traditional insulations
perform poorly at cryogenic temperatures.71

An interesting alternative presents itself naturally on Venus: carbon dioxide. Carbon

dioxide has a low thermal conductivity (half that of oxygen and nitrogen, 8% that of helium)72
and, by nature of freezing directly to a solid at pressures below 5 atm, does not flow away
like oxygen or nitrogen and is thus immune to cryopumping. These properties have led to
research on the use of carbon dioxide as a rocket insulation even for applications on Earth:73

68
A tank with a 5% mass fraction containing 1% residual propellant weighs five times as much as its propellant, meaning that
every kilogram of propellant must provide at least five kg of lift for the tank and one for itself: that is, the ratio of atmospheric
density to propellant density must be at least 6:1. As carbon dioxide has a molecular weight of 44g/mol, this implies that the
residual propellant (fuel and oxidizer combined) must have a molecular weight of 7.3g/mol or less - a generally unrealistic
scenario.
69
Heffernan, R. C. (1950). U.S. Patent No. US 2513867 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
70
Bowden, M. K., & Buck, J. C. (1965). U.S. Patent No. US 3222014 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
71
Technifab Products. Cryogenic Insulation. Retrieved from
https://technifab.com/cryogenic-resource-library/cryogenic-thermodynamics/cryogenic-insulation/
72
Engineers Edge. Thermal Conductivity of Gases Chart. Retrieved from
http://www.engineersedge.com/heat_transfer/thermal-conductivity-gases.htm
73
Sharpe, E. L., Jackson, L. R. (1975). Performance of a hypersonic hot fuselage structure with a carbon dioxide frost
protected, nonintegral cryogenic tank . Langley Research Center Hampton, Va.
 Data from Anderson and Jackson (1967),74 illustrating the effect of temperature (left) and density (porosity) on the
thermal conductivity of loose-fill fibre insulation (72kg/m³) with either helium (blue) or CO 2 (red) in the pore space. Both are at
1 ATM. The left graph is at a constant 400kg/m³ frost density, while the right is averaged across 21°K to 167°K (CO 2) / 195°K
(He). Figures of merit (density * conductivity, faint lines) are also illustrated on the right.

CO 2 insulation can range from a light, porous fluff to dense ice; left for long periods, it
tends to slowly densify. Porous CO 2 ice is created by condensing the carbon dioxide in the
presence of significant amounts of a dilutant gas. For deep cryogenic storage (e.x. LH2), only
helium is a practical dilutant. For milder cryogenic storage (e.x. LOX or warmer), gases with
higher boiling points, such as nitrogen, can be used.

While porous CO 2 performs significantly better than dense CO 2, even the latter
provides significant insulation as its thickness increases. Hence, one option for insulated
tanks on Venus may be the air itself. A thick layer of CO 2 would build up on the tank over
time, until the heat flow matches the rate of heat loss at CO 2 sublimation temperatures. At
those temperatures, regular insulations work well; hence, to reduce heat loss further the
rocket could be stored docked into cocoon of loose-fill insulation. During launch, any CO 2
that did not remain attached to the cocoon can be expected to break free (akin to what
happens to ice with rockets on Earth); carbon dioxide frosts are notably fragile, and without a
matrix to hold it onto, tends to spall off.75

Regardless of the insulation system, any cryogenic coolant system would be a

relatively large, heavy piece of hardware. Hence, avoiding or minimizing the use of cryogens
remains desirable.

While either fuel or oxidizer may be stored inside a stage while it is stowed close to
the habitat, the vehicle must be positioned well away from the habitat when both are loaded,
in order to limit the potential damage to the habitat in the event of an accident.

Development of the ascent vehicles will likely prove to be among the most expensive
and challenging aspect of the entire programme.

74
Anderson, M. S., Jackson, L. R. (1967). A carbon dioxide purge and thermal protection system for liquid hydrogen tanks of
hypersonic airplanes . NASA NSF GK-1116.
75
Sharpe, E. L., Jackson, L. R. (1975). Performance of a hypersonic hot fuselage structure with a carbon dioxide frost
protected, nonintegral cryogenic tank . Langley Research Center Hampton, Va.
Advanced Concepts
A number of advanced concepts developed for Earth have applicability on Venus as
well.

● Airbreathing engines

Despite the lack of oxygen, airbreathing engines - both subsonic and supersonic
(scramjets) are possible in Venus. For example, CEA2 simulation of burning hydrogen with
atmospheric air (100 bar, 50:1 expansion ratio, 250°K ambient air temperature) begins with
the Bosch reaction (CO 2 + 2 H2 → C + 2 H2O ), transitioning to the additional synthesis of
methane and then ammonia at high hydrogen ratios. At low hydrogen:air molar ratios, thrust
is poor but specific impulse excellent, and vice versa; for example, at 0.2:1, effective ISP
(impulse scaled by the fuel-air ratio) is 10417 sec; at 1:1, 3147 sec; and at 10:1, 752 sec.
This however does not account for the drag involved accelerating the incoming air mass,
which is particularly problematic at low hydrogen ratios; increasing thrust (and thus
hydrogen) is required with increasing speed. As the Bosch reaction is less energetic than
hydrogen-oxygen combustion, performance for Venus scramjets can be expected to be
lower than scramjets on Earth.

● Air augmentation
The rocket equivalent of a high-bypass jet engine, air augmentation increases
efficiency of a rocket engine by converting a high velocity / low mass exhaust stream into a
low velocity / high mass exhaust stream. This comes at the cost of the mass of the duct to
draw air into the exhaust stream.76 For a given atmospheric pressure and velocity, such a
duct on Venus would yield a greater mass of air than it would on Earth due to the higher
molecular weight of Venus s atmosphere.

● Nuclear thermal
As developed under the NERVA programme
between 1952 and 1972, nuclear thermal propulsion -
using a fission reactor to heat propellant - has
demonstrated a specific impulse of 850 sec with
hydrogen propellant, albeit at a low thrust to weight
ratio. Modern designs, such as with a pebble bed core,
can be expected to achieve around 1000 sec ISP.
However, the specific impulse drops off with increasing
Technicians manufacture a nozzle for the Kiwi
molecular weight. As potential non-hydrogen B-1-B nuclear rocket engine as part of the
propellants on Venus are 14-22 times heavier than NERVA programme. Photo: NASA / GRC
hydrogen, alternative propellants are generally not realistic choices. This is not a limitation for
NTR ramjet (e.g. Project Pluto) bimodal nuclear thermal designs, but the added mass for
airbreathing operation further limits the thrust to weight ratio.

76
Sutton, G. P., & Biblarz, O. (2016). Rocket propulsion elements . John Wiley & Sons.
 A number of NTR concepts exist. In LANTR, a LOX afterburner lowers the ISP by a
third when in use, but triples the thrust, allowing for a much improved thrust-to-weight ratio.
The afterburner can be shut off partway through ascent to improve the impulse when high
thrust is no longer needed.77

In-between airbreathing and NTR or LANTR modes there also exist air augmented
(NEAR)78 and scramjet (NTTR)79 designs (Bosch reaction on Venus). Some possible rough
performance figures from a habitat to HEVO can be seen in the following table:

ISP (sec) T:W Engine Misc inert Dry mass (t) Propellant (t) dV (km/s) Payload (t)
NTR 900 11 9.1% 18% 32.2 118.9 10.6 18.9
500/∞
NTR Ramjet /3.5k/900 10 10% 0% / 18% 29.2 104.5 0.4/1/1.2/8 36.3

LANTR 550 / 900 37 2.7% 6.5%/18% 24.9 120.2 3 / 7.6 25.0

LANTR+NEAR 550/3.5k/900 23 2.9% 6.5%/18% 21.3 108.3 0.4/2.2/8 40.4
NTTR 1k / 3k / 900 31 3.2% 18% 17.5 82.3 0.4/6.3/3.9 70.2
1g acceleration (lifting body design) at liftoff; thrust:weight ratio is at liftoff and relative to Venus gravity; engine (incl. neutron
shield and intakes) and misc inert fractions are relative to vehicle wet mass; misc inert includes tankage, plumbing, etc.
NTTR ISP reduced due to Bosch reaction rather than H2/O 2 combustion.

The ramjet concept above is assumed to use pure NTR to accelerate up to ram
speeds, but could utilize a LANTR-style LOX afterburner to achieve a lower engine mass at
the cost of some specific impulse. All processes incorporating the external air are
particularly interesting, as they yield significant extra reaction mass; the hardware to utilize it
comes at a mass penalty, but offsets an even greater amount of reactor mass.

While public fears of atmospheric contamination have hindered NTR development on

Earth, opposition would likely be reduced for a craft that only operates on Venus. Overall, the
payload figures to a high orbit are quite impressive. While the amount of hydrogen
consumption is very high, and hydrogen is difficult to acquire on Venus, the ascent vehicle
could simply be scaled down, reducing both payload and propellant consumption. This has
the side benefit of allowing the initial habitat to be smaller, as it does not have to loft such a
heavy ascent vehicle. A caveat must be added, however, in that NTR performance and
thrust-to-weight ratios decline as the reactor size decreases.

Techniques have been proposed to improve NTR specific impulses further.

Examples include a thin-film fission fragment reactor (propellant heated directly by fission
fragments in fine channels, thus avoiding its energy transfer through the fuel) or a nuclear
lightbulb plasma or misty core (core meltdown is allowed but the fuel is kept suspended in a
transparent channel, radiatively heating the propellant outside). The higher hydrogen
temperature provided for by such concepts can increase the pure NTR to 2000-4000 sec ISP;
however, they present more challenging design issues. Fission fragment reactors require
extremely narrow fuel elements (films / wires) and high neutron economy, while the
transparent medium on a nuclear lightbulb tends to suffer from radiation blackening.

77
Davis, E. W. (2004) Advanced Propulsion Study . Warp Drive Metrics / Air Force Research Laboratory.
AFRL-PR-ED-TR-2004-0024
78
Adams, R., & Landrum, D. (2001). Analysis of a nuclear enhanced airbreathing rocket for earth to orbit applications . 37th
Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit. doi:10.2514/6.2001-3205
79
Bucknell, J. R. (2015). The Nuclear Thermal Turbo Rocket - A Conceptual High-Performance Earth-to-Orbit Propulsion
System. 51st AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference. doi:10.2514/6.2015-3958
 ● Kinetic suspended structures
While current material technology is 1 ½ orders of magnitude from the requirements
of a realistic space elevator on Earth,80 the problem is far worse on Venus, where slow
rotation rates (with respect to the cloud layer, or particularly with respect to the surface)
makes the challenge even greater. High latitude space elevators are even more
complicated. However, an alternative exists in the form of structures suspended by kinetic
energy. Two notable examples of this are the space fountain and the launch loop. Neither
are near-term options on Earth, let alone on Venus; however, they present interesting
possibilities for the long-term.

Left: space fountain (Credit: Pengo). Right: launch loop (Credit: Keith Lofstrom).

In a space fountain, particles (microscopic or macroscopic) are accelerated around a

curve at a base station As they reach the target altitude, they are redirected back down via a
magnet, transferring their kinetic energy to the station. Elevators likewise can tap into the
force up the upflowing particle stream to hitch a free ride. The in-atmosphere portion of the
particle stream must be protected in a vacuum tube, but outside of the atmosphere it can fly
unshielded. The only energy requirements are to make up for lifting payloads and losses in
the system (such as from an imperfect vacuum). The whole weight of the system, including
the space station, is borne by the base magnets. On Venus, these would be located on a
large (potentially toroidal) airship.

In a launch loop (sometimes called Lofstrom loop , after its designer), an iron band
rotates between two base stations which magnetically deflect it back; the loop flies in an
effectively ballistic trajectory, shaped by stabilization cables with material requirements
achievable with today s technology and via ISRU. Like with the space fountain, the
in-atmospheric portion must be protected by a vacuum sheath. Unlike a space fountain, a
launch loop does not just lift vehicles up, but also propels them onto an orbital or transfer
trajectory.

A variety of other such concepts exist, such as skyhooks, electrotubes, guns

(combustion and magnetic varieties), and many others.81 While all such technologies are at

80
Edwards, B. (2003) The Space Elevator: NIAC Phase II Final Report.
81
Davis, E. W. (2004) Advanced Propulsion Study . Warp Drive Metrics / Air Force Research Laboratory.
AFRL-PR-ED-TR-2004-0024
this point in time only concepts, they present interesting potential for the long-term on not just
Earth, but Venus as well.

Buoyancy control
A lighter than air vehicle faces issues related to an ever-shifting balance between
buoyancy and mass. External temperature and pressure changes, and particularly internal
temperature changes due to daytime solar heating, can dramatically alter this balance. One
common reason for aluminizing aerial vehicle skins is to help maintain a more constant
internal temperature and thus buoyancy. For a Landis habitat, this is not an option. On Earth,
even the presence of a cloud passing over an airship or moving from snow reflection to bare
ground can reduce lift by significant amounts.82 An airship operating at roughly ambient
pressure with excess lift will continue to rise until its ballonets are completely deflated (where
it must either vent the primary envelope or burst); an airship with insufficient lift will continue
to descend until it is destroyed.

We will examine some of the various means to control buoyancy.

Venting and addition of gases: This is commonly used by airships on Earth, where
resupply is readily available. On Venus, the only gases available are produced locally. To
some extent, this is possible to do; return vehicle oxidizers (such as boiled-off LOX or MON
decomposed to O 2 and N2) can be used to quickly provide more lift in the habitat, while
distilled atmospheric nitrogen can be added more slowly. However, lift conditions will strongly
vary between day and night, particularly due to the greenhouse effect within the envelope;
repeatedly venting large amounts of gas every day is not a practical solution, and should
only be done in emergency situations.

Active propulsion and lift: Upwards or

downwards thrust can - at a cost of power -
compensate for buoyancy changes. To reduce the
mass and energy cost of active propulsion, new
airship designs known as hybrid airships maintain
a shape as a lifting body. By varying their amount
of lift they can compensate for any buoyancy
changes.83

Airlander 10, the first large-scale hybrid airship.

While this works well on Earth for airships Photo: Philbo Bagshot.
transporting goods between different locations and
thus always under thrust, a Venus habitat generally has reduced power on hand at night and
thus reduced ability to provide lift. That said, a lifting body remains worthy of consideration for
one significant reason: it is acceptable, and in fact desirable, to sink to a lower altitude at
night when the ambient temperature drops (as covered previously). Hence a lifting body

82
Khoury, G. A. (2012). Airship technology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:9781107019706
83
Khoury 2012.
could allow for a degree of additional payload capacity, of assistance in lofting a heavier
return stage.

Superpressure balloons: Rather than remaining

the same pressure as their environment, superpressure
balloons maintain significantly higher internal pressures
and keep a roughly constant volume. Akin to a party
balloon, superpressure balloons were used in the Vega
programme and are popular proposals for unmanned
Venus probes:

The gas mass inside the volume of a

superpressure balloon, as it lacks ballonets, remains
constant. As it descends, the surrounding atmosphere
becomes denser and its lift increases. As it rises, the
reverse happens. Hence, superpressure balloons are
passively stable, and present a simple solution for
buoyancy control. While this is an excellent solution for
small probes, it does not scale up well. As discussed
European Venus Explorer concept art. previously, envelope mass is proportional to the tensile
Photo: ESA load which it must bear due to the pressure differential.
On the scale of an entire manned habitat, this would make for a tremendous mass penalty.

Mechanical compression balloons: Similar to superpressure balloons, mechanical

compression balloons are able to exert varying pressure and thus greater lift control. They
function as a high altitude analogue of the bellows balloon.

Venus altitude cycling balloon concept. Photo: NASA

Phase-change balloons: Also known as reversible-fluid zero-pressure balloons.

For every stable substance, there are varying temperature and pressure conditions in which
it will change phase between a solid or liquid and a gas. It is common for substances to shift
phase naturally at different points in an atmospheric column relative to the local temperature
and pressure conditions. Wherein a substance boils off lower in the atmosphere and
condenses at higher altitudes, or is absorbed into / boiled off from another compound, it
provides a passive, semistable form of buoyancy control. This has been demonstrated on
Earth in the ALICE project, which launched
reversible methylene chloride balloons between
1993 and 1997.84

While this approach overcomes all of the

disadvantages of the aforementioned concepts, it
does have some issues of its own. While initially
assumed to provide a stable altitude, it has since
been determined that phase change balloons
inherently oscillate in the atmosphere relative to
their rate of heat exchange with the surrounding
air. Interestingly, some proposals for unmanned
Venus balloon probes plan to take advantage of
this fact to allow the same balloon to passively
explore multiple levels of the atmosphere.85

In selecting the working fluid, one can Balloon ALtItude Control Experiment (ALICE).
choose the stabilization altitude in the atmosphere. Photo: NASA

By containing the phase change fluid in its liquid state, ascent can be prevented until the
liquid is released (useful for landers that need to ascend back up to a target altitude).86 The
optimal fluid for the middle cloud level on Venus is an ammonia-water mixture - the exact
ratio determining the stabilization altitude.87

Left: A phase-change envelope

containing 1000kg of ammonia-
water mixture and 20000kg of
Venus air. The color bands
correspond to different external
pressures (top labels), which in
turn corresponds to specific
altitudes. Plotted over this is the
actual temperature/ pressures at
70° latitude during day and night.
Lift ranges from negative at low
temperatures, as the fluid is
overwhelmingly liquid, to very
positive as it displaces CO2. The
lift curves truncate abruptly as all
of the fluid is evaporated.

84
Nock, K., Aaron, K., Jones, J., Mcgee, D., Powell, G., Yavrouian, A., & Wu, J. (1995). Balloon ALtItude Control Experiment
(ALICE) project. 11th Lighter-than-Air Systems Technology Conference. doi:10.2514/6.1995-1632
85
Nock, K., Anderson, J., Bachelder, A., Balaram, J., Cameron, J., Heun, M., . . . E, A. (1997). The development of a
Planetary Aerobot Testbed. International Balloon Technology Conference. doi:10.2514/6.1997-1444
86
Nock et al, 1997.
87
Jones, J. (1995). Reversible fluid balloon altitude control concepts . 11th Lighter-than-Air Systems Technology Conference.
doi:10.2514/6.1995-1621
 Substance Altitude
The greater the surface area and thus rate of Water 42 km
exchange with the outside atmosphere, the lower the 50% Ammonia / Begins 49 km, 90%
degree of oscillation. The entire lift does not need to be 50% Water condensed at 55km
88% Ammonia / Begins 54 km, 90%
provided by the phase change system - only the
12% Water condensed at 60km
difference between daily peak and minimal lift
Fe0.8Ni0.2Ti(H)x
conditions. Hence, the system represents a small 50 km
chemisorption
mini-balloon system within part of the envelope, CaCl2(NH3)x
57 km
ideally covering a large surface area but minimal chemisorption
thickness in order to allow for rapid heat exchange. Methylene chloride 58 km

Both ammonia and water are readily produced from Venus s atmosphere, as will be
discussed under In-Situ Resource Utilization. Hence an aerial vehicle can arrive with only a
minimal stabilization system, facing wilder, high-altitude swings, and produce more before
the crew arrives.

A phase-change balloon was proposed for the European Venus Explorer (EVE).

Other options include allowing the humidity to vary within the habitat itself by
throttling the transpiration condensers; humidity fluctuations however come at the cost of
comfort.

Climate control
As noted under Deployment: Where and How, the ability to control the interior
temperature would allow for increased lift via flight at lower, hotter altitudes. However, this
comes with mass and power constraints which bear examination. As environmental control
systems (ECS) for spacecraft involve radically different environments than a Venus aerial
habitat, and ECS data for airships on Earth is limited, we will first examine ECS for large
commercial aircraft.

To provide for climate control in a commercial aircraft, bleed

air (150°-220°C / 250-450 kPa) is directed into the air cycle machine
(ACM). Therein it passes through a heat exchanger, cooling it to
ambient. A centrifugal compressor then compresses the air, raising
its temperature to around 250°C. After a second heat exchanger
cools it to ambient, the air is expanded, cooling it to below ambient.
The air is then demisted with a cyclonic separator and provided to
the cabin - for a typical commercial aircraft, around 2 kg/s airflow
rate,88 with a system mass of around 80kg.89 Such a unit can
Centrifugal impeller blade. generate temperatures as low as -20 to -30°C
Photo: S. J. de Waard

88
Guo, W., Ke, P., & Zhang, S. (2015). Effects of Environment Control System Operation on Ozone Retention Inside Airplane
Cabin. Procedia Engineering, 121, 396-403. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.1084
89
Torhorst, S., Hölzel, N., Gollnick, V. (2014) Identification and evaluation of the potentials of Prognostics and Health
Management in future civil aircraft. European Conference of the Prognostics and Health Management Society 2014.
 Unfortunately, this does not work out well for our needs. Aircraft generally use an
ACM due to the availability of a bleed air stream (the engines) and a direct compressor drive,
sacrificing efficiency (air cycle cooling being inefficient) for reduced mass and simplicity.
Lacking jet engines aboard a habitat and requiring efficiency, other options would appear to
be superior.

On the simplicity side, absorption chilling

appears to be a winner, with no moving parts. In an
typical absorption chiller, a mixture of fluids is
heated in a high pressure chamber, driving off the
volatile phase to condense onto the radiator feed
and transfer to it the heat of condensation. The pure
volatile phase moves to a low pressure chamber
where, through evaporation, it chills the cooling
feed, then condenses back into the non-volatile Image: R718.com

phase. A
single-pressure variant using three fluids (such as H2, NH3 and H2O) also exists. While a
mature technology, absorption chillers unfortunately have poor coefficients of performance
(COP), under 2,90 moving the power requirements to unrealistic levels.

A number of other technologies exist. Thermoelectric (Peltier) cooling systems are

very small and light, but have terrible COP (typically 0.4-0.7).91 Vortex tube systems convert
a compressed gas into a hot and cold stream - while turboexpander variants have theoretical
maximum COPs as high as 20, traditional real-world vortex tubes have COPs of only
0.03-0.05.92 Of cryocooling technologies with high-COP room-temperature potential,
magnetic refrigeration shows promise, but is still immature in this role.93 Thermoacoustic
refrigeration (standing wave gas cycle), while with potential for advancement, currently does
not compete with more traditional systems in terms of COP.94 In short, the best option
appears to be the most mundane: vapour- compression
cycle.

Familiar in the form of air conditioners,

refrigerators, and large industrial chillers,
vapour-compression cycle chillers involve. A
compressor takes incoming warmed vapour and
compresses it to high pressures, heating it further in the
process. Passing through a radiator, it loses heat,
condensing the liquid. As the collected liquid passes

90
Triple Effect Chiller . Thermax. Retrieved from
http://www.thermaxglobal.com/thermax-absorption-cooling-systems/vapour-absorption-machines/triple-effect-chillers/
91
How efficient is a thermoelectric cooler? IV-VI Marlow. Retrieved from
http://www.marlow.com/resources/general-faq/14-how-efficient-is-a-thermoelectric-cooler.html/
92
Polihronov, J. G., & Straatman, A. G. (2015). The maximum coefficient of performance (COP) of vortex tubes . Canadian
Journal of Physics, 93(11), 1279-1282. doi:10.1139/cjp-2015-0089
93
Aprea, C., Greco, A., & Maiorino, A. (2014). Magnetic refrigeration: a promising new technology for energy saving.
International Journal of Ambient Energy , 37(3), 294-313. doi:10.1080/01430750.2014.962088
94
Zolpakar, N. A., Mohd-Ghazali, N., & El-Fawal, M. H. (2016). Performance analysis of the standing wave thermoacoustic
refrigerator: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 54, 626-634.
 Image: Keenan Pepper through an expansion valve, a fraction of the liquid
flashes off, chilling the remainder in the process.

While the compression

requirement increases the
complexity and maintenance,
vapour cycle coolers are
mature and highly efficient. A
variety of refrigerants are
available that can be produced
locally without requiring rare
elements such as fluorine.

Even carbon dioxide

can be used as a refrigerant;
however, it requires very high Based data from the NIST Chemistry Webbook. 95

pressures and is suboptimal for the temperature range at hand.96 Of the above refrigerants -
if properly isolated to prevent the risk of leaks, due to their toxicity - ammonia and sulfur
dioxide are the most interesting. Both are readily producible locally, with high heats of
vaporization and high volumetric specific heat capacity. Sulfur dioxide is more toxic but less
prone to permeation through polymer membranes; it is also produced as a byproduct of
direct water and oxygen production from sulfuric acid (see In-Situ Resource Utilization).
Ammonia is lighter and is one of the most common industrial refrigerants.

Before we can look at mass and power considerations, we need to decide on an

architecture. While traditional heat exchanger options exist, an appealing alternative would be
to integrate pressurized tube rigidization into the airship on the exterior (such as fins or
portions of the envelope), thus having the radiators double as structural elements. The ratio
of liquid to gas in the tubes would also vary with altitude, acting similar to a phase-change
altitude stabilization envelope. Such tubes would need to drain back toward the interior and
be tolerant of changes in airship pitch. Another consideration is the use of the cooling system
to drive dehumidification, rather than requiring a separate closed-cycle dehumidifier.

While single-stage chillers with reciprocating compressors as used in home

refrigerators and air conditioners may have a dry-air COP of around 3.5 for a relatively small
lift, centrifugal and screw industrial chillers often have a COP of 5 or higher for small
temperature differences, and top-end magnetic bearing VFD centrifugal compressors can
exceed 10.97 As our needs are both large-scale and aerospace (high budget), we will
assume a relatively high dry-air COP of 7 for a lift of 30°C (just under half the Carnot
efficiency), with outlet air of 283°K (10°C) chilling the envelope to 293°K (20°C) versus a
313°K (40°C) exterior temperature during the daytime at 0.5 bar. How large of a system
would be needed and how much power would it require?

95
NIST Chemistry Webbook . National Institutes of Standards and Technology.
96
(2015) Commercial CO2 Refrigeration Systems . Emerson Climate Technologies.
97
(2009) Energy Efficiency Best Practice Guide - Industrial Refrigeration. Sustainability Victoria. State Government Victoria,
Australia.
 Ideally the entire structure would be modeled for CFD simulation, but for now we will
do a simple radiation balance and convection calculation. Radiation for a grey body is defined
by:

j* = A ε σ T⁴

Where:
● j* is the total radiative power across all wavelengths
● A is the surface area
● is the emissivity
● σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.670373e-8 W/m²-K⁻4
● T is the temperature in Kelvin

We face a challenge in the presence of transparency with varying internal elements

radiating through it; for approximation purposes will simply model it as a 130 meter diameter
sphere with an average emissivity of 0.2 and a surface temperature halfway between the
exterior and interior (303°K / 30°C). Outbound radiation is thus 5.08 MW. For the incoming
radiation, we will treat it as representing a scenario where the equilibrium interior temperature
due to sun exposure would be 15° over ambient (328°K / 45°C); this yields 6.97 MW
incoming radiation, for a net difference of 1.89 MW.

For convective losses, we will use Newton s Law of Cooling:

P = h A ΔT

Where:
● P is the heat energy transferred per second (power)
● h is the heat transfer coefficient
● A is the surface area, 4 r²
● T is the temperature difference (20°K)

Subsequently, we calculate the heat transfer coefficient as:

h = Nu k / L

Where:
● Nu is the Nusselt number
● k is the fluid s thermal conductivity - for CO 2, 0.01784 W/m-K
● L is the characteristic length (for a sphere, the diameter) - 130m

Using the Churchill correlation for a sphere:

Nu = 2 + 0.589 Ra1/4 / (1 + (0.469 / Pr)9/16)4/9

Where:
 ● Ra is the Rayleigh number
● Pr is the Prandtl number

Ra = Gr Pr
Pr = c p / k
Gr = g β ΔT L³ / ²

Where:
● Gr is the Grashof number
● c p is the specific heat - for CO 2, 844 J/kg-K
● is the dynamic viscosity - for CO 2, 1.65e-5 Pa-s = N-s/m²
● g is the local gravitational acceleration - at altitude, 8.7m/s²
● β is the coefficient of thermal expansion - for CO 2, 3.2e-3 1/K.
● is the kinematic viscosity - for CO 2, 1.844e-5 m²/s

Putting this all together we get:

Gr = 3.60e15
Pr = 7.81e15
Ra = 2.81e15
Nu = 3300
h = 0.452
P = 481kW

Combining radiative with convective power, we get a cooling need of 2.97MW.

A common alternative formula for the Nusselt number involves moving flow, although
it is only valid for a Reynolds number of 3.5 to 70000. For an airflow velocity of u=10m/s:

Re = u c p / ~= 70,500,000
Nu = 2 + (0.4 Re1/2 + 0.06 Re2/3) Pr0.4 ( ∞ / s ) ~= 12300
h = 1.69
P = 1.79MW

This yields a total cooling need of 4.61MW. In the two cases, the cooling power
needs at COP=7 are around 424kW and 659kW, respectively. A typical ammonia chiller,
made from steel and including traditional heat exchangers may run around 20W/kg. We will
assume that via optimization (such as carbon overwrap vessels, composite lines, heat
exchange via reuse of structural elements, mass savings from integrating dehumidification
into cooling, etc), we can bring this to 80W/kg; the system mass would come in at 5.3 to 8.2
tonnes. The refrigerant charge would be on the order of 1-2 tonnes if the primary loop is
small.

Moisture in the air - and thus dehumidification - increases power requirements but
does not dramatically increase the required system mass. Using the Buck equation for
saturation vapour pressure in pascals:
 P = 611.21 e(18.678 - T°C / 234.5) (T°C / (257.14 + T°C)

Saturation pressure at 20°C is thus 2338 Pa, while at 10°C it is 1228 Pa. At 60%
relative humidity (the upper recommended bound for interior spaces 98 99), water vapour
would be 1.3g/m³.

Higher humidity levels cause a greater proliferation of dust mites and have a higher
heat index, but reduce problematic transpiration from crops. Higher humidity levels increase
the rate of water vapour recovery via air conditioning. At 70% humidity, condensation would
be 3.1 g/m³; at 80%, 4.9 g/m³; at 90%, 6.7 g/m³; and at 100%, 8.5 g/m³; this is relative to an
air mass of around 600g/m³. For 4 MW of cooling, airflow is around 80 m/s; dehumidification
rates are thus 0.88 kg/s (60% RH), 2.04 kg/s (70% RH), 3.19 kg/s (80% RH), 4.33 kg/s
(90% RH), and 5.45 kg/s (100% RH). These are very significant water recovery figures, in
line with or exceeding transpiration rates (see Transpiration), and thus with potential to
reduce or eliminate the need for a separate condenser.

Producing the refrigerant charge in-situ is not implausible. However, the mass of the
chiller itself appears likely to be uncomfortably high, and the power requirements are very
significant. That said, none of these extremely rough mass and power figures are
fundamentally prohibitive - and may be justifiable with certain design configurations, either
due to temperature or dehumidification constraints.

98
Balaras, Constantinos A.; Dascalaki, Elena; Gaglia, Athina (2007). HVAC and indoor thermal conditions in hospital
operating rooms . Energy and Buildings. 39 (4): 454. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.09.004.
99
Wolkoff, Peder; Kjaergaard, Søren K. (2007). The dichotomy of relative humidity on indoor air quality . Environment
International. 33 (6): 850 7. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2007.04.004. PMID 17499853.
Structural integrity
In a Landis habitat, the crew lives within the envelope of an airship,100 rather than
slung underneath it as in the early-phase HAVOC designs.101 However, this provides only a
general concept of what needs to be present and where it should be located within the
structure. First one should consider airship types.

● Rigid: A structural frame, rather than overpressure, maintains the shape. Lift against
the envelope is immediately transferred to the frame

● Non-rigid: No rigid structural reinforcement is utilized; all loads are directly supported
by catenary curtains and transferred by cables. Commonly called a blimp .

● Semi-rigid: Loads are transferred from catenary curtains to a rigid keel, on which
other loads are supported.

Non-rigid and semirigid

airships contain ballonets - variable-
sized envelopes of external gas that
respond to changes between external
and internal pressure. In rigid airships,
an outer skin maintains the form, inner
gas cells provide lift, and the void
space between them functions as
ballonets.
Stockbridge et al 2012.102

In non-rigid and semi-rigid airships, catenary curtains are used to spread out the load
of structures across the upper envelope fabric. In rigid airships, lift is transferred from the
gas cells to the frame, which in turn bears loads.

As a general rule, non-rigid airships tend to be the most economical at smaller sizes,
while rigid airships tend to be the most economical at larger sizes, as a result of scaling
factors. The formula for stress in a spherical shell, as noted previously, is:

σ =PR/2t

Where:
● σ is stress
● P is pressure
● R is the radius
● t is the shell thickness

100
Landis, G. A. (2003). Colonization of Venus . AIP Conference Proceedings. doi:10.1063/1.1541418
101
Arney, D. C., & Jones, C. A. (2015). High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC): An Exploration Strategy for
Venus. AIAA SPACE 2015 Conference and Exposition. doi:10.2514/6.2015-4612
102
Stockbridge, C., Ceruti, A., & Marzocca, P. (2012). Airship Research and Development in the Areas of Design, Structures,
Dynamics and Energy Systems . International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 13(2), 170-187.
doi:10.5139/ijass.2012.13.2.170
 Hence, as the radius rises, the thickness must also rise linearly in order for stress to
remain constant. Hence, envelope mass increases approximately in accordance with the
radius cubed, the same as the lift.

A way to work around this is to reduce the

overpressure. However, the overpressure is what maintains
the airship s shape against applied forces. Hence the use of
a rigid frame, which resists deformation. In the large scale,
rigid-framed airships tend to yield better payload margins.103

Therein lies a problem: rigid-framed airships don t

historically pack down well or deploy quickly. While
collapsible trusses have long existed,104 they tend to leave
significant amounts of airspace, both between tubes and
within tubes themselves. Furthermore, a rigid airship
doesn t use linear booms, but rather a latticework of
Patent image for the ADAM
trusses. Even a simpler, partially-rigid modern structure collapsible truss system by the
such as that of the Zeppelin NT (75m long, 1.1 tonne) still AEC-Able Engineering Company
(since acquired by ATK) 105
contains dozens of truss interconnections.

An alternative rigidization
system worth noting is the pressurized
tube concept pioneered with the
Airboat.106 In this system, a frame is
used, but instead of being comprised
of rigid members, it is comprised of
collapsible film tubes, pressurized for
rigidity. In the prototype
implementation, the tube material was
20 m Nalophan (PET), no fibre
reinforcement, and with a rupture
Bracher et al (1997) pressure of 200kPa.

Perhaps the most exciting form of rigidization is that of locking rollable composite
trusses, built around rollable tubes (which themselves have been an active research topic
since the 1960s). Akin to a tape measurer, a rolling tube uses an internal tension in the
unreeling sheet to achieve the desired shape - good for resisting bending loads but
suboptimal in handling torsion. More recent designs, such as those from Roccor and
Composite Technology Development, utilize locking systems to overcome this weakness.

103
Khoury, G. A. (2012). Airship technology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:9781107019706
104
Tibert (2012). Deployable Tensegrity Structures for Space Applications . Kungl Tekniska Högskolan, doctoral thesis.
TRITA-MEK. ISSN 0348-467X
105
Warden, R. M. (1993). U.S. Patent No. US5184444 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
106
Bracher, J., & Steibli, M. (1997). The airboat, a chance for environmentally compatible transportation. 12th
Lighter-Than-Air Systems Technology Conference. doi:10.2514/6.1997-1458
 Above: Roccor rollable tubes, in various stages of deployment.

Roccor s design allows one to

achieve approximately half the torsional
stiffness of a fully sealed composite tube.107
Individual tubes can, in turn, be formed into
more complex structures such as trusses.
Embedded elements can be co-deployed
with trusses and tubes, such as wire
harnesses. In the case of an aerial habitat,
further developing such a technology to
co-deploy structural supports with Photo: Roccor
hydroponics conduits inside would be of great
utility.

All rigidization comes with some disadvantages versus a fully flexible envelope -
greater complexity and more light obstruction to the interior being examples. However,
offering a potential means for reduction of system mass, rigidization systems are worth
investigating. An additional reason that rigidization bears consideration: if we are confined in
our construction to existing hangars (long but narrow), then the return stage s mass will be
borne across a long span - meaning that it either must be a very long distance beneath the
habitat (implying extra cable masses and reduced crew accessibility), or that its support
cables will be highly angled and thus imposing excess stresses that need to be countered.

Above: Vector forces increase the stress in supporting cables relative to the loading angle.

107
Davis, B. L., Francis, W. H. (2014) Big Deployables In Small Satellites . SSC14 VII-4.
 Some degree of rigid rigidization can be used to reduce this problem.

Components
As described previously, in non-rigid airships, loads are borne from catenary curtains.
Even in rigid airships, the frame is sparse, often with few to no rigid components away from
the skin; cables give access to interior areas. This top-down orientation provides a key
difference in construction: on Earth we re used to bearing loads from the ground up, and
likewise with Mars. On Venus you re dealing with structures primarily in tension rather than
compression. From a mass perspective, this is advantageous; however, it does require a
rethink of how we consider design - in particular, where each element should be located
within the habitat.

● Ascent vehicle: There is only one option for where to house this element; to ensure
habitat stability, such a large mass must be slung underneath the airship. An ideal
scenario allows for multiple empty ascent vehicles to be stowed at once, but only one
fully fuelled (due to lift constraints well discussed elsewhere) - and when both fuel and
oxidizer are aboard, it must be slung at a safe distance beneath the habitat for
explosion safety.

● Human habitation: Three factors argue that this should be located near the top. The
first is a common factor: the minimization of the length of support cables, particularly
in the case of a non-rigid airship. A second factor is that the ballonets are located on
the bottom, as the air in them is heavier than that used for lift; if ballonets were
located near the top, the habitat would roll when the ascent vehicle was launched. As
ballonets undergo a great degree of expansion and contraction due to the varying lift
requirements, this leaves only a proportionally small horizontal slice at the top
unthreatened by their expansion. Lastly, in the event of a major envelope leak, the
external carbon dioxide atmosphere will pool at the bottom, posing a risk of
smothering the occupants if they were located in that environment. By contrast, a
leak poses little risk to sinking the habitat, as the vast majority of the mass of the
airship can be jettisoned - in the worst case, including the ascent vehicle.

Note that there must be a pathway - regardless of ballonet inflation level - from
the crew habitation areas down to the bottom where the ascent vehicle must be
slung. Cables / netting or rigid structure must prevent the ballonets from closing off
this central channel .

● Agriculture: The same factors as for habitation apply to agriculture. To enable ease
of access, human habitation should be largely central, with agriculture radiating out
from it. Since agriculture involves the movement of water (such as in ebb and flow
hydroponics), agriculture should arguably be done in an even number of vertical
layers, flowing outwards at a slight downward angle, then inwards, such that the
nutrient solution ends up collecting in the center underneath the crew areas, ready to
be pumped back up.
 ● Livestock: While the same factors apply to livestock (if present) as to humans, other
factors such as noise and odor argue for locating them away from people. A
reasonable compromise location thus might be a platform located in the central
channel which yields access to the bottom of the habitat - that is to say, somewhere
beneath the crew area but above the bottom of the envelope. Contrarily they could be
located in upper areas away from crew habitation, so long as mass is distributed
evenly.

● Industrial hardware: Industrial hardware serves many purposes, including envelope

gas scrubbing and in-situ resource production (ascent vehicle propellant, oxygen,
water, and various industrial chemicals for uses discussed under In-Situ Resource
Utilization). As the gathering of external gases/mists for ISRU is likely to be done
either on the underside (runoff from the envelope, if present) or near the propulsion
system (maximum airflow for scrubbing), the feedstocks are located underneath the
habitat. Likewise, the main demand for the output - the ascent vehicle - is located
underneath the habitat. Lastly, increasing local production invariably leads to the use
of a number of highly toxic compounds which could potentially leak (hydrogen
fluoride, phosgene, hydrogen cyanide, etc), as well as explosion hazards. Hence a
reasonable location for most industrial systems could be to locate them near
propulsion underneath the envelope in their own enclosed environment, rather than in
the primary envelope. Another option would be to locate it in an underside
empennage element. The greater the separation between the industrial section and
the habitat, the better - but it still must be accessible.

● Manufacturing: Maintenance and expansion of a habitat invariably involves local

manufacture, which involves processes that create noise, fumes, sparks, and other
factors that one generally does not want located near crew areas. The areas most in
need of the outputs of manufacturing are located underneath the envelope. Therefore
it might be reasonable to locate manufacturing in the bottom-access channel just
above the bottom of the envelope. As nobody would sleep in a workshop, the
aforementioned smothering risk is reduced.

● Phase-change buoyancy control: In order to respond quickly to external

temperature changes, if any phase-change gas envelopes are used, they should run
along the exterior envelope. Since ammonia is offensive-odored, toxic, prone to
permeation, and because the envelopes presents such a large surface area, it should
be located up inside the ballonets.

● Fuel cell stacks: In addition to providing better energy density than batteries, fuel
cells help deal with the deuterium issue (see Deuterium and power storage issues ).
Due to their higher efficiency, longevity, power density, and chemical storage options,
HCl fuel cells appear more appropriate than H2O fuel cells.108 Wiring and tubing mass

108
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 would argue for a location as close to the industrial section as possible. Since toxic
chemicals are involved, they should not be co-located within the habitable portion of
the envelope.

Beyond location, we should take into account considerations beyond what is needed
during typical habitation on Venus. One such element is the presence of a rigid shelter .

While most buildings in the habitat have no need for rigid walls or pressure-tight
structures - which pose a great mass and packing penalty - having one such room available
is worth consideration. While the habitat is en-route, having a section to slightly pressurize
internal cargo means the ability to transport ordinary consumer goods that do not have
vacuum compatibility, rather than having to re-engineer every item sent to the planet. It would
also provide a convenient environment for packing loose items. When the habitat is
deployed, in addition to serving as a functional room in its own right, it could provide an area
for people to shelter in the event of dangerous conditions within the envelope (toxic gases,
insufficient oxygen, etc), with its own oxygen tank and CO2 scrubbing.

If we operate on the premise of such a shelter, then we need to colocate the toilet
within it. We also need to look at its size. Unlike rooms with no rigid walls, which can include
fold-out leafs to expand their size, the shelter can be no larger than the rocket fairing s
internal diameter minus some overhead. So we need to examine fairing internal dimensions:
Fairing limitations
Nom. LEO
Rocket Variant Width (mm) Height (mm)
Payload (kg)
4000F 3600 6420
4000Z 3650 6662
Long March 3 109
6000
4200F 3850 6850
4200Z 3850 7331
Long March 5110 - <5200 <12500 14000
4S 3700-3750 10230
H-IIB111 8000
5S 4600 9124.5
Ariane 5112 4570 15589 16000 (5G)113
3750 9397.0
4-m LPF
3750 10311.4
4-m EPF
3750 11225.8 8123 (0 SRBs) to
4-m XEPF
Atlas 5114 4572 10184.4 18814 (5 SRBs);
5-m Short
4572 12927.6 29400 (HLV)
5-m Medium
4572 16484.6
5-m Long
<7200 <32300
Long 4572 ~16200
Delta IV-Heavy115 28790
Metallic 4572 16484
PLF-BR-13305 3866 11305
Proton-M116 22000117
PLF-BR-15255 3865 15225
Block 1 4600 <19100 70000
Block 1B 5m 4600 <19100 105000
SLS118
Block 1B 8.4m 7500 <19100 105000
Block 2B 9100 <31100 130000
F9 v1.2 22800120
Falcon119 4600 11000
Heavy 54400121
ITS122 - <12000 - 300000
2-stage ? 45000
New Glenn123 ?
3-stage <7000 ?
Long March 7 uses similar diameter fairings as 3 but different lengths and greater payload.124 All instances where only outer
diameters are known are listed as <X where X is the outer diameter; subtract approximately 0.5m. Italics indicates that the
design has not yet been flown. ITS based on spacecraft core dimensions.

109
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114
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115
Delta IV Launch Services User’s Guide. United Launch Alliance. June 2013.
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http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/mars_presentation.pdf
123
Foust, J. (7 Mar. 2017). Eutelsat first customer for Blue Origin’s New Glenn. Space News.
124
Long March 7 Launch Vehicle. Spaceflight 101. Retrieved from http://spaceflight101.com/spacerockets/long-march-7/
 If one doesn t care about mandating the use of a super-heavy launch vehicle then
they can design to SLS, ITS, or other proposed / in-development systems with large fairings.
However, such a launch vehicle is not a fundamental requirement. As discussed previously,
the envelope itself packs down into a surprisingly small volume regardless of what thickness
and packing ratio parameters one chooses, and most required habitation structures -
requiring no rigid walls or ceilings - collapse into a small space. Hence, designing for a 4-5m
diameter fairing seems the most logical solution. A <4.5m diameter shelter sounds like a
reasonable compromise, being compatible with the Ariane 5, Delta IV-Heavy, Falcon Heavy,
H-IIB, and future systems such as the SLS and ITS.

Accounting for the space for the bathroom - which should ideally open to both the
inside and outside so that people don t have to interrupt others work to use the toilet - you re
left with a room that s a reasonable size for a laboratory / control center. Let us examine
some of the other types of rooms that should be considered. Most should have a flexible
solar tent as walls that can be raised or lowered as desired for light and privacy, as well as
surge battery packs, power wiring / outlets, and room lighting.

● Kitchen: Accounting for food storage space, which should be colocated, this room
requires fold-out leaves or a roll-out floor design to increase the area. Since tensile
loads are ultimately borne from overhead, and food and liquid storage is heavy, these
should be supported directly from cables rather than resting on a floor which must in
turn be supported. A large refrigerated area can be provided by use of a collapsible
tent of flexible aluminized bubble plastic or aluminized foam. Ovens can likewise be
collapsible, although the material must tolerate prolonged operation at up to 250°C.
The kitchen, as the location food is to be stored, is a logical location for food
processing, including winnowing, grinding, drying, etc. Enclosed food production
systems with a small footprint, such as mushroom cultivation on agricultural waste,
could likewise be slung from support cables. While it may be tempting to locate some
livestock in the kitchen for the same convenience reason, hygiene and noise argue
against this possibility.

● Common area: A society needs a place to gather. A common area with fold-out
leaves can allow for socializing and entertainment, with (ideally hanging, detachable)
sofas and chairs; a television for movies, games and video messages; and a
multipurpose gaming table. This can double for use in medical procedures via
isolation with a plastic curtain and covering with plastic sheeting. Shelving is required.
Such a room could be located in a hanging stack between the shelter/lab (top) and
kitchen (bottom).

● Bedrooms: One of the great advantages of a Landis habitat is the fact that it has
extensive room for people to move around in, and bedrooms should be designed to
exploit this. Each bedroom should consist of a composite floor, a solar tent, a
composite bed frame (ideally hanging), a lightweight mattress, shelving, a sink fed
from a dehumidifier / condenser (see Transpiration) and a small water tank (ideally
gravity-fed, hung above the room). As a bedroom would be light enough to move, a
 crew member could hang their room up from catenaries anywhere they wanted,
whether right in the center or far from everyone else.

● Shower: Only one shower should be required in the beginning - ideally an isolated
solar tent-encircled structure with a water recycling system (similar to the OrbSys 125
or EcoVéa126 systems). Water recycling translates to to not simply a reduction in
water tankage and collection requirements, but also heating requirements. If located
on the outskirts of the inhabited area, showering could be done with tent open to the
outer envelope, providing a view while still maintaining privacy.

● Livestock platform: With the large amount of room provided by a Venus habitat,
raising livestock becomes much more practical than on a Mars habitat (see Animal
products). Aquaponics is ideally collocated with livestock, since many of the outputs
from livestock can be inputs to aquaponics (manure fertilizes algae growth and tilapia
consume it directly, for example). Contrarily, if at least sections of aquaponics are
kept hygienic, low density algae/fish farming could additionally be used for swimming.

● Manufacturing platform: Beyond a solar tent, manufacturing additionally requires a

durable safety tent to resist sparks, molten metal droplets and fast-moving debris,
such as bits of metal or shattered cutting discs. The floor surface must be able to
withstand drips of molten metal from welding and resist spilled corrosive chemicals.
Shelving and flooring should be heavy-duty, as very heavy systems may be
temporarily or permanently located there. A particularly heavy floor element would be
a multi-material 3d printer / CNC miller.

The DMG MORI Lasertec 65 combines CNC milling with laser deposition welding. With this printing technique,
the sprayed powder gets absorbed and melted into a melt pool created by the laser, to rapidly produce
parts with excellent mechanical properties..127

Such a system could easily amass a large fraction of a tonne or more even after
weight reduction, and take up 5-10 square meters of floor space on its own.

125
Orbital Systems. Retrieved from https://orbital-systems.com
126
Reveeco. EcoVéa. Retrieved from http://www.reveeco.com/ecovea.html
127
ALL IN 1: Laser Deposition Welding & Milling Additive Manufacturing in Milling Quality. 2014, DMG / MORI SEIKI Europe
AG
Lightning
A design issue worthy of consideration is lightning. Lightning has been detected on
Venus, and appears to be at least as common as on Earth.128 However, its nature and
location has as of yet not been established; it is difficult to say much more than that it does
not appear to be very high altitude,129 and that it is probably weaker than lightning on Earth.130

Large helium airships generally avoid flight near storms and typically utilize simple
one-wire lightning protection systems, but lightning strikes on aerostats tethered with
conductive cables are common.131 On Earth, helium - having 15% the dielectric strength and
⅓ the breakdown voltage of air - tends to encourage lightning to flow through its volume
rather than around it. However, a Landis habitat, filled with oxygen and nitrogen, has a similar
dielectric strength132 and breakdown voltage to the outside environment.

Dielectric
Gas
Strength*
Air 0.97
CO2 0.85
He 0.15
N2 1
O2 0.92
* Relative to nitrogen

Based on Dunbar (1966) 133

If carbon fibre is used as a reinforcing or catenary cable material, any electrical

discharges would tend to flow through it, due to its higher electrical conductivity.134

128
Russel, C. T., Hart, R. A., Zhang, T. L. (2014) Venus Express Contributions to the Study of Planetary Lightning. European
Planetary Science Congress . Vol. 9, EPSC2014-34, 2014
129
Moinelo, A. C., Abildgaard, S., Muñoz, A. G., Piccioni, G., & Grassi, D. (2016). No statistical evidence of lightning in Venus
night-side atmosphere from VIRTIS-Venus Express Visible observations . Icarus, 277, 395-400.
doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.027
130
Gurnett, D. A., Zarka, P., Manning, R., Kurth, W. S., Hospodarsky, G. B., Averkamp, T. F., . . . Farrell, W. M. (2001).
Non-detection at Venus of high-frequency radio signals characteristic of terrestrial lightning. Nature, 409(6818), 313-315.
doi:10.1038/35053009
131
Plumer, A., Perala, R. A., & Jaeger, D. (2001). Lightning and Electrostatic Charge Effects And Protection Design
Approaches For Large Transport Airships.
132
Berger, L. I. (1998). Dielectric strength of insulating materials.
133
Dunbar, W. G. (1966). Corona onset voltage of insulated and bare electrodes in rarefied air and other gases. Boeing.
Technical report AFAPL-TR-65-122
134
Elimat, Z. M., Hamideen, M. S., Schulte, K. I., Wittich, H., Vega, A. D., Wichmann, M., & Buschhorn, S. (2010). Dielectric
properties of epoxy/short carbon fibre composites . Journal of Materials Science, 45(19), 5196-5203.
doi:10.1007/s10853-010-4557-6
 Damage to blimps from lightning strikes on Earth tends to be surprisingly low, despite
the fact that most Earth blimps are not made from oxidation-resistant fluoropolymers like the
skin of a Venus habitat. Rather, lightning strikes tend to create a series of pinholes in the
impacted area(s).135

Movement around the habitat

In designs employing rigidization, large amounts of the habitat can be accessed by
utilizing the structural elements as walkways. However, even with rigidization this will not
give access to all parts of the envelope for maintenance and repairs.

Relocatable walkways could provide temporary access between reinforcing trusses,

as could mobile cranes, designed to be affixed to structural elements. However, these
provide no access to structures away from rigid elements.

Personal flying machines or drones could potentially provide an option to access

any location, inside or out - albeit one with numerous drawbacks and potential for damaging
the habitat or envelope itself. The best option for general purpose access may be cable
ascenders, an increasingly mature technology.

In a non-rigid airship, ascenders could climb support cables hanging from horizontal
cables strung up near the top of the envelope (with sheaves to bypass supporting catenary
curtains, akin to a ski lift s tower sheaves). In a rigid airship, cables can be strung from the
framework as needed. Hanging from cables strung from multiple points and adjusting the
lengths between them would allow one to reach any location in 3-space between those
points. A hand crank or simple prusik would provide an emergency backup climbing method
in case of equipment failure.

The Atlas APA-5 rope ascender weighs 9.1kg (including a swappable battery), lifts 270kg, can climb 213 meters per charge,
and can be operated by remote control.136 Photo: Atlas Devices

135
Plumer et al 2001
136
APA-5 Powered Rope Ascender . Atlas Devices. Retrieved from
https://atlasdevices.com/products/ascenders/apa-5-powered-rope-ascender-std-config/
 Regardless of the mechanism to maneuver around the envelope, tools on poles
could be used to reach any hard-to-reach areas, such as sections of envelope located above
the highest accessible locations.

In addition to moving people around, heavy cargos need to be able to be moved -

new equipment, locally produced hardware, dredged materials from the surface, etc. This
suggests the presence of one or more interior winches, ideally designed to be readily
relocated to different parts of the habitat. As described in Docking, Ascent and Descent, an
additional large, high power winch is needed underneath the habitat for stowing and launching
docked rockets.

Gas sensors and alarms should be present at varying points around the envelope, to
alert people working near them of leaks. While Venus s atmosphere does not pose acute
toxicity if diluted into breathable air (and none if sufficiently diluted),137 its primary threat is
suffocation by displacing oxygen in low-lying areas. It is unknown at this point as to how
strong of an odor the atmosphere has; however, the levels of sulfur dioxide should be above
the human odor threshold.138 All outlying inhabited areas (such as bedrooms) as well as the
laboratory / shelter will require gas masks and emergency oxygen.

Habitat propulsion
Propulsion is needed in order to:

● Present an minimal drag profile to hazardous turbulence

● Rotate the craft to the angle in which forward motion is desired
● Move the craft to resist meridional winds
● Move the craft to target surface features for study
● Move the craft to assist in docking
● Assist in altitude maintenance
● Relocate the habitat between the northern and southern hemispheres, in
combination with high altitude excursions
● Keep the day length consistent, in order to track the orbital period of any relay
satellites

In no realistic situation, however, can propulsion overcome the immense zonal (east
to west) winds, except in the extreme polar locations.

137
CO2 (97%): LC50 47% (rat), TCLo 1% (rat)
SO2 (150 ppm): LC50 2520 ppm (rat, 1h), TCLo 3000 ppm (human, 5m), 12 ppm (human, 1h), 3ppm (Human, 5d)
CO (17 ppm): LC50 1807 ppm (rat, 4h), LCLo 5000 ppm (human, 5m), 650 ppm (human, 45m)
H2SO4 (~1-30 mg/m³): LC50 18mg/m³ (guinea pig), LCLo 1mg/m³ (human, 3h)
138
Kleinbeck, S., Schäper, M., Juran, S. A., Kiesswetter, E., Blaszkewicz, M., Golka, K., . . . Thriel, C. V. (2011). Odor
Thresholds and Breathing Changes of Human Volunteers as Consequences of Sulphur Dioxide Exposure Considering
Individual Factors . Safety and Health at Work , 2(4), 355-364. doi:10.5491/shaw.2011.2.4.355
Wind speed estimates from VIRTIS (blue = ~66km, violet = ~61km, red = ~47km). VeRa zonal windspeeds are higher. Image
reproduced from Picalli (2010).139

The nature of the propulsion system depends in part on the nature of ISRU required,
which in turn depends on factors that are as of yet unknown. In particular, various types of
ISRU collection can include:

● Precipitation: While the Vega data was initially interpreted as indicating no

precipitation or condensation, some later research have argued that it instead shows
the opposite. For example, in Dorrington (2013), it was argued that Vega 1
accumulated 0.25-0.35 kilograms total on its surface, causing a reduction in altitude,
before the collected liquid began to drip off. Peak collection rates on Vega 2 were
claimed at 40 mg/s. The mass change was stated to be highly uneven,
corresponding with storms measured by other instruments.140

● Condensation: Rather than precipitation, condensation could be encouraged by the

use of a hydrophilic envelope. Fluoropolymers tend to become increasingly
hydrophilic after plasma treatment in a N2/O 2 environment.141

● Absorption: The highly hygroscopic gases of Venus middle cloud layer are ready
targets for direct absorption by water or other solvents with similar properties, either
directly or through a membrane.

It s important to note that the types of recovery are expected to be different between
different collection techniques. While absorption would be expected to capture all
hygroscopic compounds, precipitation would be expected to be predominantly H2SO 4, as the

139
Piccialli, A. (2010). Cyclostrophic wind in the mesosphere of Venus from Venus Express observations . Berlin: Uni-Edition
140
Dorrington, G. E. (2013). Preliminary evidence for drizzle in the middle cloud layer of Venus . Advances in Space
Research, 52(3), 505-511. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2013.03.026
141
Vandencasteele, N., Merche, D., & Reniers, F. (2006). XPS and contact angle study of N2 and O2 plasma-modified PTFE,
PVDF and PVF surfaces . Surface and Interface Analysis, 38(4), 526-530. doi:10.1002/sia.2255
higher latitude middle cloud is dominated by sulfuric acid droplets at around 89%
concentration,142 while most other acidic compounds such as hydrogen chloride exist in the
gas phase.143 A precipitation or condensation collection system would be expected to utilize
the entire envelope to channel drainage to the underside.

How does propulsion design depend on resource collection? For scrubbing,

maximum air flow rates - and thus capturable resources - occur through the propulsion
system. The absorption system could hence be designed to make use the higher airflow by
ducting all or part of the slipstream through an absorption duct.

If propulsion is to assist ISRU, this alters the calculus. Maximizing mass flow rate
implies props of larger radius and slower angular velocity, by the equation:

ΔT = 4 r V² (1 + a).a.dr

Where:
● ΔT is the elemental thrust
● is the fluid density
● V is the free stream velocity of the air moving past the propeller
● r is the radius of the blade segment
● a is the axial inflow factor

Thus, for a given thrust, increasing radius

means not only a greater volume of air (which is
relative to prop radius squared times the flow
velocity), but a lower flow velocity (which is
relative to the square root of the prop radius). In
short, a greater resource mass moves across
absorbing elements with less drag and a longer
time in contact with them.

The potential propeller scaleup is,

Dense structured packing for use in scrubbers. As
however limited - not just by mass, but Venus’s gravity is similar to Earth’s, the Ergun equation
dimensions. A single prop can be generally for calculating the pressure drop through a packed bed
expected to be limited to the inner diameter of can be expected to be roughly valid.144
Photo: Luigi Chiesa
the payload fairing, e.g. ~4 ½ meters. However,
a
collapsible prop could allow that limit to be exceeded.

Discounting scrubber pressure drops (whose effect will be discussed under

Atmospheric scrubbing), we will examine the following scenarios to achieve 10 m/s
142
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2015). Vertical profiles of H2O, H2SO4, and sulfuric acid concentration at 45 75km on Venus.
Icarus, 252, 327-333. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.01.024
143
Barsukov, V. L., Khodakovskii, I. L., Volkov, V. P., Sidorov, I. I., Dorofeeva, V. A., & Andreeva, N. E. (1982). Metal chloride
and elemental sulfur condensates in the Venusian troposphere - Are they possible. Lunar and Planetary Science
Conference, 12th, Houston, TX, March 16-20, 1981, Proceedings. Section 2. (A82-31677 15-91) New York and Oxford,
Pergamon Press , 1517-1532.
144
St. Onge, T. (2015) "PBRE". Space Flight Systems . NASA Glenn Research Center.
maximum flight speed. All will assume a 80x50m cross section, 0.03 drag coefficient airship
flying in 0.95 kg/m³ air, lift coefficient = 6.2x angle of attack, drag coefficient = 0.008 - 0.003
CL + 0.01 CL², hub diameter 10% of prop diameter, 92% net powertrain efficiency and two
blades per prop. Calculations are via basic blade element theory.145

Diameter Blade angle

# of props Chord (cm) Power (kW) Flow (kg/s) Wake (m/s) RPM
(m) (hub : tip)
1 2 14.1 40.6° : 12.5° 194.0 101 33.9 2368
2 2 13.4 41.9° : 12.9° 146.3 154 25.8 1708
3 2 12.9 43.0° : 13.2° 125.5 197 22.1 1415
1 4.2 25.6 44.2° : 13.5° 109.4 254 19.3 566
2 4.2 22.2 48.0° : 14.4° 88.0 410 15.6 418
1 8 37.2 51.3° : 15.5° 75.4 645 13.5 170
2 8 31.2 56.0° : 17.4° 65.6 1142 11.9 128

The large (8m) props are assumed to be collapsible; such a large prop would more
resemble a wind turbine due to its scale, with twin 8m props rotating only twice per second.

In addition to varied propeller designs, there exist alternatives to propellers - most

notably:

● Arcjets:

A relatively simple type of electric thruster, arcjets have thusfar primarily

found use in satellites, where they can boost propellant specific impulse by hundred
seconds (such as Aerojet Rocketdyne s MR 510).146 In an arcjet, an electric arc
heats a gas (either inert or combustible) so that it can be expanded through a nozzle.
Thruster mass per unit power can be favorable - however, power consumption in
current systems is prohibitively high, with typical consumption figures around 25
kW/N.147 This would imply dozens of megawatts to provide equivalent speeds to the
above propellers. Efficiency improvement is possible. Arcjets, like jet and rocket
engines, perform best when heating is conducted at high pressures and with high
bypass, and would thus favour integration into scrubbing units.

● Electrohydrodynamic propulsion:

Also known as ion wind thrusters, ionocraft or lifters ,

electrohydrodynamic propulsion has gained a unfavorable reputation due to fringe
claims that simple homemade EHD thrusters operate by antigravity.148 The

145
Analysis of Propellers: Glauert Blade Element Theory . AMME, University of Sydney.
146
MR-150. Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved from http://www.astronautix.com/m/mr-510.html
147
Auweter-Kurtz, M., G-Ograve, T., L., Habiger, H., Hammer, F., Kurtz, H., . . . Sleziona, C. (1998). High-Power Hydrogen
Arcjet Thrusters. Journal of Propulsion and Power, 14(5), 764-773. doi:10.2514/2.5339
148
Tajmar, M. (2004) . Biefeld-Brown Effect: Misinterpretation of Corona Wind Phenomena. AIAA Journal, 42(2), 315-318.
doi:10.2514/1.9095
 technology is nonetheless a legitimate method for propulsion, under study for aircraft
usage.149
An EHD thruster operates by using a high voltage source to create coronal
discharge, ionizing the surrounding air so that it is drawn to a downstream electrode.
They can offer thrust efficiency superior to even propellers at low flight speeds (such
as a habitat), but thrust per unit area is exceedingly low, requiring a very large
thruster. While in heavier-than-air aircraft this may be prohibitive, integrating an EHD
thruster around the envelope of an airship might prove a more reasonable goal. The
high voltages utilized lower the required wiring masses.

An interesting side effect of EHD thrusters is chemical changes in the

atmosphere in which they operate; on Earth, this primarily generates ozone, while on
Venus it would primarily generate carbon monoxide and ozone.150 If process
alterations could instead induce the production of stable carbon particulate, the very
act of propulsion would double as carbon sequestration. Another side effect is that
particulate in the atmosphere tends to precipitate out on the anode,151 presenting a
potential means for resource collection.

Above: A variety of non-mechanical propulsion systems. Teflon thrusters are a variety of arcjet. EHD thrusters are a variety
of ion engine. Photo: JAXA

Due to its advantages, we will investigate EHD closer. First off, how does the Venus
environment affect it? The theoretical efficiency (generally tracked closely by experimental
data152) is described by the formula:153

F / P = 1 / ( E + v)

149
Gilmore, C. K., & Barrett, S. R. (2015) . Electrohydrodynamic thrust density using positive corona-induced ionic winds for
in-atmosphere propulsion. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences,471(2175),
20140912-20140912. doi:10.1098/rspa.2014.0912
150
Dors, M ., & Mizeraczyk, J. (1996) . Conversion of nitrogen oxides in N2:O2:CO2 and N2:O2:CO2:NO2 mixtures
subjected to a dc corona discharge. Czechoslovak Journal of Physics, 46(10), 943-952. doi:10.1007/bf01795143
151
Parker, K. R. (2012). Applied electrostatic precipitation. Blackie Academic and Professional.
152
Gilmor et al 2015
153
Masuyama, K., & Barrett, S. R. (2013). On the performance of electrohydrodynamic propulsion. Proceedings of the Royal
Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 469(2154), 20120623-20120623. doi:10.1098/rspa.2012.0623
 Where:
● F is force (N)
● P is power (W)
● F / P is the force to power ratio, or power efficiency
● is ion mobility (m² / V s)
● E is the voltage gradient (V / m)
● v is the free stream air velocity

For peak efficiency (rather than thrust), E should be minimized to the lowest level to
maintain coronal discharge, around 15-20 kV per electrode,154 divided by a long electrode
spacing (such as ~35cm). Ion mobility on Earth is 2.155 × 10−4 and 1.598 × 10−4 for dry and
saturated (100% RH) air, respectively (the latter being more efficient). Ion mobility in carbon
dioxide is lower (that is to say, more efficient) - 1.09 × 10−4.155 Ion mobility increases roughly
proportionally to the the square root of pressure - that is to say, reduced pressure decreases
efficiency.156 Hence a ~0.5 bar EHD thruster on Venus has roughly the same efficiency as a
saturated air thruster on Earth at sea level.

For a habitat moving at 13 m/s, using 17.5 kV per electrode, the estimated efficiency
is thus 64 N/kW, compared to 23-68 N/kW in our above table for propellers of different sizes.
This can be improved by increasing the spacing between electrodes, at the cost of requiring
more electrode area. At lower speeds, such as 3 m/s, the above EHD efficiency becomes
118 N/kW.

What would be required to overcome the habitat s 3.59kN air resistance at 10 m/s?
Taking 10mN per meter as a thrust density, we can calculate a required electrode length of
359km. Versus a habitat surface area of ~54k m², this equates to 6.7 electrode pairs per
square meter for a single-stage design (isolated negative-positive pairs) which - at a spacing
of 35cm between anode and cathode - would require 4.7 layers of electrodes covering the
whole envelope. Contrarily, the corona could be maintained with protrusions extruding X mm
from the surface every (X / 4.7) mm, where X can be any value. For a dual-stage design
(alternating negative-positive electrodes), half as many layers of electrodes (or equivalent
protrusions) are needed. Dual stage thrust comes at around a 20% efficiency penalty vs.
single stage.157

Can a single-layer approach be achieved? One can certainly reduce electrode

spacing to achieve higher thrust density; reducing electrode spacing to 20cm the efficiency
drops to 51 N/kW but packing density increases threefold. At an electrode spacing of 10cm,
efficiency drops to 34 N/kW but packing density is 12.3 times higher than the baseline case.
In short, one can trade packing efficiency for packing density at will - but this comes at a
cost. We will note that for a multilobed lifting body habitat design, the surface area to volume

154
Gilmore, C. K., & Barrett, S. R. (2015) . Electrohydrodynamic thrust density using positive corona-induced ionic winds for
in-atmosphere propulsion. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences,471(2175),
20140912-20140912. doi:10.1098/rspa.2014.0912
155
Sharma, A. (1998) Properties of some gas mixtures used in tracking detectors . SLAC-J-ICFA-16-3,
SLAC-JOURNAL-ICFA-16-3.
156
Liu, Y., Huang, S., & Zhu, L. (2015). Influence of humidity and air pressure on the ion mobility based on drift tube method.
CSEE Journal of Power and Energy Systems, 1(3), 37-41. doi:10.17775/cseejpes.2015.00033
157
Masuyama et al 2013
is higher than for the elliptical-habitat considered, and thus there is more room to place
thrusters. Likewise, we do not consider the area of any empennage elements (rudders,
elevators and stabilizers). On the other hand, we re also not considering thrust angles; not all
of the surface area of the habitat would direct thrust straight back. The net aerodynamic
effects of thrust along the entire surface of a habitat regardless of angle are not considered
here.

How much mass would such a thruster add? Let us examine whether our low-E
coating itself could act as an electrode (see Other additives under In-Situ Resource
Utilization). A thick coating of ITO is 1 micron,158 and normal thicknesses are 0.1-0.3
microns.159 Assuming 5cm strips of ITO of 0.3 microns thickness, the cross section is 1.5 x
10-8 m². With an electrical conductivity of around 1e4 S/cm 160 (around the same as mercury),
a 200 meter run equates to a resistance of 13 kΩ. With a voltage of 17.5kV and 10cm
spacing, the current required is ~0.1 mA/m, or 20mA total.161 From this, V = IR yields a
voltage drop of 260V - a relatively insignificant value compared to the operating voltage.
Consequently, usage of ITO as an electrode (or at least a conductor to the electrodes)
appears to be a quite favourable option.

Another option for power transfer is carbon fibre envelope reinforcement (see
Reinforcement). Resistivity of common carbon fibre tows ranges from 50 to 205 mΩ-cm 162
(similar to drinking water). In order to match the ITO, the cross sectional area would thus
have to be at least 0.75 to 3 m². Hence, this option appears unrealistic, with the caveats that
high conductivity carbon wires are possible (see Wiring), and standard carbon reinforcement
can be utilized for short runs (such as a coronal discharge electrode).

Electrode longevity against erosion is a concern for EHD propulsion, and has not
received sufficient study to be considered mature. Estimates for rates range from logarithmic
163
to exponential164 with charge transfer; in one test, the longest-lived silver-copper alloy
corona wire was only 78 days, and most were significantly shorter. Electrode layering
appears to provide significant lifespan benefits over single-material wires.165 Ionic
conductive polymers, such as iongels (ionic liquid gels), possess significant self-healing
properties 166 and may prove suitable. Regardless, further research is required, and simple
ITO conductors are unlikely to met longevity requirements on their own.

158
Oyama, T., Hashimoto, N., Shimizu, J., Akao, Y., Kojima, H., Aikawa, K., & Suzuki, K. (1992). Low resistance indium tin
oxide films on large scale glass substrate. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films, 10(4),
1682-1686. doi:10.1116/1.577769
159
Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) (In2O3):(SnO2) . Indium Corporation. Retrieved from
http://www.indium.com/inorganic-compounds/indium-compounds/indium-tin-oxide/
160
Material: Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) . Retrieved from http://www.mit.edu/~6.777/matprops/ito.htm
161
Gilmore, C. K., & Barrett, S. R. (2015) . Electrohydrodynamic thrust density using positive corona-induced ionic winds for
in-atmosphere propulsion. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences,471(2175),
20140912-20140912. doi:10.1098/rspa.2014.0912
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Šafárová, V., Grégr, J. (2010). Electrical conductivity measurements of fibres and yarns . th International Conference -
TEXSCI 2010 September 6-8, Liberec, Czech Republic
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Islamov, R. S., & Krishtafovich, Y. A. (2013). Lifetime and erosion of silver-based wire electrodes in an ultracorona in air.
Journal of Electrostatics, 71(2), 109-115. doi:10.1016/j.elstat.2012.12.019
164
Islamov, R. S., & Krishtafovich, Y. A. (2013). Erosion and Lifetime of Tungsten, Gold, and Nichrome Wire Anodes in an
Ultracorona in Air . IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, 41(7), 1787-1793. doi:10.1109/tps.2013.2263513
165
Gao, G., Jewell-Larsen, N., & Humpston, G. (2013). U.S. Patent No. US20130056241 A1. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent
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Cao, Y., Morrissey, T. G., Acome, E., Allec, S. I., Wong, B. M., Keplinger, C., & Wang, C. (2016). A Transparent,
Self-Healing, Highly Stretchable Ionic Conductor . Advanced Materials, 1605099. doi:10.1002/adma.201605099
 Should longevity be addressable, it appears that highly efficient EHD thrust could be
utilized on a habitat. However, due to the relative immaturity of alternative means of electric
propulsion, we will operate on the presumption of the use of propellers, with the caveat that
advances in EHD technology may warrant reconsideration.

Control
Control and stability for the habitat must be provided by some combination of
differential thrust, thrust vectoring and/or aerodynamic control surfaces. As the entire habitat
deploys from a stack launched in a rocket fairing, keeping large systems in line with each
other is simplest from a deployment and maintenance perspective. This would tend to argue
for either one or a pair of props directly underneath the central access channel. Centralized
empennage and propulsion would also simplify airworm-style habitat expansion (see
Expansion) and the use of the habitat as its own atmospheric entry ballute (see Ballute
considerations under Envelope design). Contrarily, the further that propulsion and
empennage are from the center of the mass, the greater the net torque they exert on the
craft.

Not all means of control function at all times. Active propulsion systems can exert
full torque regardless of airspeed (as defined relative to the average local wind velocity, not
the surface); however, torque from the empennage is dependent on the relative airspeed.
However, empennage provides passive stabilization; a tail structure helps maintain the
craft pointing into the wind.

A final factor worthy of consideration is the difficulty in accessing remote areas for
maintenance. This is of relatively little concern for relatively static systems such as
stabilizers, but important for systems with moving parts such as rudders/elevators and
propulsion systems.

One approach to increasing torque without excessively decreasing accessibility

would be to locate propulsion systems at the ends of collapsible trusses or inflatable tubes
which begin at a readily accessible location. Contrarily, with a ducted thrust system, duct
inlets and/or outlets could be located in less accessible areas so long as the propulsion and
vectoring system itself is located in a readily accessible location. Other options exist to
locate mechanical systems in accessible areas while the systems that they control are in
relatively inaccessible areas - for example, connecting accessible actuators to inaccessible
actuated surfaces.

A final possibility for propulsion and control: it is technically possible to use

altitude-based zonal wind differentials to exert force on the habitat (as well as simultaneous
wind power generation). However, this imposes a number of difficulties that are generally
prohibitive for an early-phase habitat (see Wind power).
 We will operate on the baseline assumption of the central core (laboratory / shelter,
common area, kitchen, livestock platform, workshop) being over the industrial section and
surrounded by a trilobate tail structure to simplify deployment. In this scenario, propulsion
would be directly connected with the industrial section, and the bottom stabilizer would be the
access route to it - thus keeping it at a fair distance from the primary envelope. For stability
reasons, thus, this would all be located near the rear of the envelope. This implies that the
front of the habitat would be dedicated to bearing the weight of the ascent vehicle - and as a
consequence, that the front ballonet(s) would be highly inflated in the beginning, only
emptying as ISRU propellant production increases the rocket mass.

Power considerations
Venus is blessed with abundant sources of wind and solar energy. Various
complications come up in their usage which need to be addressed.

Wind power
As one can see in the
VeRa data, there is an
approximately 3 meters per
second wind differential per
kilometer altitude difference.
With cables dozens of
kilometers in length, one can
reach into the very dense
lower haze layer. Reaching
from ~55km to ~45km (at an
angle determined by factors VeRa zonal windspeeds from Piccialli 2010 demonstrating the high difference in
windspeeds between altitudes.167.
such as turbine/cable mass
and turbine
lift angle) yields a 50 m/s (112 mph / 180 kph) windspeed differential with the turbine at 2
ATM, at a temperatures around 115°C. The windspeed differential is nearly constant,
including a good degree of diurnal stability. So long as the turbine does not lose significant
energy to lift, and so long as the drag it experiences is well less than the drag the habitat
experiences under tension from the turbine, most of that energy can be harnessed. By
contrast, most wind turbines on Earth are not even designed to handle windspeeds greater
than 25m/s at 1 ATM. Wind drag force corresponds to the square of the windspeed, and
capturable energy to its cube.168 In short, a small turbine on a cable can yield a tremendous,
reliable source of energy on Venus.

There are, however, some problems with the use of wind as a near-term power
source on Venus. First, let us examine the physics (assuming a slack-free carbon fibre
cable):

167
Piccialli, A. (2010). Cyclostrophic wind in the mesosphere of Venus from Venus Express observations . Berlin: Uni-Edition
168
Physics of Wind Turbines. Energy fundamentals . Retrieved from http://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/ef/15.htm
Where:
● VF1 is the freestream wind velocity at habitat altitude
● VF2 is the freestream wind velocity at turbine altitude
● V is the velocity of the habitat-turbine system
● θ is the angle of the tether
● l is the tether length
● mg is the force of gravity (~8,7m/s²) on the turbine and half of the cable
● F is force
● L is lift (can be negative, to hold the turbine down)
● P is the power that would be generated by the turbine at 100% efficiency
● ρ is the air density at habitat altitude
● CdA is the drag area of the habitat

We additionally define:
● RLD is the lift-drag ratio of the turbine
● h is the the altitude difference between the habitat and the turbine (meters)
● σ is the stress in the cable
● r is the radius of the cable
● mT is the mass of the turbine
● mC is the mass of the cable
● σmax is the maximum allowable static stress on the cable (e.g. 500 MPa)
● ρC is the density of the cable

To this we add the following equations:

L = F RLD
l = Δh / cos(θ)
Θ = atan(F / (mg - L))
σ = ((mg - L) / cos(θ) + F / sin(θ)) / ( r²)
m = m T + 0.5 m C
m C = C r² l

We add in a loose estimate of turbine mass relative to air density and windspeed:
 m T = m blades + m generator = 3 P / (V1.5 2 ) + P / 40

And high voltage wiring mass:

M W = P l² / 3e10

O perating with habitat altitude h1 = 55000m, cable density ρ C = 1850 kg/m³, σmax =
500 MPa, Cd = 0.03, A = 3142, P = 20000W; a 50um coating at 2000 kg/m³; assuming
actual power generation is 80% efficient; and letting RLD and h2 vary - we arrive at the
following:

● Total mass: 1252 kg

○ Turbine: 731 kg
○ Cable: 425 kg
■ Length: 9739 m
■ Diameter: 0.55 cm
■ Tensile: 329 kg
■ Wiring: 79.0 kg
■ Coating: 16.9 kg
● Turbine altitude: 45.5 km
● V: 45.3 m/s
● L:D ratio: 1.34
● Cable angle (θ): 12.6°

For a point of comparison, we shall next examine the same amount of solar power.

Solar power
What about a comparable amount of solar energy?
First we must look at the light profiles on Venus.

The solar constant in space at Venus is 2635 W/m²

- 193% that of Earth and 446% that of Mars. However, the
light has already well attenuated by the time it reaches the
middle cloud layer. At 54.5km, subject to direct overhead
radiation, the middle cloud layer experiences about
1600W/m². This is further reduced by the solar angle,
which causes sunlight to have to penetrate through a
greater amount of the atmosphere. At 70° latitude, simple
cosine scaling suggests around 540W/m² peak daytime
lighting, although in practice transmission fares better than
simple cosine scaling would suggest. These levels of light
are fairly average by Earth surface standards. At 70° Landis and Haag (2013) 169

169
Landis, G. A., & Haag, E. (2013). Analysis of Solar Cell Efficiency for Venus Atmosphere and Surface Missions. 11th
International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference. doi:10.2514/6.2013-4028.
latitude the light come in a somewhat long day-night cycle - most probably around two days
(VeRa data), but possibly upwards of three days (VIRTIS data).170

A particular curiosity of Venus s light is its

relatively anisotropic nature. In the middle cloud
layer, light coming from underneath is approximately
70-80% as strong as light coming from overhead.

This has a number of interesting

consequences. Firstly, it means that it cannot be
effectively concentrated, ruling out solar thermal
heating, due to conservation of étendue. Secondly, it
means that clouds visible outside the habitat will be
Zenith and nadir light , based on low contrast, although it is expected that it will still be
Moshkin et al (1983) / ESA171 possible to see individual shapes.172

Third, it means that to capture the maximum amount of energy, light must be
captured from all directions rather than simply overhead. The advantage of this is that a
double-sided cell presents two square meters of exposure to the cloud deck per square
meter of physical area.

We return to power source comparisons. The top of the line in space-based solar
systems today is along the lines of the ATK Megaflex and Ultraflex series. Ultraflex yields a
nameplate 150W/kg173 under standard Earth testing conditions, while Megaflex is designed
for up to 200W/kg.174 Ultraflex was used on the Mars Phoenix lander, the (cancelled) Mars
01 lander and New Millennium ST8, and several pending systems (NASA Orion/MPCV,
Orbital ATK CRS Cygnus, and the Mars Insight lander).

However, on a Venus habitat, the

situation is far superior. In the ATK
systems, the system must provide its own
structural strength - generally the majority
of the mass of a flexible solar system. On
Venus, with solar cells embedded into the
envelope, structural support is already
provided by the envelope itself. The next
largest portion of the mass of a flexible
solar system is the substrate. Again, this ATK MegaFlex. Photo: NASA / GRC

170
Piccialli, A. (2010). Cyclostrophic wind in the mesosphere of Venus from Venus Express observations . Berlin: Uni-Edition
171
Grieger, B., Ignatiev, N. I., Hoekzema, N. M., & Keller, H. U. (2004). Indication of a near surface cloud layer on Venus from
reanalysis of Venera 13/14 spectrophotometer data. Proceedings of the International Workshop Planetary Probe
Atmospheric Entry and Descent Trajectory Analysis and Science, 6-9 October 2003, Lisbon, Portugal. ISBN 92-9092-855-7
172
Wilson, C. F., Chassefière, E., Hinglais, E., Baines, K. H., Balint, T. S., Berthelier, J., . . . Szopa, C. (2011). The 2010
European Venus Explorer (EVE) mission proposal. Experimental Astronomy, 33(2-3), 305-335.
doi:10.1007/s10686-011-9259-9
173
UltraFlex TM Solar Array Systems . Orbital ATK. Retrieved from
https://www.orbitalatk.com/space-systems/space-components/solar-arrays/docs/FS007_15_OA_3862%20UltraFlex.pdf
174
MegaFlex Solar Array Scale-Up, up to 175kW per Wing. NASA SBIR. Retrieved from
https://www.sbir.gov/sbirsearch/detail/388526
is provided by the envelope itself. Additionally, solar cells on Venus are illuminated from both
sides, doubling the number of effective square meters per physical square meter of fabric.
Hence, we can consider the ATK systems to give us what should be by far the worst case.

Let us take a pessimistic tack and assume that the addition of photovoltaic and wiring
mass over the already-required mass of the envelope is 600W/kg. We ll target the same
20kW as before in wind, but with the added need to generate enough power during a 24-hour
day to store 30 hours of power at 70% net storage efficiency. We ll credit our cells with a 30%
daytime (0% night) capacity factor - that is, to account for the different light levels over the
course of the day as well as structural shading within the habitat - again, pessimistic figures.
Thus we have:

P = (20000W / 0.3) * (1 + (30/24) / 0.7)

This 20kW thus requires a nameplate capacity of 186kW, massing at 310kg. Note
that this does not include the mass of the energy storage system, but this is relatively
lightweight (discussed under Deuterium and power storage issues )

It is clear that the solar system comes in at a far lower mass than the wind system,
even with arguably pessimistic solar mass assumptions. In terms of technology readiness
level, it is also far beyond that of a blimp-towed wind system which can handle Venus
conditions (many of which are unknown, and some of which, such as lightning, could prove
hazardous to an object dangling on a tether). Solar represents a much cheaper development
path which can be very readily tested on Earth, and almost invariably greater reliability.

In the long term, wind has the potential to provide massive amounts of local power,
including nighttime generation, as well as to provide a towing force, allowing a lifting body
habitat to gain greater lift. It additionally provides interesting options for resource collection,
discussed under In-Situ Resource Utilization. However, for an initial habitat, solar appears to
be the superior option.

The question arises as to where solar power systems should be located. As noted,
by embedding solar production into the already-required envelope rather than having it as
external systems, you provide it a substrate and shelter it from the external corrosive
environment and weather. Indeed, high-tensile multilayer plastic substrates with
fluoropolymer coatings have long been a mainstay in thin-film photovoltaics.175

However, all parts of the envelope are not created equal. A first instinct might be to
place solar cells on the top, as we would on Earth; however, that is the location where
agriculture is conducted. Agricultural outputs are strongly correlated with light levels.176 The
light reaching any point in space in a simple isotropic illumination environment can be thought
of as the percentage of its sky sphere that is obstructed; hence, the closer the cells are
placed to the plants, the less light plants and solar cells receive. The logical conclusion is
that they should be apart from each other.

175
Debergalis, M. (2004). Fluoropolymer films in the photovoltaic industry. Journal of Fluorine Chemistry, 125(8), 1255-1257.
doi:10.1016/j.jfluchem.2004.05.013
176
Hunt, R. (1990). Basic growth analysis: plant growth analysis for beginners . London: Unwin Hyman.
 Additionally, while light is largely isotropic in the middle cloud environment, the zenith
angle still receives more light than the nadir. Likewise, the underside of the habitat contains
the ballonets, propulsion, and other obstructions. So the best real estate remains at the
top. To some degree there is a competition between agriculture and solar for the best light
positioning. Which should win? A strong argument can be made for agriculture. Agriculture
presents a much greater embodied mass per square meter than solar power, and consumes
vastly more human labour and produced resources. Hence it s much easier to provide more
area of solar cells than more cultivated area.

All of this together argues that bulk solar power (not accounting for solar panels on
dead space , such as walls, flooring, etc) should be located further down in the habitat.
There are two main areas for this: in the inner walls of the ballonets, or the outer walls /
external envelope.

A location on the inner walls of the ballonets means that light from the bottom must
pass through two envelope layers before reaching the solar cells, while light from the rest of
the habitat moves through only one. The outer location keeps the cells further away from
agriculture, particularly when the ballonets are highly inflated (excepting the bottommost
extremities of the ballonets). A location on the inner walls of the ballonets has an advantage
in that only a single side of the solar cells are exposed to the external chemical environment,
and neither side is exposed to weather. It is also much more accessible for maintenance
and expansion.
 Much about Venus s middle cloud layer can remind one of Earth. Temperatures and
pressures are similar. The layer is convective, like Earth s troposphere. Storms that -
according to our brief amounts of Vega data - have similar distribution and wind patterns to
Earth drift by.177 However, the chemical environment is famously different and hostile.

Bulk statistics describing Venus s atmosphere are not particularly useful in describing
a particular layer of it. Let us begin by describing the atmosphere at flight altitude. The short
of it: it s complex, and we ve only scratched the surface.

There are many caveats we need

to go into concerning this data. However,
before we do so, let also include a wider
range of species. For simplicity s sake we
will present these mixing ratios on a
logarithmic scale on the next page.

177
Dorrington, G. E. (2013). Preliminary evidence for drizzle in the middle cloud layer of Venus . Advances in Space
Research, 52(3), 505-511. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2013.03.026
 A few bulk constituents are well quantified and not very altitude-sensitive in the
troposphere; nitrogen makes up approximately 3.5%, while the vast majority of the
remainder is comprised of carbon dioxide. Noble gases, although known with less precision,
are approximately 70 ppm argon, 9 ppm helium, 7ppm neon, 20 ppb krypton and <7 ppb
xenon.178
Venus has three different cloud decks (upper, middle and lower) containing various
populations of three different types of particles (known as modes 1, 2, and 3). Mode 1
particles are aerosols approximately 0.3 microns in diameter (smoke-sized). Mode 2
particles appear to be spheres about 2 microns in diameter (fine fog-sized), believed to be
primarily sulfuric acid at approximately 73-98% concentration.179 There is some dispute over
the mode 3 particles; they are most likely high aspect ratio crystals, approximately 7 micron
in length, of a species other than sulfuric acid. Theories as to their nature run from perchloric
acid to phosphoric acid to polymeric sulfur.

The upper cloud layer is continuous and

relatively unchanging in thickness and density all
the way around the planet, with the exception of
turbulent areas of the polar vortices. The middle
cloud layer is somewhat variable, while the lower
cloud layer appears highly variable, and may in
some cases disappear entirely. Beneath the
lower cloud exists the lower haze, a sparse
region that may comprise a condensation virga.
Beyond the lower haze, the atmosphere
becomes optically transparent for the rest of the
way to the surface, with the possible exception of
surface fogs whose existence is still debated.180
Based on Knollenberg
and Hunten (1980).181
The surface and atmosphere of Venus
undergoes complex weathering processes,
leading to the creation of a wide variety of gas-phase species (including both detected and
hypothesized compounds). These evolve and in some cases precipitate out of the
atmosphere at various altitudes. Perhaps the most prominent case is compounds of sulfur,
taking part in a complex sulfur cycle somewhat reminiscent of Earth s water cycle.

178
Krasnopolsky, V. A., & Lefèvre, F. (2013). Chemistry of the Atmospheres of Mars, Venus, and Titan. Comparative
Climatology of Terrestrial Planets . doi:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816530595-ch011
179
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2015). Vertical profiles of H2O, H2SO4, and sulfuric acid concentration at 45 75km on Venus.
Icarus, 252, 327-333. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.01.024
180
Grieger, B., Ignatiev, N. I., Hoekzema, N. M., & Keller, H. U. (2004). Indication of a near surface cloud layer on Venus from
reanalysis of Venera 13/14 spectrophotometer data. Proceedings of the International Workshop Planetary Probe
Atmospheric Entry and Descent Trajectory Analysis and Science, 6-9 October 2003, Lisbon, Portugal. ISBN 92-9092-855-7
181
Knollenberg, R., Hunten, D. (1980) The Microphysics of the Clouds of Venus: Results of the Pioneer Venus Particle Size
Spectrometer Experiment. Journal of Geophysical Research, 85, 8039-58
 Left: Venus’s sulfur cycle, reproduced from
Fegley et al (1995).182 Pyrite is quickly broken
down into pyrrhotite, then progressively less
sulfur-rich species. The resultant gas-phase
sulfur allotropes are progressively oxidized via
carbonyl sulfide to sulfur dioxide, which upon
further oxidation forms sulfur trioxide / sulfuric
acid, or contrarily is sequestered via the
formation of anhydrite.

Middle cloud species of interest

● Carbon monoxide: Approximately 30-60 ppm.183 184 185 At this level, CO 2 represents
a greater toxicity / permeation threat.

● Water: Variable, but around two dozen ppm in the middle cloud.186 187 Water vapour
and sulfuric acid (including water bound therein) would be the primary source of
hydrogen (water, hydrocarbons, etc) for a Venus habitat.

● Hydrogen chloride: Approximately 400 ppb, expected to be primarily anhydrous.188

189

● Hydrogen fluoride: Also expected to be primarily anhydrous, it is a relatively rare

constituent at around 5ppb.190

● Sulfuric acid: Arguably the most notable (and variable) species of Venus s cloud
decks. Perhaps surprisingly, while it is among the most familiar chemicals in Venus s
atmosphere, models differ greatly on how much is present and at what locations.
Sulfuric acid - like water clouds on Earth - appears to vary with respect to altitude,
latitude, and time of day.

182
Fegley, B., Lodders, K., Treiman, A. H., & Klingelhöfer, G. (1995). The rate of pyrite decomposition on the surface of
Venus . Icarus , 115(1), 159-180.
183
Krasnopolsky, V. A., & Lefèvre, F. (2013). Chemistry of the Atmospheres of Mars, Venus, and Titan. Comparative
Climatology of Terrestrial Planets . doi:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816530595-ch011
184
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2016). On the iron chloride aerosol in the clouds of Venus. Icarus . doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.10.003
185
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2013). S3 and S4 abundances and improved chemical kinetic model for the lower atmosphere of
Venus . Icarus, 225(1), 570-580. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.04.026
186
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2015). Vertical profiles of H2O, H2SO4, and sulfuric acid concentration at 45 75km on Venus.
Icarus, 252, 327-333. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.01.024
187
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2013). S3 and S4 abundances and improved chemical kinetic model for the lower atmosphere of
Venus . Icarus, 225(1), 570-580. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.04.026
188
Krasnopolsky, V. A., & Lefèvre, F. (2013). Chemistry of the Atmospheres of Mars, Venus, and Titan. Comparative
Climatology of Terrestrial Planets . doi:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816530595-ch011
189
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2016). On the iron chloride aerosol in the clouds of Venus. Icarus . doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.10.003
190
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2016). On the iron chloride aerosol in the clouds of Venus. Icarus . doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.10.003
 Based on Parkinson et al (2015). Calculated estimates of Venus’s sulfuric acid mixing ratios are indicated for the
morning and evening terminators at 60-70° latitude, varying by orders of magnitude with relatively small altitude differences.

At our particular location of interest - ~55km altitude, ~70° latitude - estimates

of density vary over two orders of magnitude, from under 1ppm in Krasnopolsky
(2015)191 to nearly 100ppm in Parkinson et al (2015).192 While the concentration in the
lower cloud deck is disputed, there is little dispute that little sulfuric acid exists below
it; at those temperatures, sulfuric acid is unstable and decomposes.

● Phosphoric acid and phosphorus pentoxide: Detection by Vega has been

suggested but not confirmed. Chemical models strongly suggest that phosphoric acid
should be a common if not dominant species in the dense lower cloud deck. Further
down, phosphorus pentoxide would be the dominant species. Phosphoric acid likely
exists in minor quantities at higher altitudes and as low as 33km.193

● Ferric chloride and ferric sulfate: Observed by Venera 12 XRF and the Vega
landers. Considered a candidate for Venus s mystery UV absorber and a potential
condensation nucleus for sulfuric acid. Has a latitude dependence. (Bézard et al
2009). Estimated to make up perhaps 1% of the mass of every sulfuric acid droplet.
The dramatic variation in sulfuric acid estimates render this value difficult to utilize.
We have adopted a low value from Krasnopolsky 2016194.

Ferric chloride oxidizes to ferric sulfate in the cloud environment over the
course of several weeks. Ferric sulfate has not been the subject of as much
research as it is not a candidate UV absorber, and hence, estimates of the resource
availability in the middle cloud environment are difficult to come by. It however
remains an additional potential iron resource.

191
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2015). Vertical profiles of H2O, H2SO4, and sulfuric acid concentration at 45 75km on Venus.
Icarus, 252, 327-333. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.01.024
192
Parkinson, C. D., Gao, P., Schulte, R., Bougher, S. W., Yung, Y. L., Bardeen, C. G., . . . Pätzold, M. (2015). Distribution of
sulphuric acid aerosols in the clouds and upper haze of Venus using Venus Express VAST and VeRa temperature profiles.
Planetary and Space Science, 113-114, 205-218. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2015.01.023
193
Krasnopolsky, V. (1989). Vega mission results and chemical composition of Venusian clouds . Icarus, 80(1), 202-210.
doi:10.1016/0019-1035(89)90168-1
194
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2016). On the iron chloride aerosol in the clouds of Venus. Icarus. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.10.003
 ● Polysulfides: Unconfirmed, but potentially present in significant quantities. A potential
candidate for the mystery UV absorber. In our breakdown, we include both a model
of Sx (all polysulfides) and various individual polysulfides, as distributions for both
categories are easy to locate.195 196

● Higher halides: Bromine has been detected in minor quantities (<1ppb) in Venus s
upper atmosphere from Earth, and is modelled at a maximum of to 20-70 ppb below
60km. A likely fit from Krasnopolsky 2017 places it around 10ppb in the habitable
zone, primarily as hydrogen bromide, but also Br and Br2 in relevant quantities.197
Iodine has not been as extensively studied; we treat it as being present at a similar
relative abundance as in Earth s crust, Br = 6.1x I.

● Theorized minor metallic compounds: While many such compounds had been
initially suggested as significant cloud-forming compounds, they have since been
largely ruled out in this regard. Some, such as SiF4 and AlCl3, have been determined
to likely have too low of a concentration to be meaningful atmospheric constituents.198
Others, however, still remain likely atmospheric constituents at low levels.

○ Mercury chlorides, sulfides, metal: The non-detection of mercury is one of

the great mysteries of Venus s atmospheric chemistry, perhaps only second
to that of the unknown UV absorber. Models predict 3 ½ orders of magnitude
more mercury in the atmosphere than detection constraints indicate (<10ppb).
199
As mercury has a high vapour pressure, the crust should be degassed of
it; before the Venera missions it had been theorized that Venus s clouds were
dominated by mercury. Future missions with more sensitive equipment will
hopefully shed more light on this.

Mercury would most likely be found as elemental mercury, which should

begin to condense out at 62km altitude.

○ Arsenic oxides, sulfides, chlorides: Models suggest that arsenic is

constrained to under 100ppbv.200 The leading candidate is As 4O 6, which
should begin to crystalize at 42km altitude.201

○ Antimony sulfide, oxides, chloride: Of undetected metallic compounds,

antimony has the most promising model results, with partial pressures as
195
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2015). Vertical profiles of H2O, H2SO4, and sulfuric acid concentration at 45 75km on Venus.
Icarus, 252, 327-333. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.01.024
196
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2013). S3 and S4 abundances and improved chemical kinetic model for the lower atmosphere of
Venus . Icarus, 225(1), 570-580. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.04.026
197
Krasnopolsky, V. A., & Belyaev, D. A. (2017). Search for HBr and bromine photochemistry on Venus . Icarus , 293,
114-118. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.04.016
198
Lewis, J. S., & Fegley, B. (1982). Venus: Halide Cloud Condensation and Volatile Element Inventories . Science, 216(4551),
1223-1225. doi:10.1126/science.216.4551.1223
199
Barsukov, V. L., Khodakovskii, I. L., Volkov, V. P., Sidorov, I. I., Dorofeeva, V. A., & Andreeva, N. E. (1982). Metal chloride
and elemental sulfur condensates in the Venusian troposphere - Are they possible. Lunar and Planetary Science
Conference, 12th, Houston, TX, March 16-20, 1981, Proceedings. Section 2. (A82-31677 15-91) New York and Oxford,
Pergamon Press , 1517-1532.
200
Lewis, J. S., & Fegley, B. (1982). Venus: Halide Cloud Condensation and Volatile Element Inventories . Science, 216(4551),
1223-1225. doi:10.1126/science.216.4551.1223
201
Hunten, D. M., Colin, L., Donahue, T. M., Moroz, V. I. (1983). Venus . The University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, Arizona.
 high as 0.1mb possible.202 Antimony oxide begins to crystallize out at 42km
altitude.203

○ Selenium metal, chlorides, oxide: Models suggest the most likely specie,
Se2, is constrained to under 10 ppm and begins to condense to Se(l) at 18km.
204

○ Tellurium metal, chlorides, oxychloride, oxides: Models suggest the most

likely specie, Te2, is constrained to under 100 ppb and begins to crystallize at
18km.205

○ Lead chlorides, metal, oxide: Models suggest the most likely specie, lead
chloride, is constrained to under 12 ppb and begins to crystallize at 16 km.206

○ Zinc chlorides, metal: Models suggest the most likely species, ZnCl2, is
constrained to under 410 ppt and begins to crystallize at 38km.207

○ Indium chloride, metal, oxide: Models suggest the most likely specie,
indium chloride, is constrained to under 1.6 ppb and begins to crystallize at
46km.208

○ Bismuth chlorides, metal, oxides: Models suggest the most likely specie,
BiCl3, is constrained to under 410 ppt and begins to crystallize at 50km.209

As acidic, hygroscopic compounds, these can be expected to accumulate in the

sulfuric acid fraction during atmospheric scrubbing.

Before we address the critical issues of envelope tolerance of the external

environment and rates of permeation through it, it s worth considering the effects of the
external atmosphere on human health. Clearly one can immediately rule out breathing it - if
only for the lack of oxygen. Even absent sulfuric acid, the levels of carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide are hazardous to the eyes; the CO 2 exposure symptoms would be more
immediate, including stinging, yellowed vision, and damage from chronic exposure.210
Immediate hazards to the skin from the atmosphere, however, are not as certain. Middle
cloud sulfuric acid levels range from a few to a few dozen mg/m³. The OSHA and NIOSH
workplace exposure limits (8h/day) are 1mg/m³ 211 - and this includes breathing and eye

202
Lewis et al 1982
203
Hunten et al 1983
204
Hunten et al 1983
205
Hunten et al 1983
206
Hunten et al 1983
207
Hunten et al 1983
208
Hunten et al 1983
209
Hunten et al 1983
210
Grant, W.M. (1983) Toxicology of the Eye. 3rd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas
211
(2014) Non-Volatile Acids (Sulfuric Acid and Phosphoric Acid) . NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM), Fifth
Edition. METHOD 7908, Issue 1.
exposure. 2 mg/m³ for five days is considered a risk factor for pulmonary edema, and 2
mg/m³ for one hour a risk factor for bronchoconstriction.212

The outside environment, at a few to a few dozen mg/m³ looks at a glance,

amazingly, to be tolerable to human skin so long as the individual wears a full face mask.
Indeed, the acid mists in the cloud deck are only tenuous, like an urban smog.213

A few caveats are of note which temper this, however. First, sulfuric acid mists on
Venus at the desired latitude / altitude are around 89% concentration;214 on Earth they begin
at their source concentration but over time self-dilute with atmospheric moisture to as low as
10% concentration.215 Secondly, there are additionally a wide variety of acidic anhydrous
compounds in the atmosphere, as well as a wide range of other chemicals at levels little
studied for protracted skin exposure. Lastly, precipitation or condensation could greatly
increase the concentration on the skin. While it is difficult to say, without experimentation,
what the atmosphere of Venus would do to human skin, it seems plausible that short term,
infrequent exposure to the external atmosphere in the absence of precipitation or
condensation may not prove highly hazardous. In the medium term or with repeated
exposure, or in the case of precipitation or condensation, dermatitis seems likely at a
minimum, up to severe burns if highly exposed to concentrated liquid.

Deuterium and power storage issues

A little discussed issue of both risk and benefit to a Venus colony is a particular way
in which Venus differs dramatically from Earth: deuterium levels. Most of Venus s light
isotope ratios are quite similar to those of Earth,216 but deuterium is a dramatic exception.
Having lost its ancient oceans to space, the concentration of deuterium on Venus has been
enriched, to levels which vary with altitude.

212
Sulfuric acid [MAK Value Documentation, 2001]. (2012) . The MAK-Collection for Occupational Health and Safety, 166-222.
doi:10.1002/3527600418.mb766493e0015
213
Hunten, D. M., Colin, L., Donahue, T. M., Moroz, V. I. (1983). Venus . The University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, Arizona.
214
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2015). Vertical profiles of H2O, H2SO4, and sulfuric acid concentration at 45 75km on Venus.
Icarus, 252, 327-333. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.01.024
215
Sulphuric acid mists and occupational health issues . Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists. AIOH Exposure
Standards Committee, July 2015.
216
Bullock, M. A., Harder, J. W., Simon-Miller, A. A., & Mackwell, S. J. (2014). Comparative Climatology of Terrestrial Planets .
University of Arizona Press.
 While the Vienna Mean (VSMOW)
deuterium levels on Earth are 0.0156%218,
earlier estimates from Pioneer Venus
estimated Venus s ratio to be 1.6%, via mass
spectrometry measurements in the lower
atmosphere.219 More recently Venus Express
measured an average deuterium
concentration 240 times that of Earth in the
upper atmosphere (3.7%), varying with
latitude and altitude.220

What practical impact does this large

difference represent?

● Chemistry

Deuterium and protium are surprisingly

different, and thus their compounds are as
well. Consider heavy vs. light water. Heavy
water is 11% denser and 20% more viscous.
It freezes at 3.8°C and boils at 101.6°C. Its
Image from Fedorova et al (2008) 217
maximum density is at 11.6°C, versus 4°C in
light water. Heavy water has a dissociation
rate 16 orders of magnitude higher than light water, and salts are often significantly less
soluble in it.221

A new research field has been built around deuterated drugs, which tend to have
much longer lifespans in the body than their non-deuterated counterparts.222 The first
commercial deuterated drug, a treatment for Huntington s disease, is currently awaiting FDA
approval; it is expected to pave the way for many others, representing a market worth tens
of billions of dollars.223 Deuteration can provide a severalfold increase in resistance to
thermoxidative breakdown, making it of interest for lubrication in extreme conditions.224
Deuterated PMMA, polyfluoromethacrylate, and other polymers have has been researched

217
Fedorova, A., Korablev, O., Vandaele, A., Bertaux, J., Belyaev, D., Mahieux, A., . . . Villard, E. (2008). HDO and H2O
vertical distributions and isotopic ratio in the Venus mesosphere by Solar Occultation at Infrared spectrometer on board
Venus Express. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113. doi:10.1029/2008je003146
218
National Institute of Standards & Technology Report of Investigation Reference Materials 8535, 8536, 8537
219
Donahue, T. M., Hoffman, J. H., Hodges, R. R., & Watson, A. J. (1982). Venus Was Wet: A Measurement of the Ratio of
Deuterium to Hydrogen. Science, 216(4546), 630-633. doi:10.1126/science.216.4546.630
220
Fedorova et al 2008
221
Chaplin, M. (2000, 2017). Water Properties (including isotopologues . Retrieved from
http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/water_properties.html
222
Katsnelson, A. (2013). Heavy drugs draw heavy interest from pharma backers . Nature Medicine, 19(6), 656-656.
doi:10.1038/nm0613-656
223
Benmeleh, Y., & Cortez, M. (2016, September 16). A Decades-Old Drug Technology Finally Nears Its Big Breakthrough.
Bloomberg.
224
Campana, J. E. (1983). High-Temperature Deuterated Lubricants: Additives, Mechanisms, and Methods. (Tech. No.
ADA138114). Washington DC: Naval Research Lab.
for use in fibre optics, as the substitution of deuterium for hydrogen dramatically lowers light
attenuation.225 226 Deuterated plastics tend to be more resistant to ionizing radiation.227

Of particular interest for local production, a curious effect can occur in deuterated
thermoplastics: while thermoplastics such as polyethylene may be transparent in both
low-deuterium and highly-deuterated versions, mixtures of them tend to be highly opaque.
This is a result of the differing melting points between deuterated and non-deuterated
compounds, causing the lower-melting-point low-deuterium polymer to crystallize first. The
droplets of highly deuterated plastic left behind then crystalize. Having a significantly higher
refractive index and a particle size much larger than the wavelength of visible light, the
crystals heavily scatter the light and leave the polymer opaque.228

● Health

Deuterium is acutely toxic to mammals at high doses, with lethality beginning at

around 20-25%. Studies on humans have been limited, generally only involving the
short-term elevation of body deuterium levels to 0.2-0.5%; the most common side effect was
vertigo, likely to the change of density of fluid in the vestibular system. One subject was
maintained at 0.5% for 130 days, without acute toxicity symptoms.229

Relatively few studies have been done to search for chronic low-level impacts of
elevated deuterium on humans, and even fewer in recent years. Perhaps the most notable
was Strekalova et al 2015, a multi-institutional and multidisciplinary study which found a
significant positive correlation deuterium exposure and depression over the ranges normally
found on Earth. As the Earth range is dramatically lower than that of Venus, this raises a
significant concern for the long-term habitation on Venus.230

Many algae and bacteria can grow and reproduce in up to 100% deuterium, although
generally at a slower rate. Many show a preference for deuterium and enrich it, such as
Chlorella (2.5x ) and E. coli (3.9x).231 Since the whole-cell enrichment factors are so large,
it s expected that various chemical processes within them that lead to the enrichment can
themselves have much higher enrichment factors. For higher animals such as fruit flies, high
deuterium levels (peaking at 7.5%) prolong lifespan but reduce growth rate.232 Biological
effects at the molecular level have been studied; for example, Lobyshev et al 1989 and 1992
225
Kaino, T. (1987). Preparation of plastic optical fibres for near-IR region transmission. Journal of Polymer Science Part A:
Polymer Chemistry, 25(1), 37-46. doi:10.1002/pola.1987.080250105
226
Yoshimura, R., Hikita, M., Tomaru, S., & Imamura, S. (1998). Low-loss polymeric optical waveguides fabricated with
deuterated polyfluoromethacrylate. Journal of Lightwave Technology, 16(6), 1030-1037. doi:10.1109/50.681460
227
Milinchuk, V. K., Klinshpont, E. R., & Vasilenko, V. V. (1976). Effect of isotopic composition on free-radical reactions in
polyolefins. Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition, 14(6), 1419-1427. doi:10.1002/pol.1976.170140610
228
Tanaka, T. (2000). Experimental methods in polymer science: modern methods in polymer research and technology . San
Diego: Academic Press.
229
Jones, P. J., & Leatherdale, S. T. (1991). Stable isotopes in clinical research: safety reaffirmed. Clinical Science, 80(4),
277-280. doi:10.1042/cs0800277
230
Strekalova, T., Evans, M., Chernopiatko, A., Couch, Y., Costa-Nunes, J., Cespuglio, R., . . . Lesch, K. (2015). Deuterium
content of water increases depression susceptibility: The potential role of a serotonin-related mechanism. Behavioural Brain
Research, 277, 237-244. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.039
231
Choppin, G. R., Choppin, G. R., Liljenzin, J., & Rydberg, J. (2002). Radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry . Woburn, MA:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
232
Hammel, S. C., East, K., Shaka, A., Rose, M. R., & Shahrestani, P. (2013) . Brief Early-Life Non-Specific Incorporation of
Deuterium Extends Mean Life Span in Drosophila melanogaster Without Affecting Fecundity. Rejuvenation Research,16(2),
98-104. doi:10.1089/rej.2012.1368
determined that Na,K-ATPase activity increases by 50% at deuterium levels of only
0.03-0.04%233 234

With specific focus on the effects of human life on Mars and Venus, Xie and Zubarev
2017 reviewed existing studies, on topics ranging from bacterial growth to cancer, and
conducted two additional experiments: E. coli grew slower under Mars conditions, and even
slower under Venus conditions; while brine shrimp grown under such elevated conditions
had lower year-long survival rates. As per the study: It is far from certain that terrestrial life
will thrive in these isotopic conditions … the biological impact of varying stable isotope
compositions needs to be taken into account when planning interplanetary missions. 235

● Export

While many potential local uses of deuterium are tangential, there is a very important
issue of note: its potential for export. Deuterium is valuable. Reactor grade heavy water sells
for roughly $300/kg.236 237 As deuterium makes up 1/3rd of the mass of heavy water, its
mass value fraction is $900/kg. This raises an interesting prospect: a Venus economy based
on deuterium exports.

A few issues of note:

● Hydrogen gas tankage is usually significantly heavier than the hydrogen itself - often
10-20 times heavier. 238 Hydrogen absorbers eliminate the high tankage masses but
replace them with absorbent masses. The highest densities / lowest tankage masses
can be achieved by direct bonding of deuterium into other compounds, such as
heavy water (20%), methane (40%), ammonia (30%), hydrazine (22%), lithium
hydride (25%), tetraborane (38%), lithium aluminum hydride (21%), silane (25%),
beryllium hydride (36%), and others.

● As an alternative, liquid hydrogen, commonly used in rocketry, provides low tankage

masses compared to the mass of the hydrogen stored; bulk storage of such deep
cryogens in space is an active topic of research.

● The mass of deuterium can be worked around to some extent. Wherein there are
materials that that will be be sent back to Earth regardless, such as containers or
liquids (for example, ammonia coolant), one can return deuterated variants instead.
This effectively allows you to halve the mass of the deuterium, since one would have
had to export hydrogen (half its mass) regardless.

233
Lobyshev VI, Tverdislov VA, Vogel J, Iakovenko L V. (1978) Activation of Na,K-ATPase by small concentrations of D2O,
inhibition by high concentrations . Biofizika. pmid:148298
234
Lobyshev VI, Fogel Iu , Iakovenko L V., Rezaeva MN, Tverdislov VA. (1982) D2O as a modifier of ionic specificity of Na,
K-ATPase. Biofizika. pmid:6289916
235
Xie, X., & Zubarev, R. A. (2017). On the Effect of Planetary Stable Isotope Compositions on Growth and Survival of
Terrestrial Organisms . Plos One, 12(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169296
236
Miller, A. I. (2001). Heavy Water: A Manufacturers Guide for the Hydrogen Century . Canadian Nuclear Society Bulletin,
vol.22, no.1, 2001 February
237
Europeans Interested in Purchasing Heavy Water . (2016, December 28). Financial Tribune.
238
See Mass Budget for details on estimations of tankage mass.
 ● By enriching to higher levels, one shrinks the size of the market but greatly increases
the value of the deuterium. While reactor-grade heavy water is 99.75% and $300/kg,
it can be enriched significantly beyond this for laboratory purposes, such as NMR
spectroscopy. Comparing retail prices in the largest bulk quantities available:239 240

Seller Item # Price Quantity (kg) Enrichment Price per kg

Cambridge Isotopes DLM-2259-1 $793.00 1.107 99.8% $716.35

Cambridge Isotopes DLM-4-1000 $888.00 1 99.9% $888.00

Sigma-Aldrich 151882-4KG $3880.00 4 99.9% $970.00

Cambridge Isotopes DLM-6-1000 $1015.00 1.0 99.96% $1015.00

Sigma-Aldrich 364312-10G $68.90 0.01 99.98% $6890.00

Sigma-Aldrich 191701-10G $121.00 0.01 99.990% $12100.00

Sigma-Aldrich 613398-50G $472.50 0.05 99.994% $9450.00

In short, if material return costs for deuterium can be gotten low enough - thousands
of dollars per kilogram for a small market, hundreds of dollars per kilogram for a large market
- an entire economy can be built on the export of deuterium, based around Venus s
significant natural advantage in this regard. While costs of return cargo on the order several
hundred or even a thousand dollars per kilogram are unlikely to be achieved in the near term,
there is the potential for a large industry in the long term. In the short to medium term,
exports in the $5-10k/kg range are much more plausible - and while the market is greatly
reduced, it should prove more than enough compared to the needs of a small colony.

Deuterium is a very high demand product on Earth relative to its price, used in some
nuclear reactors (such as CANDU), nuclear weapons production, research (NMR, tracing,
etc), and a variety of other applications. Should fusion power take off in the future, very large
amounts of deuterium will be needed, as the feedstocks are deuterium and lithium (the latter,
used for tritium breeding, is available in virtually unlimited quantities from seawater at under
$25/kg carbonate - far cheaper than the deuterium)241

This raises the question: how could enrichment on Venus proceed? Enrichment
plants tend to be huge, energy-hungry systems. So we must investigate the various
processes, which vary significantly:242

239
Sigma-Aldrich, deuterium oxide prices. Retrieved on 11 February 2017 from
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/search?term=deuterium+oxide&interface=All&N=0&mode=match%20partialmax&lang=e
n&region=IS&focus=product
240
Cambridge isotopes, deuterium oxide prices. Retrieved on 11 February 2017 from
http://shop.isotope.com/advancedsearchresults.aspx?id=0&keyword2=deuterium+oxide&searchType=ALL%20Keywords&S
earchSpecificField=0&SearchContent=0
241
Ciez, R. E., & Whitacre, J. (2016). The cost of lithium is unlikely to upend the price of Li-ion storage systems . Journal of
Power Sources, 320, 310-313. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.04.073
242
Miller, A. I. (2001). Heavy Water: A Manufacturers Guide for the Hydrogen Century . Canadian Nuclear Society Bulletin,
vol.22, no.1, 2001 February
 Counter- Feed
Separation Energy Natural Exchange
Enrichment Process current Distillation of
Factor Needed Rate
Flows H2O
Distillation of H2O 1.015 to 1.055 Very high Moderate Yes Water

Distillation of liquid H2 ~1.5 Moderate Slow Yes Very pure H2

Water electrolysis 5 to 10 Very high Fast No Water

Hydrogen sulfite
1.8 to 2.3 High Fast Yes Water
exchange

Ammonia - hydrogen Slow - catalyst

2 to 6 Moderate Yes H2
exchange needed

Aminomethane - Slow - catalyst

3.5 to 7 Moderate Yes H2
hydrogen exchange needed
Almost nonexistent -
Water-hydrogen 2 to 3.8 Moderate Yes Water
catalyst needed

The enrichment factor and exchange rate largely determine the size of the
enrichment system, while the power consumption determines the size of the power supply
needed to power it. Standing out in both regards is electrolysis. Useful with most hydrogen
compounds, although most studied for water, a high rate of separation can be achieved
using a compact system. However, it is rarely used today in bulk; electrolysis consumes
great amounts of electricity in the process of splitting its feedstock. The resultant hydrogen
gas can be reversed in a fuel cell, but the losses in the reversal process alone mean that
enrichment from this method is uncompetitive on Earth versus other processes (such as
Girdler-Sulfide). There are hopes in the future that with a large market for electrolysis
hydrogen, such as from hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, it could become a competitive means
for enrichment; however, hydrogen today comes primarily (95%) from natural gas
reformation, which is much cheaper.243

On Venus, though, an interesting opportunity arises. The large nighttime power

storage needs mandate a storage system, and fuel cells tend to provide greater mass
density than batteries,244 as well as offering the ability for their working fluids to be produced
by ISRU. In galvanic (discharge) mode, hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell combines hydrogen and
oxygen to produce power, while in in electrolytic (charge) mode hydrogen and oxygen are
regenerated. Alternative fuel cells operate similarly - for example, in HCl fuel cells, hydrogen
and chlorine are combined to hydrogen chloride in galvanic mode, while they are split in
galvanic mode. In short, extensive electrolysis needs to be conducted every day
independent of enrichment / depletion needs.

243
Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved from
https://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-natural-gas-reforming
244
See calculations and discussion in Mass budget.
 Fuel cells have a significant history in spaceflight due to their mass advantages. The above alkaline
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was taken from the Space Shuttle Endeavour. Photo: Steve Jurvetson

In short, a fuel cell stack (which is comprised of many individual cells), plumbed into
a cascade, can enrich hydrogen at the same time it provides nighttime backup power. The
primary expense over a basic fuel cell stack is greater system complexity, particularly a
greater number of storage envelopes and pumps. At the same time it produces deuterium it
also produces depleted water for local consumption. As an example, enrichment in an
11-stage cascade can proceed (assumed enrichment factor = 6):

% of system % of system Total % of Deuterium

Deuterium molar %
Stage hydrogen hydrogen system molar %
depleted
depleted enriched hydrogen enriched

1 0.17% 0.04% 0.21% 98.80% 99.75%

2 0.21% 0.07% 0.28% 95.70% 98.80%

3 0.24% 0.10% 0.33% 86.61% 95.70%

4 0.26% 0.19% 0.45% 64.70% 86.61%

5 0.35% 0.50% 0.85% 34.38% 64.70%

6 0.67% 1.60% 2.27% 12.99% 34.38%

7 1.77% 5.46% 7.22% 4.09% 12.99%

8 5.62% 18.97% 24.60% 1.20% 4.09%

9 5.37% 18.62% 23.98% 0.35% 1.20%

10 5.01% 17.50% 22.50% 0.099% 0.35%

11 3.89% 13.61% 17.50% 0.028% 0.099%

Thus on every cycle, 0.04% of the mass of hydrogen in the system is output as
deuterium at reactor grade (99.75%), while 3.89% of the hydrogen mass in the system is
output depleted for drinking, agriculture and manufacture (~280ppm). The removal of these
from the system is compensated for by the injection of new unprocessed hydrogen into
stage 8. For a nighttime storage of 23GJ (small initial habitat), 204.5kg of hydrogen would
pass through the system per day; this would yield 82 grams of D2 and 7.95kg of H2 per day.

For a stack designed for the common nominal DC voltage of 380V and a fuel cell
voltage of 1.31V, the number of stacks per layer would be: 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 6, 21, 71, 69, 65, and
51, respectively, yielding slightly poorer results than optimal due to rounding errors. The
enrichment levels and/or throughput can be increased by increasing the number of stages, at
the cost of system mass and complexity.

A few factors need to be discussed - most of these favorable to a Venus habitat. The
above fuel cell stack assumes only enrichment during electrolysis, with no consideration
towards galvanic enrichment. Likewise, while the most researched electrolysis enrichment
system is water, other hydrogen compounds such as hydrogen chloride also provide strong
enrichment factors. Compared to water PEMs, hydrogen chloride PEMs are higher power
density (smaller), much more efficient, much more readily reversible (aka, using a single
system for galvanic and electrolysis mode).245 246

A negative aspect of fuel cell usage for enrichment is that optimal stack efficiency
involves operating at as low of an overpotential as possible; however, enrichment is
maximized at around 0.4V overpotential.247 Thus, the more a colony is experiencing excess
power, the greater that hydrogen can be enriched, while when power is more in short supply,
the enrichment factor can be decreased.

An issue arises as to how to perform pumping in a manner that ensures reliability.

While chlorine and hydrogen chloride compression are easy to achieve via phase change,
hydrogen distinctly is not.

A relatively simple approach to H2 compression

allows us to avoid all moving parts except for one-way
check valves: metal hydride compression. Utilized on
NASA s Planck satellite,248 hydrogen is adsorbed into a
substrate at lower temperatures and pressures, then heated
to release it at high pressures. Lifecycles are on the order of
tens of thousands of cycles, and the absorbant be almost
entirely renewed by vacuum heating.249 The 40kg system on
Planck pumped over a kilogram per second; our needs are Absorption compressor designed for Mars
on the order of two grams per second, and thus the pumps ISRU. Photo: NASA / ARC

245
Anderson, E. B., Taylor, E., Wilemski, G., & Gelb, A. (1994). A high performance hydrogen/chlorine fuel cell for space
power applications . Journal of Power Sources, 47(3), 321-328. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(94)87011-x
246
Liu, S., Zhou, L., Wang, P., Zhang, F., Yu, S., Shao, Z., & Yi, B. (2014). Ionic-Liquid-Based Proton Conducting Membranes
for Anhydrous H2/Cl2Fuel-Cell Applications. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 6(5), 3195-3200. doi:10.1021/am404645c
247
Hammerli, M., Mislan, J. P., & Olmstead, W. J. (1969). The Effect of Overpotential on the Electrolytic Hydrogen-Deuterium
Separation Factor on Bright Platinum Electrodes in 1.2N HCl-10% D2O . Journal of The Electrochemical Society,116(6), 779.
doi:10.1149/1.2412051
248
Wade, L. A., Bhandari, P., Bowman, R. C., Paine, C., Morgante, G., Lindensmith, C. A., . . . Rapp, D. Hydrogen sorption
cryocoolers for the Planck mission. Presented at CEC-Montreal July, 1999, Submitted to Adv. Cryogenic Engineering Vol. 45
249
Lototskyy, M., Yartys, V., Pollet, B., & Bowman, R. (2014). Metal hydride hydrogen compressors: A review. International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 39(11), 5818-5851. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.01.158
would be nothing more than specialized plumbing fittings, pumping from inflated bags of
hydrogen that contribute to lift.

As noted previously, for chlorine pumping, phase-change compression suffices. At

ideal HCl fuel cell pressures and temperatures, (~5 MPa, ~50°C)250, chlorine condenses at
around 10°C 251 - a quite small temperature difference. Consequently, a small peltier cooler
could liquefy the 66 grams per second without difficulty - a system that is once again small
enough to be little more than pipe fittings. See Mass budget for more details on flow rates.

Other issues related to the enrichment of isotopes will be discussed under Indirect
export of energy .

In-Situ Resource Utilization

Due to the very high shipping costs from Earth, and the desire to ultimately achieve
local resource independence, as well as to reduce the launch mass of an initial habitat,
producing local resources via ISRU is essential. IRSU shares many similarities as well as
many significant differences with the more researched topic of IRSU on Mars.252

Let us begin with the key difference, the primary category where Mars has an
advantage over Venus: cation availability. With the exception of iron, most metallic cations
are rare or absent from Venus s atmosphere, including many that are essential to life
(calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, zinc, silicon, minor nutrients) and industry
(copper, aluminum, tin, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, and numerous others to increasingly
lesser extents).

There are three primary means to acquire these elements: the surface (see Surface
access ), shipment from Earth (which is quite acceptable in the early stages of habitation, but
must be minimized due to costs), and recycling.

Cation recycling, thankfully, turns out not to be as difficult as might be expected.

Examples have been researched for hydroponics. The general process is high temperature
incineration of all waste in the presence of oxygen and optionally steam, to produce a
mixture of oxides and hydroxides. The temperature can be boosted by the injection of
manufactured hydrocarbons or plasma arc incineration. The resultant oxides and hydroxides
are then dissolved in strong acids; as the main needs for hydroponics are nitrates and nitrate
salts tend to be highly soluble, nitric acid is the most useful for this purpose. Simple addition
of these salts to hydroponic nutrient solutions are, however, insufficient to sustain proper
nutrient balances; the salts must be separated first, such as with fractional crystallization

250
Huskinson, B., Rugolo, J., Mondal, S. K., & Aziz, M. J. (2012). A high power density, high efficiency hydrogen chlorine
regenerative fuel cell with a low precious metal content catalyst. Energy & Environmental Science, 5(9), 8690.
doi:10.1039/c2ee22274d
251
Kapoor, R., Martin , J. J. (1957). Thermodynamic Properties of Chlorine. Eng. Res. Inst. Univ. of Michigan, 1957.
252
Watson, R. D. (1999) A survey of resource utilization processes for Mars and its moons . Space Studies Institute.
(DTB), and then those added to solution as needed. This also makes individual salts
available for other industrial processes.253

Thankfully, most of the mass needed on a Venus habitat has nothing to do with
metallic cations - and in regards of what the habitat needs, Venus s environment shines.
First, we shall look at the types of primary feedstocks (discussed briefly under Habitat
propulsion).

● Condensation / precipitation: Fluids gathered from condensation and precipitation

would be expected to be primarily sulfuric acid with additional minor constituents,
such as iron chloride.

● Absorption: Absorption into a liquid (such as water or similar) would collect Venus s
diverse anhydrous, hygroscopic species as well as its sulfuric acid mists.

● Tail gases: Tail gases left over after any absorption processes are predominantly
carbon dioxide, followed by nitrogen, argon, carbon monoxide, and then increasingly
minor noble gases.

Two key aspects of establishing an industrial manufacturing infrastructure are the

creation of streams of the major industrial acids, and the establishment of a petrochemical
industry. Likewise, key habitat consumables like oxygen, propellant(s), ammonia and water
must be produced in significant quantities. We shall investigate the processes involved in
doing so.

Atmospheric scrubbing

In designing a scrubbing system, we face the following primary challenges:

● Capture efficiency. It is important to capture as broad of a spectrum of minor gases

moving through the scrubber as possible, not just specific common species. It is also
important to capture as high of a percentage as possible to maximize production.

● Longevity. Beyond ensuring that materials used are chemically compatible with
Venus s atmosphere, it must be ensured that any solid particulates (if present) do not
erode the scrubber. Additionally, moving parts should be minimized.

● Water loss. The easiest way to capture most of the hygroscopic gases of interest,
as well as liquids like sulfuric acid, is a wet scrubber. However, the very dry
atmosphere of Venus means a significant loss of water to the exhaust stream.
Increased pressure can densify the air such that the scrubbing water s vapour
pressure is lower than the vapour pressure of the outside air, but this requires very
high (>100 bar) pressures.

253
Bubenheim, D., & Wignarajah, K. (1997). Recycling of inorganic nutrients for hydroponic crop production following
incineration of inedible biomass . Advances in Space Research, 20(10), 2029-2035. doi:10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00937-x
 ● Pressure drop. In order to minimize mass and power consumptions, air moving
through the system should experience as small of a pressure drop as possible.

● Lightweight and transportable. A system is of no use if it can t be stowed inside a

fairing without requiring unreasonable amounts of mass or volume.

In short, we need a lightweight, collapsible scrubber with very efficient water

scavenging and minimal obstruction to airflow, in order to capture mists for recovery. With
this in mind, let us examine a variety of options used in conventional industrial scrubbers on
Earth:254
● Orientation:

○ Vertical: Gas enters a vertical chamber and

flows to the opposite end. Falling / blowing
liquid can spend long periods of time in
contact with the air before reaching collection
at the base.

○ Horizontal: Gas enters the scrubber from

the side and flows to the opposite side. Liquid
gets cycled through more frequently,
constantly being replaced by fresh. Generally
less susceptible to fouling.

Countercurrent packed tower scrubber.

( © Nederman MikroPul)
● Flow:

○ Countercurrent scrubber: Liquid and gas

move in opposite directions. This generally
involves a vertical orientation.

○ Co-current scrubber: Liquid and gas move

together in the same stream.

○ Crossflow scrubber: Liquid interacts with

the gas stream at a 90 degree angle to the
flow of the stream. This is common in
Horizontal multi-venturi scrubber with horizontal systems, with the liquid entering
demist vanes ( © Nederman MikroPul) from the top.

● Liquid distribution:

○ Weir: Full troughs constantly overflow along

their length. Weirs are largely immune to

254
Joseph, G. T., Beachler, D. S. (1998) Scrubber Systems Operation Review. Industrial Extension Service College of
Engineering North Carolina State University
 clogging and allow for high flow rates for
minimal power, but require a very level
alignment.

○ Nozzles: Spray nozzles atomize the liquid

as it enters the scrubber. They provide
excellent fluid distribution without sensitivity
to alignment, but are intolerant of solid
contamination in the liquid and require higher
pressure pumps.

○ Drip line: Tubes with holes drip liquid into the

scrubber. Their properties with respect to
flow and clogging lie in-between those of
nozzles and weirs.

○ Venturi or orifice: The airflow is constricted

to accelerate flow and reduce pressure,
creating a venturi valve. Liquid is injected,
either at the nozzle, or in the case of erosive
environments, above it; the airstream
atomizes the inflowing liquid.

○ Mechanical: Liquid flows onto a moving

element, typically a fan, which atomizes and
distributes it.

● Bed:

○ Packed bed: Liquid flows across a stationary

packing material (structured or random,
generally metal, ceramic or plastic),
designed to spread out the liquid and
maximize its surface area for gas exchange..

○ Fluidized bed: Similar to a packed bed, the

flow is maintained at high enough pressure
and rate to loft the packing material, causing
it to circulate like a fluid. This offers better
mixing, at the cost of greater inflow
requirements.

liquid distribution methods, top to bottom: ○ Impingement plate: Liquid is forced along a
extraction (weir), bottom hole (weir / drip),
slotted (weir / drip), tube (drip), spray, and
circuitous route as it falls along nearly
radial (spray). (© Sulzer Chemtech Ltd.) horizontal plates or tray columns with
perforations. Air flows up from underneath
 through the perforations, preventing the liquid
from dripping through them and mixing with
the sheet of liquid.

○ Fibre bed: Beds of fibrous material block the

airflow, leading to the interaction of particulate
and liquid on the fibres. The beds are
NeXRingTM random packing (© Sulzer designed for maximal surface area, such as
Chemtech Ltd.) a corrugated folding or long bags.

● Liquid / particulate recovery:

○ Simple drainage: An inherent part of most

wet scrubbers; liquid reaches the bottom via
gravity and is pumped for processing and
reuse.

○ Cyclonic: A cyclonic flow is maintained

Tray columns ( © Sulzer Chemtech Ltd.)
within the scrubber, causing liquid droplets to
be pushed to the sides to drain off.

○ Mist eliminators: Knitted wire, vane or fibre

systems for collecting mist from the air as it
passes through; entrained droplets impinge
or absorb onto the substrate.

○ Condensation scrubbing: The gas is

brought to saturation, followed by steam
injection. This causes moisture in the gas to
condense, with any particulate in the gas
Mist eliminators. Top: vane; bottom: knitted
stream acting as condensation nuclei.
wire. ( © Amacs Process Tower Internals )
○ Electrostatic precipitation: Similar to ionic
wind home air filters as well as
electrohydrodynamic propulsion, the air
stream passes over high voltage negative
wires, followed by positive collection plates.
Ionized particulate is attracted to the plates
and is removed from the stream.255

High Efficiency fibre Bed Mist Eliminator

● Pumping:256 257

255
Parker, K. R. (2012). Applied electrostatic precipitation. Blackie Academic and Professional.
256
Kerri, K. D. (2008). Operation of wastewater treatment plants: a field study training program. Sacramento: California State
University. ISBN 978-1-59371-038-5
257
(2017) When to use a positive displacement pump. Pump School / Viking Pump. Retrieved from
http://www.pumpschool.com/intro/pd%20vs%20centrif.pdf
 ○ Reciprocating: Reciprocating pumps come
in a variety of forms, all having the property
that a piston, plunger or diaphragm
reciprocates, alternately pushing liquid
through the outlet and sucking it through the
inlet. Such pumps tend to deliver low
volumes with excellent head and efficiency.
Reciprocating pump

○ Positive displacement rotary: Two

counter-rotating, interlocking shapes (lobes,
gears, etc) intermesh to push fluid through
moving cavities. They offer excellent
efficiency, good head, and moderate flow
rates. They also deal well with solids, can
often run in reverse as generators, and
some can run dry for periods of time.
Internal gear pump. Image: Staffan Lincoln

The above types have poor to moderate

wear and are sensitive to pressure buildup.

○ Centrifugal: The inverse of a water turbine,

a rotating impeller accelerates liquid
outwards, providing for low/moderate head
and high flow. Most varieties are intolerant of
air ingestion, excepting froth pumps.

Chopper (centrifugal) pump. ○ Rotary (axial): Axial-flow pumps drive liquid

Image: Bogelund.
by means of an impeller - a propeller inside a
tube. Often used for very high flow rate
pumping applications; flow rate vs. head can
be adjusted by blade pitch changes.

The above types experience low to

moderate wear and moderate to good
Axial jet pump. Image: Ladar
efficiency.

○ Vortex pump: Otherwise similar to traditional

centrifugal and axial pumps, vortex pumps
differ by relying on induced vorticity to drive
fluids, eliminating the need for tight wall
tolerances. This renders them resistant to
Recessed vortex impeller.
erosion and fouling, at a small efficiency
Image: Vanton cost.258

258
Evans, J. How Lower Efficiency Can Reduce Overall Costs - Vortex Action. Pump Ed 101.
 ○
Jet pump (eductor / injector): In a jet pump,
a high pressure jet, ideally of a condensable
gas such as steam, is injected through a
venturi nozzle. Steam condenses, creating
more suction. The stream is moved through
an expander, lowering velocity and
Eductor pump. Image:Egmason increasing pressure. Compared to other
pumps, eductors are low efficiency, but by
operating on heat they avoid the losses inherent in thermal electricity generation. With no
moving parts (excepting any check valves to prevent backflow), they can be made
extremely reliable, and are very tolerant of solid intrusion. However, suction drops if the
inflow water temperature rises too much.259

As propulsion is directing air horizontally, we will begin with consideration of a

horizontal scrubbing layout. To ease collapsibility, we will baseline a flexible material for the
scrubber body, held rigid by internal overpressure and/or rollable trusses. Prop wake speeds
(12-25 m/s) are normal for cocurrent scrubbers;260 however, such high velocities require long
scrubber lengths. Pressure drop in a fluid due to friction is proportional to the velocity
squared,261 and we wish to keep the pressure drop under 800Pa (aka, low energy ),262 so for
a wet scrubbing design it is preferable to take advantage of our long airship length to
maximize liquid contact time rather than using thick, dense beds.

Can wet scrubbing be utilized?

Let us first investigate whether we can, in fact, utilize wet scrubbing.

A common problem with wet packed bed scrubbers is that hygroscopic acid gases
form submicron mists that zigzag past the packing.263 In our case, those are exactly what
we want to scrub, and the standard solution to the problem - mist collectors - is what we
need to utilize. Diffusion time requirements in turn require a long duct; we will target at least 1
second for mixing and saturation.264 This means a leading duct of at least 12-25m.

As we do not have the sort of high flow velocity needed for an effective venturi nozzle
and do not want the associated pressure drop (venturi scrubbers are high energy 265), we will
look at other options - a diverse topic on its own.266 Weirs are easily ruled out due to the
levelness requirement. Clogging should not be an issue as the incoming water is condensed
steam, so sprayers and drip tubes are options. Normally mechanical spraying would seem

259
Power, R. B. (1994). Steam jet ejectors for the process industries . New York: McGraw-Hill, inc.
260
Kohl, A. L., & Riesenfeld, F. C. (1997). Gas purification (5th ed.) . Abington Publ.
261
Darcy Weisbach equation: P / L = 0.5 fD ρ v² / D
262
Reddy, A. (2016) Scrubbing Systems. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/reddyas/scrubbing-systems
263
Eldridge, J. (2008) Cross-flow scrubber design. AIChE Annual International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid
Technology Conference.
264
Typical is 0.4 -0.8 seconds (Manuzun et al 2011)
265
Identification of point source emission controls and determination of their efficiencies and costs (1998), Appendix B.
California Air Resources Board. Penchan Report No. 98.01.001/548.
266
Column Internals. RVT Process Equipment GmbH. Retrieved from
http://www.rvtpe.com/wp-content/uploads/prospekte/RVT_Column_Internals_120601.pdf
an undesirable choice, as it implies the addition of another moving part. However, in this
case the water could be dripped / sprayed on the propeller itself, so long as this does not
shorten its lifespan or significantly interfere with its operation. For droplet evaporation with
time for mixing, we target a size of 10-30 micron,267 a wet fog or mist. This will saturate to
effectively 100% humidity.

For feeding the boiler to remove captured compounds from the scrubbing water, a
eductor pump is a natural fit, requiring no moving parts with the potential exception of check
valves to prevent backflow. Indeed, if any check valves are required that do not mandate a
near-zero reverse flow rate, these too can come in variants with no moving parts - for
example, the Tesla valve, which experiences 1-2 orders of magnitude higher resistance in
one direction than the other.268

Due to the very high energy requirements of heating the water, a heat exchanger
must be paired with the boiler to recapture as much heat as possible. In cases where boiler
flow rates would be too low to provide a steam source for meeting scrubber pumping
demands, a vortex pump would be desirable.

After expansion and condensation, the water must be removed. The need for the
scrubber to be collapsible strongly favours fibre mist collection, particularly corrugated /
accordion foldings. As electrostatic scrubbing presents foldable, low mass requirements and
can even add to thrust, a electrostatic scrubber after the fibre scrubber would be desirable to
catch finer particulate. If sulfur particulate is present and poses a fouling risk to fibre matting,
carbon disulfide (an effective solvent of sulfur269 with simple synthesis routes) can be used to
periodically flush the mist collectors. This would require all pumps and scrubber components
be chemically compatible with it. Contrarily, the mist collectors could be designed to be
removed and cleaned.

At this point, there should be little to no particulate left in the stream - however, the
stream is now fully saturated with water vapour at around 2.3 kilopascals 270, versus around
0.1 pascal of water in the ambient air. The water vapour level in the exhaust does not need to
be below ambient - we re also recovering significant amounts of sulfuric acid, from which
water can be recovered. However, we need the outflowing water vapor to be maintained at
as low of a level as possible, as it is a valuable resource.

Since we re going from such a high partial pressure to such a low one, an ideal
approach is multistage moisture removal, progressing from most to least. The air passes
through desiccant blankets - the first stages being silica gel or zeolites / molecular sieves

267
Holterman, H.J. (2003) Kinetics and evaporation of water drops in air . IMAG report 2003 12
268
West, N (2003). Tesla's Valvular Conduit. Fluid Power Journal.
269
Carbon Disulfide: Properties and Uses / Methods of Production. Sevas Educational Society.
270
Buck equation, P = 0.61121 e(18.678 - T / 234.5) * (T / (257.14 + T)) , where P is pressure in kPa and T is temperature in celsius.
tuned for easy reversibility at particular temperatures and levels of saturation.271 Finally the
air passes through blankets containing phosphorus pentoxide, a highly aggressive absorbent
(capable of even desiccating sulfuric acid to sulfur trioxide272), but with limited capacity and
requiring significant heating to drive off captured moisture.

Here lies the challenge for a wet scrubber. If we are scrubbing around 300 cubic
meters per second, and we need several seconds in close contact with our desiccants, then
we re needing around a thousand cubic meters of pore space in the dessicant. This
represents, needless to say, a problematically large amount of dessicant. In short, we should
examine alternatives that might improve the scenario.

Improving the process

● Partial saturation:

While the saturation vapour pressure inside the scrubber is several kilopascals,
various anhydrous compounds will condense out at lower vapour pressures. Sulfuric acid
tends to already be condensed. At 20°C, the vapour pressure over 42% hydrochloric acid is
208 pascals;273 50% hydrofluoric is 1640 pascals;274 and phosphoric acid (25°C) is 5.3
pascals.275 In short, full saturation is not required, but unless we wish to reject our primary
source of fluorine, saturation still must be significant.

● Hydrogen-free solvents:

The problem with allowing water to leave the scrubber is that hydrogen is rare; hence,
any solvent which does not reject hydrogen (or rarer elements such as fluorine) is worth
investigating. Indeed, of what we collect, sulfur ends up naturally in significant excess and
must be discarded. Carbon and oxygen are available in unlimited quantities, and with
somewhat greater effort, nitrogen.

Concerning room-temperature liquids comprised of these elements, only one

combines stability, simple synthesis and solvency properties of note: carbon disulfide
(discussed previously).

Unfortunately, while an excellent solvent solvent for sulfur, phosphorus, bromine, and
a number of other substances, it is not a particularly good solvent for acid gases. As a more
serious problem, with a vapour pressure at 25°C of 48.1 kPa,276 the loss rate would vastly
exceed our sulfur intake.

271
Goldsworthy, M. (2014). Measurements of water vapour sorption isotherms for RD silica gel, AQSOA-Z01, AQSOA-Z02,
AQSOA-Z05 and CECA zeolite 3A. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 196, 59-67.
doi:10.1016/j.micromeso.2014.04.046
272
Phosphorus pentoxide. (2016) Chemical Book.
273
Liley, P. E., Thomson, George H., Friend, D. G., Daubert, T. E., Buck, E. (1999) Perry Chemical Engineers Handbook 7th
Edition. Section 2: Physical and Chemical Data. McGraw-Hill.
274
(2011) Material Safety Data Sheet: Hydrofluoric Acid. Seastar Chemicals Inc.
275
(2012) Purified Phosphoric Acid Technical Information Bulletin. Potash Corp.
276
Linstrom, P.J.; Mallard, W.G. (2016) NIST Chemistry WebBook . NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. National
Institute of Standards and Technology
 ● Gas injection:

Rather than attempting to absorb water vapour (whether normal atmospheric water
vapour or recapture of scrubbing water), we can instead attempt to nucleate it to particles
that we can capture. There is one obvious choice for this: sulfur trioxide, which forms sulfuric
acid upon absorption of water.

Injection of sulfur trioxide is used for this

purpose as a conditioning agent in some scrubbers.
277
At 98% concentration and 20°C, the water vapour
partial pressure over sulfuric acid is 0.01 pascals 278 -
hence virtually any water vapour will condense out
with a sufficient supply of SO 3.

Unlike with direct water absorption, sulfur

trioxide can flow with the gas stream and thoroughly
Sulfur dioxide from volcanic eruptions slowly
mix with. A few caveats must be mentioned. First,
oxidizes to sulfur trioxide, which forms a blue existing sulfuric acid mists need to be scrubbed to
mist of sub-micron sulfuric acid particles via
absorption of atmospheric moisture.
avoid SO 3 wastage toward concentrating existing
Photo: Brocken Inaglory sulfuric acid. Secondly, our rate of SO 3 injection
cannot utilize more sulfur than we collect (the two primary sources being sulfuric acid and
sulfur dioxide). Hence it can only function as a minor additive.

● Ionic solvents:

Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTIL)

represent a rapidly expanding research topic
touching on numerous scientific fields. RTILs are
semi- or completely organic equivalents of molten
salts, but existing in a liquid state at moderate
temperatures (<100°C) with essentially no vapour
pressure of relevance. With over 150000 different
ionic liquids investigated, they are eminently
tuneable and have been referred to as almost
1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate, an ionic
universal solvents .279 While gas solubility in RTILs liquid, on polyethylene. Photo: Indrek Must
is broadly similar to solubility in water (in
decreasing
order of solubility: SO 2 → CO 2 → Ar → O 2 → N2, CO, H2280), the flexibility of the the organic
scaffolding allows a great degree of enhancement / suppression of gas absorption. For

277
Cook, R. E. (1975) Sulfur Trioxide Conditioning. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 25:2, 156-158, DOI:
10.1080/00022470.1975.10470065
278
Liley, P. E., Thomson, George H., Friend, D. G., Daubert, T. E., Buck, E. (1999) Perry Chemical Engineers Handbook 7th
Edition. Section 2: Physical and Chemical Data. McGraw-Hill.
279
Fedorov, M. V., & Kornyshev, A. A. (2014). Ionic Liquids at Electrified Interfaces . Chemical Reviews , 114(5), 2978-3036.
doi:10.1021/cr400374x
280
Lei, Z., Dai, C., & Chen, B. (2014). Gas Solubility in Ionic Liquids . Chemical Reviews , 114(2), 1289-1326.
doi:10.1021/cr300497a
example, of our greatest concern (hydrogen fluoride), using acetate and oxalate anions
significantly enhances absorption.281 Absorption capacity varies with temperature, and the
peculiar properties of RTILs allow for unusual separation methods. For example, water
dissolved in many RTILs exists as solitary water clusters; heating by relatively small
amounts can cause it to separate out as a separate layer.282

While ionic liquids are in many ways ideal for our scrubbing needs, there are a few
caveats. While the anions are frequently simple to produce, cation synthesis is often highly
complex and beyond the means of an early-stage habitat (with the possible exception of
laboratory-scale batch production). This means both that quantities must be kept down to
readily-deliverable scales, and that leakage from the system must be kept to an absolute
minimum.

An additional issue is that ionic liquids are usually fairly viscous - commonly 40-800
mPa-s at room temperature283 (ranging from the viscosity of motor oil to syrup). A high
viscosity increases the difficulty of atomizing liquids; however, viscosity is itself another
tunable parameter. Even small amounts of low-viscosity solvents dissolved in an ionic liquid
can dramatically decrease its viscosity.284 Water is well studied for this role; contrarily,
carbon disulfide, having a viscosity lower than water285 and containing no hydrogen, is
certainly worth consideration.

A final issue of note is the long-term stability of the liquid. Most ionic liquids have no
problems with the operating temperatures on hand.286 RTILs are frequently very acid-tolerant
- indeed, some are superacids,287 and RTILs are now employed in the production of sulfuric
acid.288 Nonetheless, proper long-term compatibility with the external environment must be
ensured.

● Electrostatic precipitation:

As discussed previously, electrostatic precipitation (ESP) is an excellent means for

removing fine particulate from a gas stream. Hence, on its own it can collect the sulfuric acid
mists already present on Venus, but its impact on the desired anhydrous gaseous
components is limited. Limited, but not nonexistent - ESPs have been shown to remove
gaseous metallic trace elements like mercury even at low concentrations.289 ESPs not only

281
Chaban, V. (2015). Hydrogen fluoride capture by imidazolium acetate ionic liquid. Chemical Physics Letters , 625, 110-115.
doi:10.1016/j.cplett.2015.02.041
282
Chaban, V. V., & Prezhdo, O. V. (2013). Ionic and Molecular Liquids: Working Together for Robust Engineering. The
Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters , 4(9), 1423-1431. doi:10.1021/jz400113y
283
Fedorov, M. V., & Kornyshev, A. A. (2014). Ionic Liquids at Electrified Interfaces . Chemical Reviews , 114(5), 2978-3036.
doi:10.1021/cr400374x
284
Chaban et al 2013
285
Haynes, W. M. (2016) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics , 97th ed. CRC Press.
286
Maton, C., Vos, N. D., & Stevens, C. V. (2013). Ionic liquid thermal stabilities: decomposition mechanisms and analysis
tools . Chemical Society Reviews , 42(13), 5963. doi:10.1039/c3cs60071h
287
Thomazeau, C., Olivier-Bourbigou, H., Magna, L., Luts, S., & Gilbert, B. (2003). Determination of an Acidic Scale in Room
Temperature Ionic Liquids. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 125(18), 5264-5265. doi:10.1021/ja0297382
288
Rogers, R. D., Seddon, K. R., & Volkov, S. V. (2003). Green industrial applications of ionic liquids: proceedings of the
NATO Advanced Research Workshop held in Heraklion, Greece, 12-16 April 2000. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
289
Liang, X., Looy, P., Jayaram, S., Berezin, A., Mozes, M., & Chang, J. (2002). Mercury and other trace elements removal
characteristics of DC and pulse-energized electrostatic precipitator . IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 38(1),
69-76. doi:10.1109/28.980355
create a charge gradient to ionize and attract particulate, but also generate carbon monoxide
and ozone, which can subsequently react with other components in the gas stream. This
can further oxidize SO 2 to SO 3, which in turn can absorb moisture to form ultrafine sulfuric
acid particulate.290

If solid particulate condensation (e.g. sulfur) turns out to be a fouling issues for
electrodes, cleaning can either be mechanical (brushes, rotary electrodes, etc) or thermal
(microwave heating, resistive heating wires). The latter approach would be favored.

All taken together, a variety of scrubbing designs can be acceptable, but we shall
consider an example system that provides a minimal yield for a self-sustaining habitat (a
4.3m ID duct, a single 4.2m prop, and daytime airflows of 275 m³/s at 20m/s). Sulfuric acid
mist collection rates per ESP are assumed at 75%.

Collapsible truss (3x) structure picture, without radial reinforcements; highly reinforced or purely pressure-supported
designs are also possible.

1) A propeller (premised on the assumption that pure electrohydrodynamic thrust

proves insufficient / immature) drives the primary airflow.

2) The air immediately passes through a fine high

voltage DC negative grid operating at a safe
margin below breakdown voltage, ionizing the
stream through coronal discharge.

3) Shortly downstream, the air passes through a

HV DC positive grid (hole-type hex grid,
dozens of centimeters long) and collects
nearly 2 g/s H2SO 4. Both the anode and
cathode grids must be overbuilt to be robust
enough for long-term operation, and allow
cleaning.

4) One meter downstream, ionic liquid injection begins. We will operate on the following
assumptions: contact time 2 seconds, circulating volume 1000kg, total stored mass
3000kg, density 1.25g/cc. This co-current scrubbing section is thus 40 meters long
with a liquid flow rate of 500kg/s, and 3.8kg of liquid per cubic meter of air. Without
being able to narrow down the viscosity of the liquid at this point, we will not focus on

290
Mertens, J., Anderlohr, C., Rogiers, P., Brachert, L., Khakharia, P., Goetheer, E., & Schaber, K. (2014). A wet electrostatic
precipitator (WESP) as countermeasure to mist formation in amine based carbon capture. International Journal of
Greenhouse Gas Control, 31, 175-181. doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2014.10.012
 determining specific injection or pumping methods in order to achieve a fine mist and
even mixing.

We operate on the premise of nearly-horizontal operation but a slight downward slope

to assist drainage of unintentionally precipitated liquid. Should precipitation prove too
excessive, though, this segment could be oriented vertically.

5) Bulk liquid is removed via a low-drag means, such a vane mist collector and diverted
for distillation.

6) Steps #2 and #3 are repeated to scrub the fines and help overcome pressure drop.
This is conducted after #5 in order to minimize the risk of decomposition of the ionic
liquid by the ESP.

7) Half a meter downstream, waste sulfur is injected in the form of sulfur trioxide
(around three grams per second) to attempt to nucleate any remaining moisture,
whether from the original airstream or from the scrubbing stage. One second of
contact time (20 meters) is provided, yielding a SO 3 concentration of 20 ppm (far
higher than the minimum needed for nucleation, and potentially aided by the air
ionization)291. This step is conducted after ionic liquid scrubbing to avoid wasting the
SO 3 via absorption into the liquid droplets. This section is angled slightly upwards, to
allow for gravity drainage of return liquids.

8) Steps #2 and #3 are repeated at the outlet, proving a final opportunity to catch lost
scrubbing liquid, as well as any newly nucleated mists.

Step 7 may be shortened or eliminated if the recovery rates do not justify the mass.

The folded up size is quite small so long as

the precipitators and mist collectors are collapsible.
The image on the right is a soft-body simulation of
the collapse of the above scrubbing duct. For a
sense of size, the prop cowling on the bottom is 4.3
meters in diameter, versus the 4.6m wide / 11 meter
high inner dimensions of a Falcon Heavy standard
fairing.

As with many systems developed for a

Venus habitat, the development of scrubber
systems for Venus resource harvesting has direct applicability to pollution control systems
on Earth, where the goal - removing acidic particulates and gases from CO 2-rich streams - is
a common task.

291
Duplissy, J., Merikanto, J., Franchin, A., Tsagkogeorgas, G., Kangasluoma, J., Wimmer, D., . . . Kulmala, M. (2016). Effect
of ions on sulfuric acid-water binary particle formation: 2. Experimental data and comparison with QC-normalized classical
nucleation theory . Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres , 121(4), 1752-1775. doi:10.1002/2015jd023539
 Scrubber-free scrubbing?

While the above presents a workable scrubbing approach, the introduction of ionic
liquids and heavier use of electrostatic precipitators invites consideration of some radically
different approaches.

First among them is the concept of eliminating the propeller and relying entirely on
electrohydrodynamic thrust with simultaneous scrubbing. This certainly could be done within
a scrubber duct, but is much more effective if spread this out across the skin of the envelope
on all sides. With such a vast collection area, we can now optimize our process for thrust
and mass efficiency rather than precipitation efficiency; if one EHD thrust element does not
catch a given amount of particulate, there will be many more to come. As for collection,
condensed droplets need to be focused into channels for drainage, merging together and
ultimately being collected into tubing to bring to the industrial section. The main concern, as
discussed under Habitat propulsion, is electrode longevity; should it prove achievable, this
could be an appealing option.

By contrast, the near-zero vapour pressure of ionic liquids allows for a collection
method that could never be considered with volatile fluids: spreading them across the top
surface of the habitat, or even spraying them into the air to be collected on the top surface. In
this case, the high viscosity of ionic fluids works to their advantage, decreasing the odds of
them being entrained into winds and lost (the primary limiting factor to top-spraying). For
fluids flowing across the surface, a fine mesh over the surface could help prevent
entrainment if necessary.

If we assume a fluid density of 1.3 g/cm³ and an average 1mm of liquid per square
meter, the force of 1.3 kg/m² under 8.7 m/s² gravity is 11.3 pascals, an amount that can
easily be overcome by the several hundred pascals overpressure inside. With many
thousands or even tens of thousands of square meters of surface area that could be utilized,
the only practical limitation is ionic liquid availability and processing.

In this scenario, the ionic liquid must be compatible with the outer coating of the
envelope; however, with the envelope already requiring a highly inert coating, this is unlikely
to be prohibitive. Additionally, with typically high refractive indices, usage of ionic liquids on
the top of the habitat would be expected to somewhat decrease light penetration beneath
them due to specular reflection; consequently, locating it near inhabited areas could allow it to
function as a source of a limited degree of overhead shade.

In either the EHD or ionic liquid cases, multi-lobed habitat designs (such as hybrid
lifting bodies) can make drainage simpler, by focusing flowing fluids inwards to creases
between lobes.
Collection rates
Since we now have multiple collection methods, we need to look at how our collection
rates compare to our habitat s needs. We will begin with a prop-driven duct with a daytime
airflow of 275 kg/s. Our scrubber model will be based on the following assumptions:

● 50°C warming required to release 60% of all absorbed compounds from the ionic
liquid, with a specific heat of 1400 J/kg and a 95% efficient heat exchanger.

● 500 kg/s ionic liquid flow rate with 2 seconds exposure and evenly spaced droplets
with diameters of 40 microns.

● Henry s Law (equilibrium absorption) constants taken from median figures for ionic
liquids where available, figures for water used otherwise. Liquid diffusion rate figures
taken from water.

● Absorption coefficients that were not available for species for ionic liquids or water
are estimated based on similar species.

● Absorption rates for hydrogen chloride take into account increasing Henry s Law
constants at low gas concentrations;292 other species do not, and thus can be
considered to be pessimistic.

● Based on Liang et al (2002),293 we will assume that combined our ESPs strip 50% of
mercury and extrapolate to 50% of tellurium and selenium and 25% of compounds
containing lead, bismuth, indium, iodine, bromine, zinc, arsenic and iron. Sulfur
particulate is assumed recovered at 80%. These figures (beyond mercury) have in
no way been validated and will be denoted separately in the below graphs due to their
speculative nature.

● Beyond direct scrubber capture, we will also be diverting a small fraction of the
post-scrubber exhaust (for our calculations, an average of 0.1%) for direct distillation.
Acid gas stripping (ethanolamine or ionic liquid) removes 99.8% of CO 2 and other
bulk acid gases (4% of other species). Then 99.8% of remaining CO 2 is removed via
freezing with an unintentional loss of 2% of all compounds with lower freezing/boiling
points than CO 2 and 99.8% of those which would co-freeze with carbon dioxide.

● Interactions between dissolved species are not considered.

292
He, R., Long, B., Lu, Y., Meng, H., & Li, C. (2012). Solubility of Hydrogen Chloride in Three 1-Alkyl-3-methylimidazolium
Chloride Ionic Liquids in the Pressure Range (0 to 100) kPa and Temperature Range (298.15 to 363.15) K. Journal of
Chemical & Engineering Data, 57(11), 2936-2941. doi:10.1021/je3003783
293
Liang, X., Looy, P., Jayaram, S., Berezin, A., Mozes, M., & Chang, J. (2002). Mercury and other trace elements removal
characteristics of DC and pulse-energized electrostatic precipitator . IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 38(1),
69-76. doi:10.1109/28.980355
 ● Nighttime propulsion power is cut to 1/9th and air density increased to 1 kg/m³ due to
a lower flight altitude, yielding nighttime flight speeds 45% of those during the day and
a reduction of gas flow rate to around 150kg/s. Nighttime liquid pumping is cut to
25kg/s, and distillation is postponed to daytime.

● Particulate (droplets) are assumed to be pure H2SO 4; dissolved species in droplets

(such as ferric chloride) would increase the latter s recovery rate.

In the above graph, each element s annual recovery is plotted versus the means
through which it is recovered. Recovery figures are on a logarithmic scale, while the
percentage of each source (blue, teal or yellow) are on a linear scale. Hydrogen is presented
in three forms: raw hydrogen quantity as well as the water and ammonia equivalences for
that amount of hydrogen (e.g. if all hydrogen was converted into one of those products).

Assuming no elements lost during manufacturing, the below table shows how much
of each element and long it would take to produce the propellant for a MON/CyMet-15
rocket as laid out in Staging options :

C2N2 85% /
Element MON (kg) Total (kg) Days
CH4 15% (kg)

C 0 21839 21839 31

N 26332 19190 45522 115

O 57941 0 57941 29

H 0 898 898 279

Total 84273 41927 126200

Recovery rates of compounds of relevance are:

As an example of limiting elements, if we dedicate all of the 16kg/yr of fluorine to

envelope production without losses, with the assumption of a 200g/m² fabric that is
comprised of 10% fluoropolymer coating that is in turn 25% fluorine, then 3200m² of fabric
could be produced per year - enough to replace the entire ~54k m² external envelope in 17
years.

For energy consumption we assume a 95% heat exchanger efficiency on ionic liquid
degassing; 80% on boiler heat recovery; 3 GJ/tonne on acid gas stripping of diversion gas;294
and 0.5kWh/kg for distillation cooling (treating the whole stream processing as equivalent to
generating liquid nitrogen)295 with 80% heat recovery. For pumping, a nozzle generating a 40
micron mist at a viscosity of ~150 mPa-s is equivalent to one generating a water fog at 14
micron;296 we will consider a nozzle array of 70x 5cm, 5-bar, 357 l/min nozzles,297 with a
60% efficiency vortex pump, 15m/s liquid speed and 1 bar line pressure drop. The energy
involved in the process breaks down as follows:

294
Yang, Y., Zhai, R. (2010). MEA-Based CO2 Capture Technology and its Application in Power Plants . Paths to sustainable
energy, Dr Artie Ng (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-401-6, InTech
295
Pusavec, F., Krajnik, P., & Kopac, J. (2010). Transitioning to sustainable production Part I: application on machining
technologies. Journal of Cleaner Production,18(2), 174-184. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.08.010
296
Guide to spray properties - 4. Droplet size. BETE. Retrieved from
http://www.spray-nozzle.co.uk/resources/engineering-resources/guide-to-spray-properties/4--droplet-size
297
Dense fog misting nozzle. BETE. Retrieved from
http://www.spray-nozzle.co.uk/docs/default-source/spec-sheet-pdf's/ss-dense-fog-misting-nozzle.pdf?sfvrsn=0
 It can be noted that boiler and distillation energy levels are almost irrelevant; this is
because, as they work on scrubber products , they deal with only small quantities of material.

The overall process is very sensitive to the chosen parameters. In particular:

● Equilibrium can be reached with a shorter duct, but this requires a finer spray and
thus a higher pressure drop or lower viscosity fluid. On the other hand, a shorter duct
allows for a reduction in pump flow velocity and/or ionic liquid mass. No attempt has
been made to solve for the optimum.

● Higher liquid flow rates through the scrubber allow for higher recoveries, but are
strongly correlated with power demand (heating for the separation of captured
species, pumping power), as well as involving higher shipping mass (fluids, tankage,
plumbing, pumping).

● Higher dissolved gas equilibrium levels via ionic liquid selection / tuning present a
promising avenue for significant reductions in power consumption and improved
capture rates. This remains a research topic beyond the scope of this work.

● Higher heat exchanger efficiencies correspond directly with reduced power

consumption, but likewise represent increased mass.

● CO 2 stripping efficiencies (for distillation) are an active topic of research at present,

and our energy cost estimate may be significantly overstated from the state of the art
by the time of construction. Additionally, most industrial CO 2 stripping is based
around leaving the carbon dioxide in a capturable format (such as compressed),
while we simply exhaust it.

● Increased scrubber flow rates, such via from larger propellers, increase recovery of
well-absorbed species but do not help with recovery of species which are already
limited by absorption; the latter requires more scrubbing liquid.

Concerning specific recovery targets:

● Oxygen: Inherently recovered in excess regardless of the parameters chosen.
Recoverable via SO 3 decomposition with a vanadium oxide catalyst in the boiler or
solid oxide fuel cell fed by CO 2, but most commonly via water electrolysis.

● Carbon: Recovered as CO 2 by
pre-freezing of distillation
feedstocks in a dual-chamber
process, with one chamber
regenerating while the other freezes.
The acid gas removal stream can
also be used as a CO 2 source.

Contaminants in the carbon dioxide

with our above figures are pictured
to the right.

● Nitrogen: recovery can only be realistically increased by increasing the diversion

stream volume, and thus increasing CO 2 removal costs.

● Hydrogen: the fact that hydrogen is commonly found in the form of sulfuric acid
makes easy to capture, both due to its high solubility and its existence as aerosols.
However, it is limited by low total quantities in the atmosphere - hence increasing
production implies increasing mass flow rates.

● Sulfur: As discussed previously, sulfur is harvested in excess relative to hydrogen,

and is best disposed of as sulfur trioxide to aid in water vapour recovery. This
however runs counter to the ability to use it to produce oxygen by catalytic
decomposition. The best option involves having both options available as needed.

● Chlorine: Chlorine absorption is highly dependent on liquid recovery, both in terms of

liquid equilibrium concentrations and liquid flow rates.

● Fluorine: Some limited additional increase in absorption can be attained through

improved recovery techniques, such as better absorbing liquids and higher liquid flow
rates. However this can only add so much; further improvements require higher gas
flow rates as well.

● Iron: Data is lacking on ferric chloride absorption. Our assumption of equilibrium

concentrations being similar to sulfur dioxide results in low capture rates; however,
this may be pessimistic. On the other hand, in the above data we are assuming a
25% ESP collection figure; there is little confidence in this number. Lastly, we are
assuming that there is little material (such as iron chloride) dissolved in H2SO 4
particulate or in other forms of particulate. In short, total iron recovery figures could
be greatly varied.
● Minor species: Like with iron, data on minor and theorized species - antimony,
mercury, zinc, iodine, bromine, indium, tellurium, selenium, lead and bismuth is
lacking. Many of them present in low quantities in our model are due to the habitat
being at higher altitude than the altitude in which they would tend to precipitate out,
and thus would be better harvested by lower altitude craft (not investigated here).

How would alternative, advanced capture approaches compare?

● High diameter prop(s): If we consider a large propeller (collapsible or stored in a

large fairing), gas mass flow rates increase significantly while flow speeds drop. This
shortens the duct, reducing the pumping velocity and thus power consumption. Well
captured species like sulfuric acid are gained in much greater quantity, as are those
otherwise captured by electrostatic precipitation; others are little affected.

● EHD propulsion: If electrohydrodynamic propulsion designed to simultaneously

capture resources is utilized, hydrogen and minor species recovery would
dramatically increase. However, unless an additional liquid scrubber is used, species
not present as particulate or otherwise well recovered by ESPs would fall
significantly.

● Scrubber-free liquid scrubbing: Concerning the concept of having liquid films or

sprays on the top of the habitat, airflow speeds are reduced (flight speeds rather than
prop wake), but a vastly greater amount of gas mass is exposed. However, this does
not work around limitations imposed by equilibrium solubility levels for dissolved
species in the fluid; total fluid flow rates remain key. However, well-absorbed species
such as sulfuric acid (and thus hydrogen recovery) would significantly increase.
Furthermore, depending on the design, a much greater fraction of the liquid could be
actively absorbing at any given point in time (rather than being in pipes being
circulated back to a duct entrance).

● Lower altitude scrubbing: As noted, some species are likely to precipitate out at
significantly lower altitudes and only be present at high altitudes in vanishingly small
quantities. This raises the prospect of lower altitude scrubbing. While this can be
done with independent aerobots, perhaps the most promising approach is to combine
scrubbing with wind power generation, with flow through the duct being driven by
zonal wind differences. Power would be generated right where it is needed to power
the scrubbing process. In order to avoiding the need for prohibitively long and heavy
plumbing connections to the main habitat, it would need to be periodically serviced or
raised for resource collection. A beneficial side effect of lower altitude scrubbing is
that higher gas partial pressures yield higher equilibrium gas solubilities and thus
more scrubbing per kilogram of liquid. However, all components - most notably, the
liquids themselves - must be able to withstand the higher temperature environment.

● Precipitation / condensation: As noted previously, if precipitation or condensation

occurs on the envelope, this would yield large amounts of liquid (mainly H2SO 4).
Boiling and distillation
As covered previously, sulfuric acid, generally thought of as a hazard to the habitation
of Venus, is a resource blessing. Highly hygroscopic and easily absorbed, the heating of
H2SO 4 in a boiler first drives off the existing water (~11% of the acid s mass),298 which can
be separated by a molecular sieve or selective membrane. Further heating decomposes
H2SO 4 to SO 3 plus more H2O (18% of the remaining mass). Still further heating, in the
presence of a catalyst such as vanadium pentoxide, converts SO 3 to SO 2 and O 2, which can
be likewise stripped off;299 otherwise, it can be retained as SO 3, either for onboard
regeneration of sulfuric acid for industry, or for exhaustion to aid in scrubbing. This one
single, simple process can yield two critical compounds: water and oxygen.

The input fluids are, however, not purely sulfuric acid. Consequently, fractional
distillation needs to be used to separate out the individual species. It is a question of
importance what species will be sent from the boiler to distillation, as this determines the
condensation points. To that end, we will examine chemical equilibria (as calculated by
CEA2) for the mixture being fed into the boiler. This represents the case where - if every
possible reaction were catalyzed - the chemical mixture would reach a state where it ceases
to change. In practice, reaction rates (controllable to varying degrees by catalysts) yield
results that differ from the equilibrium case.

To illustrate the typical effect of pressure on chemical equilibria, the following graph
plots the allocation of hydrogen between different chemical species at different pressures:

While pressure affects the ratios between different species, the most notable effect is
that low pressures narrow the temperature range for a given effect, while high pressures
increase the range.

298
Krasnopolsky, V. A. (2015). Vertical profiles of H2O, H2SO4, and sulfuric acid concentration at 45 75km on Venus.
Icarus, 252, 327-333. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.01.024
299
Barbarossa, V., Brutti, S., Diamanti, M., Sau, S., & Demaria, G. (2006) . Catalytic thermal decomposition of sulphuric acid in
sulphur iodine cycle for hydrogen production. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , 31(7), 883-890.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.08.003
 Plotting ratios vs. temperature for a fixed 125 kPa pressure over species of interest,
we get the following:

Concerning elements of significance:

● Carbon: Making up 95% of the absorbed species due to its high partial pressure (and
thus equilibrium solubility), the CO 2 fraction in the boiler does not change significantly
under any temperature and pressure combinations.

● Nitrogen: Nitrogen remains overwhelmingly as a diatomic gas under almost all

conditions, excepting very high pressures where nitric oxide begins to reach relevant
quantities (analogous to the Haber and Ostwald process).

● Chlorine: At 125 kPa, chlorine remains over 95% as hydrogen chloride, with small
amounts of chlorine gas forming between 500° and 800° and tiny quantities of
elemental chlorine at very high temperatures. The amount of chlorine gas increases
with pressure, but even at 15 MPa does not reach 10% at its optimal temperature
(~750°K)

● Hydrogen: Hydrogen is distributed among a wide range of species, with the mixture
highly sensitive to temperature. The generally most desirable form, water vapour,
increases in fraction with temperature, leveling off at around 700°K at 125 kPa. Low
pressures can bring this temperature down to as little as 500°K.
 ● Phosphorus: Phosphoric acid follows a simple curve relative to its hydration states,
fully dehydrated to phosphorus pentoxide at 500-1000°K, depending on pressure (low
pressures favouring dehydration). At extreme temperatures, particularly at low
pressures, the phosphorus pentoxide dimer begins to break down to the monomer,
and ultimately to phosphorus dioxide.

● Fluorine: Predominantly existing as hydrogen fluoride, in some conditions

(particularly at high pressures) fluorosulfuric acid can predominate. This can be of
concern during distillation; fluorosulfuric acid is a superacid, one of the most powerful
simple Brønsted acids.300 Mixed with antimony pentafluoride (possible antimony
compounds not analyzed here) it forms the even more powerful magic acid, which is
capable of protonating such resistant substances as xenon, methane, hydrogen and
halogens.301

● Sulfur: Temperature and pressure allow for a ready means of selection between
favouring sulfur dioxide vs. sulfur trioxide - the latter being useful for reconstituting
sulfuric acid and as a scrubber conditioning agent, while the creation of the former
releases free oxygen and can be used in the sulfur-iodine cycle to generate hydrogen
gas.302 Note that while equilibria favour sulfur dioxide at high temperatures, this
requires a catalyst to proceed at a
reasonable rate, generally
vanadium pentoxide (reversed
contact process).303

● Oxygen: Plotted to the right at

1kPa (and excluding carbon
dioxide), oxygen is distributed
widely between non-CO 2 species.
Low pressures and high
temperatures favour free oxygen.

From considering the above, we can first reach the conclusion that low pressures
and moderate to high temperatures yield the best generation of our primary species of
interest (oxygen and water). While low pressures generally additionally mean low
throughputs, total flow rates are measured in dozens of grams per second (primarily CO 2),
and thus this is of limited concern. By contrast, reduced temperatures and pressures
generally reduces corrosion, which is very much of concern.

300
Reed, C. A. (2013). Myths about the Proton. The Nature of H in Condensed Media. Accounts of Chemical Research,
46(11), 2567-2575. doi:10.1021/ar400064q
301
Olah, G. A. (2005). Crossing Conventional Boundaries in Half a Century of Research. The Journal of Organic Chemistry,
70(7), 2413-2429. doi:10.1021/jo040285o
302
Barbarossa, V., Brutti, S., Diamanti, M., Sau, S., & Demaria, G. (2006) . Catalytic thermal decomposition of sulphuric acid in
sulphur iodine cycle for hydrogen production. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , 31(7), 883-890.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.08.003
303
Ashar, N.G., Golwalkar, K.R. (2013) A Practical Guide to the Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid, Oleums and Sulfonating
Agents . Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-02041-9
 A perhaps more salient observation is the degree in which outputs can be varied by
varying the inputs. Note how the equilibria change when we remove the water vapour down
to 1ppmv (such as with a molecular sieve, a common process in the petrochemical
industry):304

Some of the above data is misleading, such as the purple phosphoric acid spike in
the hydrogen case; in actuality, what is happening is the total concentration of hydrogen
remaining is dropping because of the water removal. However, other differences are very
real. At equilibrium, gaseous sulfuric acid is almost nonexistent; phosphoric acid desiccates
at a much lower temperature; and fluorine equilibria are radically changed, favouring
compounds with phosphorus. Chlorine equilibria too are radically altered, favouring chlorine
gas to hydrogen chloride:

Left: without water removal. Right: with water removed to 1 ppmv.

304
Molecular Sieve Adsorbents . Zeochem AG. Seestrasse 108 · 8707 Uetikon am See · Switzerland
 The key takeaway is that equilibria are very sensitive to their mixture compositions,
and alteration of their compositions can have significant effects on the equilibria as a whole.
A single system can thus be used to generate a wide range of compounds, subject to a
number of caveats:

● Particularly at lower temperatures, but to some extent at higher temperatures as well,

compounds do not inherently reach equilibrium in reasonable timescales. Appropriate
catalysts must be used.

● For rapid reactions, a desired equilibrium may be reached, but the ratios will generally
shift right back as it moves out of the boiler and the equilibrium balance reverts. In
such cases, diversion of desirable species must occur under the conditions which
led to the desirable equilibrium. Only slower, frozen reactions can undergo
temperature / pressure changes before separation.

● Not all materials are compatible with all chemicals or environmental conditions. For
example, aqua regia can dissolve precious metals, but is readily withstood by most
fluoropolymers - but the latter cannot withstand the temperature extremes or powerful
organic solvents that precious metals can withstand.

● Not only are different catalysts desirable in different processes, but it is often
desirable to suppress certain reactions. The composition of the chamber itself can,
however, be catalytic. For example, platinum, a highly resistant compound against
corrosion, is often catalytic to many hydrocarbon reactions, while iron pressure
vessels help catalyze the Haber process.

● It will frequently be desirable to have multiple processes in operation at the same

time, rather than operating in a purely batch process.

● Some processes can pose risks of fouling or contaminating their reaction vessels in
a way that can hinder other subsequent processes.

In short, while there is a great potential for mass reduction in the reuse of given
reaction vessels for generating a wide range of chemicals, this is not unlimited; a variety of
vessels made from a variety of chemicals with a variety of catalysts is needed to create a
reasonable local chemical industry. However, it becomes apparent that design flexibility is
important - particularly as the number of chemicals needed increases (something that, as we
will see shortly, will occur rapidly). The same sort of principles used in robotic chemistry
laboratories applies here, with readily reconfigurable plumbing and storage.

To finish up our analysis of initial resource processing: with a high degree of

desiccation and low operating pressures, operating temperatures need to only be in the
~650°K range to achieve a high degree of water recovery and boil off the phosphorus
pentoxide. If oxygen recovery is not desired, then this is diverted directly to distillation; if not,
the temperature is further raised to 800-1000°K. This is sufficient to boil off all expected
compounds except for some metallic precipitates, such as ferrous chloride, which at 1ATM
boils at 1296°K, and thus represents a precipitate that either requires a periodic removal
process. As the SO 3 → SO 2 + ½ O 2 reaction is slow without a catalyst, oxygen does not
need to be removed at high temperatures - although options do exist for high temperature
removal, such as certain oxygen-deficient perovskite oxides.305 Boiler gas distillation is
conducted along with direct atmospheric gas distillation, as discussed previously.

Listing a variety of condensation points for distillation (1 ATM for simplicity):

Specie °K Specie °K Specie °K Specie °K

FeCl2 1296 H3PO4 431 Cl2 239 Kr 120
InCl3 1070 SO2Cl2 343 OCS 223 O2 90
Sb2S3 1050 Br2 332 SO2F2 218 Ar 87
As4O6 738 SO3 318 H2S 213 CO 82
P4O10 633* HF 293 HBr 206 N2 77
Hg 630 H2O 273 CO2 192* Ne 22
H2SO4 610 SO2 263 HCl 188 He 4
I2 457 HI 238 Xe 165
HSO3F 439 POF3 234 NO 121

* Denotes species which lack a liquid phase at 1 ATM, FeCl3 decomposes to FeCl2 and Cl2 at high temperatures.

Species which cannot be collected as liquids (a problem which increases at low

pressures) must be frozen out A convenient method to do this is analogous to the means by
which the MOXIE experiment on Mars 2020 rover collects carbon dioxide: a parallel
two-tank condenser. While one tank is freezing out gas, the other is reheating and releasing
it; whenever the freezing stage is nearly full, the two tanks reverse roles. This is most
important for carbon dioxide, which as noted previously makes up over 95% of captured
gases.

In cases where condensation temperatures are close together, it can be difficult to

isolate individual species. This is common on Earth in the production of oxygen by air
liquefaction; the co-condensed argon is generally left in the oxygen, unless there is reason to
remove it (wherein it is extracted in a second distillation stage, as the concentration in the
primary stage rarely exceeds 10%).306

The fate of metallic precipitates depends on the

rate of collection and demand. For example, iron
chlorides can be readily converted to fine iron powder,
307
which is immediately useful for metal sintering-
based 3d printing. If other metallic precipitates are
common as well, however, they can be separated
before this stage. Iron chlorides themselves are also
valuable in a number of different industrial processes,
PCB etching with a ferric chloride solution. including as a catalyst.
Photo: Adam Greig

305
Yang, Z., Lin, Y. S., & Zeng, Y. (2002). High-Temperature Sorption Process for Air Separation and Oxygen Removal.
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research,41(11), 2775-2784. doi:10.1021/ie010736k
306
History and technological progress: Cryogenic air separation. Linde AG. Engineering Division, Dr.-Carl-von-Linde-Strasse
6 14, 82049 Pullach, Germany
307
Stanley, I. L. (1930). U.S. Patent No. US1752348 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Basic industrial feedstocks
● Sulfuric acid and hydrogen

Sulfuric acid for industrial processes is ideally regenerated either simply by hydration
of sulfur trioxide, or from sulfur dioxide in the Bunsen reaction:

I2 + SO 2 + 2 H2O → 2 HI + H2SO 4

The hydrogen iodide can be decomposed back to iodine either thermally (673-973°K)
or across a specialized ceramic membrane - in each case yielding hydrogen as a useful
byproduct:308

2 HI → H2 + I2

Beyond the sulfur-iodine process, hydrogen is readily generated via electrolysis,

including of water or hydrogen chloride. This represents the storage side of a fuel cell power
storage system aboard the habitat. The VIP-INSPR probe proposal calls for doing just this -
scrubbing sulfuric acid from Venus s atmosphere, thermal / catalytic decomposition to steam
and oxygen, and then electrolysis of the water to generate hydrogen and oxygen - both of
which it uses to keep itself aloft.309

● Halides, hydrogen halides, and hydrohalic acids

Part of the chlorine output can be converted to hydrochloric acid by steam, yielding
another of the major industrial acids. Likewise, hydrofluoric acid can be generated from
hydrogen fluoride in the same manner. However, both of their anhydrous forms are needed
as well. Indeed, often the reverse reaction is more desirable, converting a hydrogen halide to
its halide, which can be done by the Deacon process:

4 HCl + O 2 → 2 Cl2 + 2 H2O

This is conducted at 430°C with high stability catalyst like La2O 3.310 However, this
process is unnecessary so long as hydrogen chloride fuel cells are used, which by the very
nature of their operation reversibly convert hydrogen chloride to hydrogen and chlorine.

308
Barbarossa, V., Brutti, S., Diamanti, M., Sau, S., & Demaria, G. (2006) . Catalytic thermal decomposition of sulphuric acid
in sulphur iodine cycle for hydrogen production. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , 31(7), 883-890.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.08.003
309
Bugga, R. V. (2016) Venus Interior Probe Using In-situ Power and Propulsion (VIP-INSPR) . Jet Propulsion Lab., California
Inst. of Tech., Pasadena, CA.
310
Over, H., & Schomäcker, R. (2013). What Makes a Good Catalyst for the Deacon Process? ACS Catalysis, 3(5),
1034-1046. doi:10.1021/cs300735e
 ● Ammonia

Hydrogen and nitrogen are used in the Haber process, conducted at 15-25 MPa /
800K over a KOH-doped iron catalyst, to yield ammonia.311

N2 + 3 H2 → NH3

The process is very sensitive to oxygen and carbon-based impurities, requiring very
high purity reactants. This is normally a serious challenge on Earth, where hydrogen is
predominantly sourced from steam reforming of natural gas, but electrolytic hydrogen is high
purity. So long as nitrogen distillation does not lead to significant oxygen contamination,
catalyst poisoning should not pose a serious threat. Indeed, a cryogenic purification stage is
sometimes employed in Haber feedstock pretreatment on Earth.

The very high pressures involved in the Haber process traditionally have posed
compressor challenges. Again, the local feedstocks prove to our advantage; nitrogen
injected directly as a liquid yields high pressures as it warms. Additionally, as discussed in
the context of fuel cells, metal hydride systems can compress hydrogen to very high
pressures, with the only moving parts required being check valves.

Ammonia is recovered by cooling without pressure drop, to allow unused gas to be

recirculated back into the reactor without recompression. Hydrogen and nitrogen degas from
the ammonia as its pressure is subsequently dropped, and need to be recovered.

● Oxides of nitrogen and nitric acid

In addition to being important on its own,

ammonia is fed with oxygen into the two-stage
Ostwald process. In the first stage, nitric oxide is
produced by catalytic reaction at 230-1100 kPa and
~900°C:312

4 NH3 + 5 O 2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O

Catalyst loss is a significant problem;

high-rhodium platinum catalysts have the longest Nitrogen dioxide at different temperatures. Photo:
lifespans. Platinum recovery systems are frequently Efram Goldberg

employed downstream. Ammonia levels are usually

kept under 11% to avoid explosion risks; 93-98% yields are typical. Water is removed as
steam before the second stage, where the nitric oxide is reacted with more oxygen to yield
nitrogen dioxide:

311
Appl, M. (2006). Ammonia. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a02_143.pub2
312
Thiemann, M., Scheibler, E., & Wiegand, K. W. (2000). Nitric Acid, Nitrous Acid, and Nitrogen Oxides . Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_293
 2 NO + O 2 → 2 NO 2

Nitrogen dioxide is then reacted with steam to produce nitric acid.

NO 2 + H2O → H2NO 3

Nitrogen tetroxide, the chief component of the rocket propellant oxidizer, MON, is a
dimer of NO 2 and is produced by chilling it to room temperature at 6 to 10 atmospheres
pressure.313 314

Nitrous oxide is produced in an extra step; ammonia and nitric acid are combined to
produce ammonium nitrate, which is decomposed at 100-160°C and the gas scrubbed with
aqueous ammonium nitrate. An alternative synthesis route works on the same basis as the
Ostwald process (ammonia oxidation), except using pelleted manganese and bismuth
oxides as a catalyst.315

● Carbon monoxide, syngas and oxygen

One of the primary means of generating hydrocarbons is via syngas, a mixture of

carbon monoxide and hydrogen widely used in gas to liquids (GTL) processes. The required
carbon monoxide can be generated (among other means) by a solid oxide fuel cell - an
approach to be demonstrated via the MOXIE experiment on the Mars 2020 rover.316 In this
process, carbon dioxide is decomposed with electricity to yield carbon monoxide and
oxygen:

2 CO 2 → 2 CO + O 2

Varying mixtures of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, sometimes along with fractions
of carbon dioxide, methane or water, have varying names such as town gas, wood gas, and
coal gas. This reflects the fact that such gas mixtures are readily generated from almost any
organic matter (including waste products) by partial oxidation.317 Syngas can also be
produced from light hydrocarbons (such as methane) by steam reforming:

CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2

Steam reforming is highly endothermic and is generally carried out at 1000-1100°C

and 1.5-4 MPa in the presence of a catalyst (nickel coated with potassium oxide). 318

313
Wright, A. C. (1976) Nitric Acid / Nitrogen Tetroxide Oxidizers . USAF Propellant Handbooks, Volume II. Martin Marietta.
314
Schmidt, A., Weinrotter, F., Muller, W., & Bohler, W. (1971). U.S. Patent No. 3607028. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
315
Suwa T., Matsushima A., Suziki Y., Namina Y. (1961). Synthesis of Nitrous Oxide by Oxidation of Ammonia. Journal of the
Chemical Society of Japan, Showa Denka Ltd. 64: 1879 1888.
316
Meyen, F. E., Hecht, M. H., & Hoffman, J. A. (2016). Thermodynamic model of Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) .
Acta Astronautica, 129, 82-87. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2016.06.005
317
Reimert, R., Marschner, F., Renner, H., Boll, W., Supp, E., Brejc, M., . . . Schaub, G. (2011). Gas Production, 2.
Processes. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.o12_o01
318
Bierhals, J. (2001). Carbon Monoxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a05_203
 ● Methane

Apart from syngas, the other base pathway to higher hydrocarbons is the Sabatier
reaction, which primarily proceeds as:

CO 2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2 H2O

The Sabatier process has been extensively studied for spaceflight applications, both
for life support319 and ISRU;320 Microlith® reactors are popular investigation targets for this
role due to their size and efficiency.321 Hydrogen and carbon dioxide are reacted to produce
water and a diverse mix of hydrocarbons, but overwhelmingly dominated by methane. If
desired, dry reforming can subsequently generate syngas via the following reaction (ideally
over a ruthenium catalyst to minimize coking):322

CH4 + CO 2 → 2 H2 + 2 CO

The heat requirements for the above reaction can be partially provided for by partial
oxidation of methane to yield more syngas ( trireforming ):

CH4 + ½ O 2 → 2 H2 + CO

● Ethylene

Ethylene is a critical feedstock to a broad range of industrial processes. Partial

oxidation of methane represents a high-TRL pathway to ethylene for off-world needs. As an
example, a demonstration system built for in-situ production of ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE) for Mars employs a cascade of microreactors for the catalytic
oxidation of methane to ethylene at 800-900°C:323

2 CH4 + O 2 → H2C=CH2 + H2O

Syngas-based production of higher hydrocarbons also tends to produce a useful

ethylene fraction. Methanol, higher hydrocarbons, and a variety of other feedstocks can also
be utilized in ethylene production, but with limited utility offworld.324

319
Junaedi, C., Hawley, K., Walsh, D., Roychoudhury, S. (2012) Compact and Lightweight Sabatier Reactor for Carbon
Dioxide Reduction. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
320
Kleinhenz, J. E., & Paz, A. (2017). An ISRU propellant production system for a fully fueled Mars Ascent Vehicle. 10th
Symposium on Space Resource Utilization. doi:10.2514/6.2017-0423
321
Jahns, G. (2015) Novel Catalytic Reactor for CO2 Reduction via Sabatier Process Project. Space Technology Mission
Directorate. NASA.
322
Havran, V., Duduković, M. P., & Lo, C. S. (2011). Conversion of Methane and Carbon Dioxide to Higher Value Products.
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 50(12), 7089-7100. doi:10.1021/ie2000192
323
Sen, S., Carranza, S., & Pillay, S. (2010). Multifunctional Martian habitat composite material synthesized from in situ
resources . Advances in Space Research, 46(5), 582-592. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2010.04.009
324
Zimmermann, H., & Walzl, R. (2009). Ethylene. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_045.pub3
 ● Hydrogen cyanide

While a wide range of reactions create hydrogen cyanide (as well as cyanogen itself
in small quantities), among the most important is the Andrussow process 325 (methane /
ammonia oxidation over a platinum catalyst at ~1200°C), which requires no extra energy
input:

CH4 + 2 NH3 + 3 O 2 → 2 HCN + 6 H2O

Another option is the Degussa / BMA process,326 which requires energy but yields
hydrogen. It is likewise conducted over a platinum catalyst, at ~1400°C:

CH4 + 2 NH3 → HCN + 3 H2

● Caustics

A number of common processes require a

strong caustic agent, generally sodium or potassium
hydroxide, which get reduced to their respective
chlorides. These are recycled back to hydroxides by
the electrolytic chloralkali process.327 For sodium
chloride, dissociated in solution to Na+ and Cl-:

2 Cl- → Cl2 + 2 e Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)

Photo: Martin Walker
2 H2O + 2 e → H2 + 2 OH-

Thus, as a net reaction:

2 NaCl- + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH

Secondary feedstocks
A number of feedstocks and categories of feedstocks are only required for specific
production targets which may or may not be important in a habitat s early stages.

325
Andrussow Process. (2010). Comprehensive Organic Name Reactions and Reagents .
doi:10.1002/9780470638859.conrr018
326
Gail, E., Gos, S., Kulzer, R., Lorösch, J., Rubo, A., Sauer, M., . . . Hasenpusch, W. (2011). Cyano Compounds, Inorganic.
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a08_159.pub3
327
Schmittinger, P., Florkiewicz, T., Curlin, L. C., Lüke, B., Scannell, R., Navin, T., . . . Bartsch, R. (2011). Chlorine. Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_399.pub3
 ● Cyanogen
Needed for: cyanogen-based propellants

Cyanogen can be produced by a number of means,328 including:

1) Hydrogen cyanide oxidation over a silver catalyst at ~550°C (22.8% yield):

4 HCN + O 2 → 2 (CN)2 + 2 H2O

2) Hydrogen cyanide chlorination over activated carbon at 30-200°C and subsequent

in-situ conversion at 400-700°C (reliable process, produces high purity stream after
water scrubbing):

HCN + Cl2 → CNCl + HCl

CNCl + HCN → (CN)2 + HCl

3) Cyanogen chloride generated as per above, but reduced with hydrogen at 850°C in a
quartz tube (95% yield):

2 CNCl + H2 → (CN)2 + 2 HCl

● Higher alkanes
Needed for: PAN/carbon fibre (ammoxidation feedstocks), PET (aromatics feedstocks)

Higher alkanes are produced from syngas by Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, akin to the
gas-to-liquids (GTL) processes used to produce synfuels on Earth; the general reaction
(~2.5 MPa) is:

X CO + Y H2 → CXHY/2 + X/2 O 2

Higher temperatures (330-350°) favour short-chain alkanes (gasoline, light olefins)

while low temperatures (220-250°C) favour waxes and fuel oils. High temperature production
is generally performed in a solid-gas fluidization reactor, while low temperature is performed
in a slurry. Catalysts differ with the reaction type, but are most commonly iron promoted with
potassium and copper. There is often a significant and useful olefin byproduct, primarily
ethylene and propylene.329 Unwanted fractions are partially oxidized back to syngas.

● Methanol
Needed for: PET, one route to acetic acid, industrial solvent.

328
Brotherton, T. K., & Lynn, J. W. (1959). The Synthesis And Chemistry Of Cyanogen. Chemical Reviews, 59(5), 841-883.
doi:10.1021/cr50029a003
329
Kaneko, T., Derbyshire, F., Makino, E., Gray, D., Tamura, M., & Li, K. (2012). Coal Liquefaction. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a07_197.pub2
 Methanol is produced from carbon dioxide-enriched syngas with high (>99.8%)
selectivity at 5-10 MPa / 250°C over copper and zinc oxides on alumina, by the following
reactions:330

CO + 2 H2 → CH3OH
CO 2 + 3 H2 → CH3OH + H2O

● Acetylene
Needed for: PVF

In addition to occurring as a side product in ethylene production, acetylene is

produced from methane by the following reaction:331

2 CH4 → HC≡CH + 3 H2

The reaction consumes a large amount of energy, and is consequently frequently

driven by partial combustion of carbon-bearing material. It also requires a rapid quench from
decomposition temperatures (>1230°C) to minimize full decomposition of the methane to
carbon and hydrogen. The quench is usually conducted in water for simplicity, but can also
be conducted in light hydrocarbons to produce more acetylene, as well as ethylene and other
hydrocarbons.

● Ethylene oxide
Needed for: PET (ethylene glycol feedstock)

Ethylene is partially oxidized to ethylene oxide over a catalyst of silver on aluminum

oxide:

2 H2C=CH2 + O 2 → 2 C2H4O

The ethylene oxide is washed in water, then byproduct carbon dioxide is stripped
from the stream by reversible absorption in potassium carbonate. The process catalyst
generally has a lifespan of 2-5 continuous working years. The ethylene oxide is both highly
toxic and reactive, and must be stored carefully to prevent fire or explosion.332

● Trichloromethane
Needed for: PTFE/FEP

First, methane is chlorinated to a mixture of chlorocarbons at 300-350°C:

330
Ott, J., Gronemann, V., Pontzen, F., Fiedler, E., Grossmann, G., Kersebohm, D. B., . . . Witte, C. (2012). Methanol.
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a16_465.pub3
331
Pässler, P., Hefner, W., Buckl, K., Meinass, H., Meiswinkel, A., Wernicke, H., . . . Mayer, D. (2008). Acetylene. Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_097.pub3
332
Rebsdat, S., & Mayer, D. (2001). Ethylene Oxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_117
 CH4 + 3 Cl2 → CHCl3 + 3 HCl

The reaction is highly exothermic and the mixture ratios and temperature must be
controlled to prevent explosion. A number of chloromethane compounds are produced; for
trichloromethane, an optimum yield of 40% occurs at a mixture of 2:1 to 3:1 Cl2 : CH4. Most
of the unwanted partially chlorinated compounds can be recycled with little wastage.333

● Chloroethane feedstocks
Needed for: PVC (1,2 dichloroethane), PVDC (1,1,2 trichloroethane)

Chloroethane compounds are produced by either chlorination (Cl2) or oxychlorination

(HCl) of ethylene. Processes involving ethane as a feedstock are still in the research stage.
For chlorination of ethylene to 1,2 dichloroethane:

H2C=CH2 + Cl2 → H2ClC-CH2Cl

The first method is conducted liquid phase using a ferric (iron(III)) chloride catalyst, at
0.1-0.5% by weight. If minimization of side products like 1,1,2 trichloroethane is desired,
oxygen is added. Low temperature (20-70°C) processes are also more selective than high
temperature (85-200°C) processes, but less energy efficient. Gas phase, and even
non-catalytic reactions are possible, but not widely used; however, they bear consideration in
ISRU contexts, where low throughputs / efficiencies are acceptable but catalyst
consumption comes at a significant cost.

For oxychlorination of ethylene to 1,2 dichloroethane:

CH2=CH2 + 2 HCl + ½ O 2 → H2ClC-CH2Cl + H2O

This is conducted gas phase and is similar to the Deacon process for creating
chlorine gas from hydrogen chloride. Copper chloride is a common catalyst (fixed or fluidized
bed), and the reaction is conducted at over 200°C. In addition to side products like 1,1,2
trichloroethane, the oxygen allows for production of side products like ethylene oxide, as well
as consuming a small fraction of the ethylene to carbon oxides and formic acid.

For PVDC, 1,1,2 trichloroethane becomes the target rather than a side product. In
addition to encouraging its production in the above reactions, 1,2 dichloroethane is
selectively chlorinated to 1,1,2 trichloroethane:

H2ClC-CH2Cl + Cl2 → HCl2C-CH2Cl + HCl

333
Rossberg, M., Lendle, W., Pfleiderer, G., Tögel, A., Dreher, E., Langer, E., . . . Mann, T. (2012) . Chlorinated Hydrocarbons .
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_233.pub2
 The reaction is carried out liquid phase at 100-140°C with the addition of ethylene as
an initiator. The yield per pass must be kept low (10-20%) to prevent overchlorination. Gas
phase processes exist but are not as developed.334

● Tetrachloroethylene
Needed for: PCTFE/ECTFE

Three primary routes are used for tetrachloroethylene production - chlorination of

acetylene, oxychlorination of ethylene or 1,2-dichloroethane, and chlorinolysis of C1-C3
hydrocarbons. The latter technique - the most common on Earth - is also the most
interesting for Venus. In it, simple short-chain hydrocarbons are simultaneously pyrolyzed
and chlorinated; it can also be used for recovery of partially chlorinated hydrocarbon waste
products. The two primary outputs are tetrachloroethylene, tetrachloroethane and
tetrachloromethane, which reach the following equilibria:

2 CCl4 🡘 Cl2C=CCl2 + 2 Cl2

Cl3C-CCl3 🡘 Cl2C=CCl2 + Cl2

Tetrachloroethylene is favoured by higher temperatures and reduced pressures /

chlorine contents. A typical product mix is 5:1 tetrachloroethylene : tetrachloromethane along
with 10% of the carbon forming other chlorinated compounds (which must be recycled). The
process is carried out at 500-800°C and a few bar pressure. Output gases must be rapidly
quenched, generally by heat exchangers. Chlorine is removed by washing or absorption /
desorption and the gas mixture distilled to recover the tetrachloroethylene.335

Tertiary feedstocks
The below feedstocks require at least one secondary feedstock in bulk to produce.

● Aromatic hydrocarbons
Needed for: PET (p-xylene), solvents, numerous
laboratory uses.

The most reasonable process for local

production of base aromatics is the Cyclar process,
involving the cyclization of propane and butane over
zeolite catalysts. With propane, the yield is 17.3% wt.
C8 aromatics, while with butane the yield is 19.8%;
Benzene melting at 5.5°C. the xylene yield thereof is around 15%.
Photo: Endimion17

334
Dreher, E., Torkelson, T. R., & Beutel, K. K. (2011). Chloroethanes and Chloroethylenes . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.o06_o01
335
Rossberg, M., Lendle, W., Pfleiderer, G., Tögel, A., Dreher, E., Langer, E., . . . Mann, T. (2012) . Chlorinated Hydrocarbons .
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_233.pub2
 The four xylene homologues, o-xylene, m-xylene, p-xylene, and ethylbenzene, are
produced simultaneously at ratios depending on process conditions. Distillation is difficult
due to the similar boiling points; for p-xylene recovery, fractional crystallization between -60
and -68°C is most common. The alternative Parex process uses selective absorption of
p-xylene by a molecular sieve for recovery. The raffinate can be restored to its equilibrium
mixture of homologues by reaction over an acidic metal zeolite catalyst (the Isomar
process). A wide variety of other processes exist for conversion between different fractions
that are beyond the scope of this section.336

● Naphthalene
Needed for: Vectran; production yields additional olefins

On Earth, simple hydrocarbons with high levels of cyclization and double/triple bonds
are generally recovered as fractions of coal tar - a resource unavailable offworld. However,
low pressure pyrolysis of higher alkanes, often conducted on Earth to produce olefins from
petroleum, yields a 10-16% naphthalene fraction. Fractions containing alkylnaphthalenes can
be processed to undergo hydrodealkylation in a hydrogen environment at 700°C without a
catalyst or 550-650°C with a chromium oxide/aluminum oxide or cobalt oxide/molybdenum
oxide catalyst.337

● Acetic acid
Needed for: PVOH / EVOH, solvent for terephthalic acid (PET)

While best known for being produced by anaerobic fermentation, industrial quantities
are mainly produced by methanol carbonylation or oxidation of butane, naphtha or
acetylaldehyde. Newer processes involve oxidation of ethane or ethylene.338

Methanol carbonylation proceeds as:

CH3OH + CO → CH3COOH

The Monsanto process (rhodium catalyst) and newer Cativa process (iridium
catalyst) are typically done at ~3 MPa / 180°C, but proceed even at atmospheric pressure,
with selectivities of 99% and 90% for methanol and carbon monoxide, respectively. The
Cativa process is more desirable, as the iridium catalyst is more stable and no iodine initiator
is required. Byproducts include carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen, and propionic acid.

Processes involving oxidation of hydrocarbons have low selectivity but involve

several potentially useful intermediary products, including ethanol, acetaldehyde, organic
peroxides and ketones. Some processes are noncatalytic. Processes from ethylene and

336
Fabri, J., Graeser, U., & Simo, T. A. (2000). Xylenes . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_433
337
Collin, G., Höke, H., & Greim, H. (2003). Naphthalene and Hydronaphthalenes . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_001.pub2
338
Berre, C. L., Serp, P., Kalck, P., & Torrence, G. P. (2014). Acetic Acid. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,
1-34. doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_045.pub3
ethane are more selective (up to 90% for ethane). More passes are required with ethane
conversion versus methanol, however, due to the need to keep mixtures with oxygen at
below explosive limits.

● Ethylene glycol
Needed for: PET

Ethylene oxide is reacted with water to generate ethylene glycol:

C2H4O + H2O → (CH2OH)2

This reaction occurs without a catalyst, but only slowly, with a half-life of around 20d
at 20°C at neutral pH. The reaction proceeds significantly faster at higher temperatures and
either very low or high pH. Alternatively, a variety of catalysts enable the formation of
ethylene carbonate with carbon dioxide, which undergoes hydrolysis to nearly pure ethylene
glycol without any polymerization byproducts:

O=C=O + C2H4O → C2H4O 2C=O

C2H4O 2C=O + H2O → (CH2OH)2 + O=C=O

Other processes to produce ethylene glycol without requiring ethylene oxide, such as
from carbon monoxide or ethylene, are being investigated.339

● Ammoxidation-based feedstocks
Needed for: PAN/carbon fibre, PVDC comonomers

Nitrogen-bearing organics (such as for carbon fibre production) traditionally begin with
the SOHIO process, which generates acrylonitrile, acetonitrile, acrolein and hydrogen
cyanide. It involves reacting propene with ammonia and oxygen at 30-200 kPa and
400-500°C (over any of a variety of catalysts), with the primary target generally being
acrylonitrile:340

2 H2C=CH-CH3 + 2 NH3 + 3 O 2 → 2 H2C=CH-C≡N + 6 H2O

Selectivity is high (80-90%). Distillation is performed with aqueous phase products.

Ammonia must be scrubbed with sulfuric acid, creating ammonium sulfate in excess of local
needs.

More useful on Venus are newer processes which begin with more easily acquired
propane (see Higher hydrocarbons ) instead of propene, operating at higher temperatures
(750-1000°).

339
Rebsdat, S., & Mayer, D. (2001). Ethylene Oxide. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_117
340
Langvardt, P. W. (2000). Acrylonitrile. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_177
 ● Chlorofluorocarbon feedstocks
Needed for: PTFE/FEP (chlorodifluoromethane), PCTFE/ECTFE
(1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane)

Halogen exchange in the presence of an antimony chloride catalyst yields a mixture

of chlorofluorocarbons which can be distilled. For example, for chlorodifluoromethane:341

CHCl3 + 2 HF → CHClF2 + 2 HCl

The purification process requires a caustic and sulfuric acid wash, and the catalyst
requires a small amount of chlorine for renewal between batches.

For 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane, the feedstock is tetrachloroethylene.

Alternative catalysts for this process include zirconium fluoride and hafnium:

Cl2C=CCl2 + 3 HF → Cl2FC-CClF2 + 3 HCl

Other feedstocks
Not all consumable chemicals must be present at the time of arrival of the habitat.
Quite the opposite, local production capacity should be stepped up incrementally over time,
to spread out the engineering costs. Only the elements necessary to sustain buoyancy, a
habitable environment and agriculture must be present in the beginning; stockpiles and
shipments of chemicals not available locally are acceptable solutions.

There is an alternative to both

import of chemicals from Earth and local
hardware dedicated toward specific
production processes: laboratory scale
production processes. Indeed, a local
chemist can be seen as a very valuable
member of the crew for both research,
medical, manufacturing and agricultural
purposes. A robotic chemistry lab which
could help automate the production of
complex, low-volume substances would Overture, a robotic chemistry lab designed for protein synthesis
be useful on Venus, but this would applications. Photo: © 2010 The Regents of the University of
California, through the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
comprise a whole volume in its own right.
We will, however, discuss chemicals with applicability to the envelope and their production in
the next section.

341
Siegemund, G., Schwertfeger, W., Feiring, A., Smart, B., Behr, F., Vogel, H., . . . Kirsch, P.(2016) . Fluorine Compounds,
Organic . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi: 10.1002/14356007.a11_349.pub2
Envelope
The external envelope is the critical separation between the habitable area within and
the hostile chemical environment outside. It must serve a variety of purposes:

● Transparency, to allow for human factors, plant growth, and solar energy production
● Rejection of near-infrared light to reduce interior temperatures and allow for lower
altitude / higher pressure environments at a given latitude.
● Tolerance to the acidic environment outside
● The ability to withstand high tensile loads
● Low permeability to both internal and external gases
● UV tolerance
● Acceptable levels of creep
● Locally producible with minimal manufacturing dependencies
● Preference for maximizing the use of common elements and elements little needed
for other purposes, while minimizing the use of rare elements (in order of availability:
O, C, N, S, Cl / H, F)
● Vacuum compatibility for during initial habitat transit

In practice, no single polymer well serves all of the needs of the habitat. We will break
down various candidates into the properties that they can bring to bear.342 This is not a
complete list of polymers - just a list of polymers of particular interest, with a brief selection of
mechanical / permeability properties, averaged across a variety of sources. Transparency
figures exclude specular reflection, which increases relative to refractive index differences.
Permeability figures 343 are for 300°K.

Common Tensile Permeability (m³-m / m²-s-Pa)

Density Transp.% Refrac.
Short name market strength Melt. °K
(g/cm³) H2O CO2 O2 @100um index
names (MPa)
FEP Teflon 2.14 28 530 3.4e-16 6.5e-17 1.4e-17 96 1.34
Aclon,
PCTFE 2.13 34 484 2.9e-19 1.1e-18 4.1e-19 95 1.44
Neoflon
ECTFE Halar 1.68 55 515 1.0e-16 1.8e-17 1.1e-18 91 1.45
PVF Tedlar 1.50 90 453 5.5e-17 5.3e-19 1.7e-19 87 1.46
PET Mylar 1.39 230 517 5.7e-17 5.3e-19 1.6e-19 89 1.65
PVDC Saran 1.70 110 450 1.5e-17 2.6e-19 1.5e-20 85* 1.62
PVOH - 1.25 High 503 Severe Superb Superb 75** 1.53
EVAL,
EVOH 1.2 210 464 6.6e17 2.0e-21 7.2e-22 75* 1.53
Soarnol
Spectra,
UHMWPE 0.95 2900 410 - - - - -
Dyneema
CF Carbon 1.74 5100 3670 - - - - -
Vectran Vectran 1.34 3100 603 - - - - -
PBO Zylon 1.54 5800 923 - - - - -

342
Properties not directly addressed here available from datasheets linked under each individual polymer.
343
McKeen, L. W. (2017). Permeability properties of plastics and elastomers . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Notes:
● PVOH strength / permeation data generally not available due to its water solubility.
● Carbon fibre and PBO do not melt, but rather begin to break down at high
temperatures.
● Permeability figures are highly variable; only medians are reported.
● EVOH and PVDC transparency estimated from less reliable data; PVOH based on
EVOH.

In the following table, the vacuum compatibility ratings TML (Total Mass Loss) and
CVCM (Collected Volatile Condensable Materials) are highly variable,344 and only median
figures are reported; the standard targets to be considered vacuum compatible are <1% and
<0.1%, respectively. On all 1-5 scales below, 1 is unfavorable and 5 is favorable.

Short Mfg. UV Acid H2O CVCM UV IR

%O %C %N %Cl %H %F Creep TML %
name ease tol. tol. tol. % block block
FEP 0 26 0 0 0.0 76 4 1 5 5 5 0.02* 0.00* 2 1
PCTFE 0 21 0 40 0.0 39 3 2 5 5 5 0.07 0.01 1 1
ECTFE 0 33 0 25 2.8 39 3 3 5 5 5 0.17 0.05 2 1
PVF 0 52 0 0 6.6 41 4 3 5 4 5 0.3 0.06 3 1
PET 34 63 0 0 3.2 0 2 4 4 2 3 0.4 0.05 3 1
PVDC 0 25 0 73 2.1 0 4 4 3 4 5 0.1-31 0-19* 4 1
PVA 36 55 0 0 9.1 0 4 3 4 2 1 1.5* 0.1* 2 2
EVOH 32 58 0 0 9.1 0 4 3 4 2-3 2 1.5 0.1 2 2
UHMWPE 0 86 0 0 14.4 0 5 1 1 4 5 0.4 0.1 - -
CF 0 95 4 0 1.0 0 4 5 5 3 5 0.1 0.00 - -
Vectran 22 74 0 0 3.5 0 1 5 3 3 5 0.7 0.05 - -
PBO 14 72 12 0 2.6 0 1 5 1 2 5 Mid* Mid* - -

Notes:
● FEP outgassing occasionally much higher, although never over limits
● UV is treated as unfavorable - that is, 1 = low blockage, 5 = high blockage.
● Using TML from PVC for PVDC. PVC is highly variable, even by the varying standards of outgassing
measurements - but usually not vacuum compatible.
● Using EVOH for PVOH outgassing data
● No outgassing data for PBO. Expected to be moderate.

Surface layers / coatings

Surface layers or coatings are ideally fluoropolymers, although some
non-fluoropolymers may prove sufficiently resistant should fluorine collection rates prove
insufficient.

General properties of fluoropolymers include: dense, low tensile strength, high UV

resistance, high chemical resistance, variable permeability, hydrophobic, anti-fouling, difficult
to bond. The degree of fluorination (ordered from most to least below) largely determines
how strong these properties are, but even a low level of fluorination tends to lead to this
group s superlative properties.

344
(2008) Outgassing Data for Select Spacecraft Materials Online. NASA. Retrieved from https://outgassing.nasa.gov/
 ● FEP (Teflon™) 345 346 347 348

A more recent variant of PTFE (also marketed as

Teflon ), FEP is a copolymer of (predominantly)
tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) and a small amount of
hexafluoropropylene (HFP). Like purely TFE-based Teflon™
(PTFE), the carbon backbone is fully fluorinated. Compared
to PTFE, it provides improved strength, reduced permeability
and reduced (although still high) creep. FEP is also easier to
manufacture into films.
Photo: Saint-Gobain Performance
Plastics

The production route to FEP remains largely the same as for PTFE.
Chlorodifluoromethane is heated at 600-800° in a platinum, silver or carbon tubular reactor
along with steam to pyrolyze it to tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) at 60-80% yield and 84-93%
selectivity:

2 CHClF2 → F2C=CF2 + 2 HCl

Caustic and sulfuric acid washes are used for purification. Distillation in the presence
of a polymerization inhibitor (such as dipentene) separates the two main products, TFE and
HFP, as well as unconverted chlorodifluoromethane. Higher pressures yield a greater HFP
fraction while lower pressures increase the TFE fraction. TFE is difficult to store, generally
requiring inhibitors and/or low temperatures; when improperly stored, it is prone to explosion
with similar force to gunpowder. HFP is much easier to store.

Copolymerization of HFP and TFE is carried out with an excess of HFP due to its
lower reactivity, and can be conducted in aqueous or non-aqueous media. Periodic
restocking of dispersing agents (such as ammonium perfluorooctanate) and initiators (such
as persulfate) would be required. Agitation must be conducted gently for even
polymerization. The dispersion can be processed into films or coatings as a latex. Without
dispersing agents a more granular product can be produced. Melt processing requires
corrosion-resistant alloys.349

345
(2016) Teflon™ FEP Fluoroplastic Film - Properties Bulletin. Chemours.
346
(2016) Teflon™ FEP Fluoroplastic Film - Information Bulletin. Chemours.
347
(2016) Teflon™ FEP Fluoroplastic Film - Processing and Use. Chemours.
348
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
349
Carlson, D. P., & Schmiegel, W. (2000). Fluoropolymers, Organic . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_393
 ● PCTFE (Aclon™, Neoflon™)350 and ECTFE (Halar® ): 351 352

PCTFE and ECTFE are similar fluoropolymers,

the latter being a 1:1 copolymer with ethylene. PCTFE,
well known for its high transparency, has the lowest
water permeation of any plastic; both PCTFE and
ECTFE have relatively high permeation resistance in
general. Both tolerate deep cryogenic operation (even by
the standards of fluoropolymers), particularly PCTFE.
Photo: CS Hyde Company
ECTFE has reduced fracture and creep behavior at high
temperatures. PCTFE is somewhat vulnerable to
elevated temperature fracture and creep, although generally not in laminates. ECTFE is
easier to manufacture from and to thermally weld together. The time PCTFE spends in the
molten state must be minimized, with temperatures as low as possible. Sometimes low
molecular weight PCTFE is used as an oil or grease to plasticize the bulk polymer, as well
as being used as a lubricant in equipment that handles liquid oxygen and corrosive
chemicals.

Manufacture of the fluorinated monomer, chlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) begins

similar to PTFE / FEP in order to generate its chlorofluorocarbon feedstock,
1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane. The most common process involves dehalogenation in
methanol over zinc to CTFE and zinc chloride:

Cl2FC-CClF2 + Zn → F2C=CClF + ZnCl2

More appropriate for our needs would be to avoid the need to regenerate zinc, and
instead rely on a readily oxygen-renewed aluminum fluoride-nickel phosphate catalyst for a
gas-phase hydrodechlorination process:

Cl2FC-CClF2 + H2 → F2C=CClF + 2 HCl

PCTFE polymerization requires free radical initiators and can be conducted in bulk
solution, suspension, or emulsion processes. Emulsions appear the most interesting;
polymerization is conducted over a persulfate-bisulfate redox catalyst, with the polymer
coagulated by freezing, washed, and dried.

ECTFE polymerization is similar, but must be conducted at under 10°C. A common

process is the dissolution of CTFE and ethylene in water, with a trichloroacetyl peroxide
catalyst and chloroform (trichloromethane) chain transfer agent. Some processes involve
polymerization in media as low as -40 to -80°C to produce more thermal crack-resistant
products.353

350
NEOFLON™ PCTFE M-Series. Daikin. Retrieved from https://www.daikin.com/chm/products/resin/resin_05.html
351
Halar ® ECTFE. Solvay. Retrieved from http://www.solvay.com/en/markets-and-products/featured-products/Halar.html
352
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
353
Carlson, D. P., & Schmiegel, W. (2000). Fluoropolymers, Organic . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_393
 ● PVF (Tedlar® ): 354 355

With its carbon backbone only

one-quarter fluorinated, PVF bears an
elevated tensile strength and reduced
density, while its UV and chemical
resistance are somewhat reduced relative
Photo: DuPont to other fluoropolymers. Nonetheless, its
environmental tolerance properties remain
generally superb. PVF is not as widely used as the above fluoropolymers, but unlike them it
has a history of usage in airship envelopes (Zeppelin NT,356 Airlander 10,357 etc).

While multiple production routes to the vinyl fluoride monomer exist, the simplest for
ISRU is fluorination of acetylene over a mercury catalyst:358

HC≡CH + HF → H2C=CHF

Free radical polymerization is used, like with most fluoropolymers, but the required
pressures are higher. A typical process uses water, VF, and a peroxide or azo catalyst at
100°C and 27.5MPa. PVF is unusual in that cannot be melt-processed directly (due to
instability above its melting point); it must be dissolved in a solvent and then dried.359 A
36h@100C outgassing period is recommended for vacuum compatibility.360

● Non-fluoropolymers

Examples of non-fluoropolymers with potentially acceptable acid resistance, short

production chains and good transparency include PVC and similar compounds (CPVC,
PVDC) along with polyethylene (particularly LDPE). These polymers will be discussed
shortly. Surface layers of other polymers, such as polyethylene, can also be fluorinated,
consuming only small quantities of fluorine in the process.361

Biaxial reinforcement and barrier layers

Permeation resistance and tensile strength are often associated with high degrees of
polymer crystallinity, but highly crystalline polymers are typically opaque. To achieve both,
polymers are typically biaxially oriented (stretched during extrusion) and heat quenched,

354
Polyvinyl Fluoride Films (PVF) . DuPont. Retrieved from
http://www.dupont.com/products-and-services/membranes-films/pvf-films.html
355
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
356
Stockbridge, C., Ceruti, A., & Marzocca, P. (2012). Airship Research and Development in the Areas of Design, Structures,
Dynamics and Energy Systems . International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 13(2), 170-187.
doi:10.5139/ijass.2012.13.2.170
357
Norris, G. (15 May 2015) Hybrid Hopes: An Inside Look At The Airlander 10 Airship. Aviation Week.
358
Siegemund, G., Schwertfeger, W., Feiring, A., Smart, B., Behr, F., Vogel, H., . . . Kirsch, P.(2016) . Fluorine Compounds,
Organic . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi: 10.1002/14356007.a11_349.pub2
359
Carlson, D. P., & Schmiegel, W. (2000). Fluoropolymers, Organic . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_393
360
(2008) Outgassing Data for Select Spacecraft Materials Online. NASA. Retrieved from https://outgassing.nasa.gov/
361
Whiteley, K. S. (2011). Polyethylene. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_487.pub2
creating crystals with low thickness relative to the wavelength of light, and thus limiting
scattering.362

● PET (Mylar® ): 363 364

While Mylar® (biaxially-oriented PET) is typically

thought of in the context of aluminized balloons, most "Mylar"
balloons today are made from aluminized nylon coated in
polyethylene.365 PET is strong and permeation resistant
(although somewhat brittle at high temperature and humidity).
Its monomers (ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate or
terephthalic acid) present a fairly complicated manufacturing
process.
Photo: TAP Plastics

Ethylene glycol production has been discussed previously. For the other two
monomer options, both begin with p-xylene. Acetic acid is almost always the solvent,
oxygen the oxidant, and catalysts are combinations of cobalt, manganese and bromine. 366

p-xylene + 3 O 2 → terephthalic acid + 2 H2O

The terephthalic acid is poorly soluble in the solvent and precipitates. Small amounts
of acetic acid and p-xylene are lost to complete oxidation to carbon oxides and water (as well
as the loss of small amounts of bromine catalyst); however, as a whole, yields are excellent
with high specificity. Water vapour is removed by condensation. The crude terephthalic acid
contains significant impurities of 4-formylbenzoic acid, requiring a purification stage involving
high pressure hydrogenation of a terephthalic acid/water slurry at 260°C, with a 98% yield.
Conversely, crude terephthalic acid can be esterified to dimethyl terephthalate of sufficient
purity by reacting with methanol at 250-300°C in the presence of o-xylene.

An alternative route to dimethyl terephthalate starts similar to terephthalic acid

production, with the oxidation stage is split into two segments and an intermediary
esterification stage involving reaction with methanol. The product is produced in water rather
than acetone and bromine is no longer required. Extraction of the product requires several
methanol rinse / evaporation stages, but does not require a separate purification process.
Conversely, dimethyl terephthalate can be converted to high purity terephthalic acid in a
hydrolysis process.

PET polymerization proceeds in two stages: transesterification and

polycondensation, both driven by continuous removal of gases (water and/or methanol in the
former, excess ethylene glycol in the latter) via distillation. With DMT, the raw material is

362
Brydson, J. A. (1982). Plastics materials . London: Butterworth Scientific.
363
(2003) Mylar ® Polyester Film: Product Information. DuPont. Retrieved from
http://usa.dupontteijinfilms.com/informationcenter/downloads/Physical_And_Thermal_Properties.pdf
364
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
365
Mylar - History and Manufacturing. Scientifics Direct. Retrieved from
https://www.scientificsonline.com/product/mylar-reflective-film-sheets
366
Sheehan, R. J. (2011). Terephthalic Acid, Dimethyl Terephthalate, and Isophthalic Acid. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a26_193.pub2
melted at 150-160°C and then blended with the ethylene glycol, while with TA, 220-260° is
required. With DMT transesterification, catalysts (covering almost every element of the
periodic table) are essential; with TA, they re optional to accelerate the process. In
polycondensation, efficient stirring is required to effectively distill away eliminated ethylene
glycol while the viscosity increases. The process is conducted at ~250°C, and is terminated
when a set viscosity is achieved.367

In biaxial extrusion, a rapid quench is essential to achieve the small crystal size that
allows the film to be transparent to visible light.

● PVDC (Saran™): 368 369 370

Similar to Mylar, the brand name Saran® is often a misnomer, in that today's Saran
Wrap is no longer PVDC, but polyethylene. PVDC can be thought of as much more
permeation-resistant variant of PVC - the latter being the world's third most widely used
plastic, desired for its combination of hardness, easy workability and high chemical
resistance. At just above its melt temperature, PVDC is unstable and dechlorinates, and thus
must be processed carefully - a process made more difficult by its high melt viscosity. It is
often blended with ~5% of other polymers to improve processability.

The monomer, vinylidine chloride (1,1-dichloroethylene / VDC), is produced with high

(>90%) selectivity by the dehydrochlorination of 1,1,2-trichloroethane with a caustic agent
such as sodium hydroxide:371

HCl2C-CH2Cl + NaOH → H2C=CCl2 + NaCl + H2O

Caution must be taken with chloroacetylene byproducts, which can be explosive. If

one wishes to avoid the need for producing / recycling caustics, a pyrolytic cracking reaction
is available, albeit with lower selectivity:

2 HCl2C-CH2Cl → H2C=CCl2 + HClC=CHCl + 2 HCl

The latter reaction avoids the chloroacetylene explosion hazards but is still in the
research phase, often troubled by polymerization on its catalyst surfaces.

Once produced and cleaned (with caustic or methanol), VDC is readily polymerized -
perhaps too readily, as it frequency self-polymerizes and should not be stored for more than

367
Köpnick, H., Schmidt, M., Brügging, W., Rüter, J., & Kaminsky, W. (2000). Polyesters . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_227
368
(2013) Saran™ Polyvinylidine Chloride (PVDC) Resins . DOW. Retrieved from
http://msdssearch.dow.com/PublishedLiteratureDOWCOM/dh_096d/0901b8038096dac8.pdf?filepath=productsafety/pdfs/nor
eg/233-00251.pdf&fromPage=GetDoc
369
Saran PVDC Resins and the Environment. DOW. Retrieved from
http://msdssearch.dow.com/PublishedLiteratureDOWCOM/dh_007d/0901b8038007d391.pdf?filepath=plastics_ap/pdfs/noreg
/190&fromPage=GetDoc
370
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
371
Rossberg, M., Lendle, W., Pfleiderer, G., Tögel, A., Dreher, E., Langer, E., . . . Mann, T. (2012) . Chlorinated Hydrocarbons .
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_233.pub2
two days without inhibitors. Polymerization is generally conducted at <80°C with peroxide
initiators to accelerate the reaction.

Due to the difficulty of heat processing VDC, comonomers are frequently added
(5-25%). Common comonomers include vinyl chloride and various chemicals stemming
from ammoxidation reactions (methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, acrylonitrile, methyl
methacrylate, and butyl acrylate).372

● PVOH ( water gel )373 374 and EVOH (EVAL™, Soarnol™): 375 376 377

Known by a variety of ambiguous acronyms,

polyvinyl alcohol and ethylene vinyl alcohol (a
copolymer with ethylene at various percentages,
usually 29-44% ethylene by mass) have great
strengths and weaknesses. They offer the best
permeation resistance to most chemicals for any highly
transparent plastic - but at the same time offer little
resistance to water vapour. Mechanical and barrier
properties decline with increasing humidity levels;
Hydrogel support dissolving away from
indeed, PVOH is so vulnerable to attack by water that it
a 3d print. Photo: Tony Buser is soluble, forming a hydrogel.

EVOH's ethylene co-monomer grants it improved (albeit limited) water resistance,

relative to the ethylene percentage. This comes at a cost of reduced permeation resistance
to most compounds other than water. Film extrusion of EVOH requires the use of a solvent -
generally water.

These polymers are unusual in that their erstwhile monomer does not exist as an
independent, stable chemical. Consequently, PVOH and EVOH are created first by creating
PVA and EVA, where VA is vinyl acetate. These are subsequently saponified.

The most reasonable process for producing vinyl acetate in-situ is gas-phase
oxidation of ethylene with acetic acid:

H2C=CH2 + CH3COOH + ½ O 2 → CH3COOHC=CH2 + H2O

The process proceeds at >140°C and 0.5-1.2 MPa over a solid bed of palladium and
alkali metal salts on carrier materials. Conversion per pass is low, 8-10% of ethylene and
15-35% acetic acid. However, the process is selective, with 99% of acetic acid and 94% of

372
Vinas, J., & Dufils, P. E. (2012). Poly(Vinylidene Chloride) . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_017.pub2
373
PVOH Gohsenol ™ Technical Site. Nippon Gohsei. Retrieved from http://www.gohsenol.com/index_e.shtml
374
Polyvinyl alcohol for 1001 applications . Kurarey. Retrieved from
http://www.kuraray.eu/en/produkte/product-groups/polyvinyl-alcohol/
375
EVOH Barrier Resins and Films . Kuraray. Retrieved from
http://www.eval.eu/media/124484/01b_eval_evoh_resins_and_films.pdf
376
High gas barrier resin Soarnol™ . Nippon Gohsei. Retrieved from http://www.soarnol.com/eng/index.html
377
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
ethylene converted to vinyl acetate. Polymerization inhibitors are required in distillation; free
oxygen is said to assist in this regard.378

Vinyl acetate is polymerized in methanol, either as a homopolymer (PVA) or

copolymerized with ethylene (EVA). Low polymerization temperatures and low methanol
content cause slow polymerization but high PVA/EVA molecular weight; this molecular
weight translates directly to PVOH/EVOH molecular weight.

The most common conversion method is the transesterification in methanol. This

generally employs sodium methoxide, which requires sodium metal to produce locally.379
However, sodium and potassium hydroxide can also be used, making this process more
suitable to local production.380

Note that PVA and EVA are useful products in their own right. PVA is another
hydrogel like PVOH when dissolved in water. EVA is commonly sold as hot glue . Mixed in
with other thermoplastics, it tends to make them "clingy". Reacted with a tackifier it forms the
adhesive of sticky tape. EVA is readily foamed, and marketed as "foam rubber", used in a
wide variety of footwear and sporting goods.

Of the two hydrogels, PVOH forms a glue when mixed with boric acid; acts as a glue
thickener and eye drop base; functions as a mould release; and as a soluble 3d printing
substrate. Reacted with nitric acid, it becomes PVN, a plastic explosive useful for mining and
accelerating solid rocket propellants. PVA in water is otherwise known as wood glue /
Elmer's glue (usually with various additives included). Reacted with boric acid, PVA
becomes a tackifier, to be used in other adhesives to help them stick better.

fibre reinforcement
While biaxial orientation can yield tensile strengths an order of magnitude higher than
unoriented polymers, uniaxial orientation can yield strengths an order of magnitude higher
still. This comes at a cost: uniaxial fibres are generally opaque. fibres can be embedded into
films randomly, or for greater strength, as an ordered mesh. For even greater strength per
unit mass, fibres are made into cables and netting to which envelope loads can be
transferred. Each step up to larger, more orderly fibre bundles decreases the amount of light
blocked by the reinforcement, at the cost of requiring that the transparent film material bear
increasing spans on its own.

378
Roscher, G. (2000). Vinyl Esters . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a27_419
379
Hallensleben, M. L. (2000). Polyvinyl Compounds, Others . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_743
380
Saxena, S. K. (2004). Polyvinyl Alcohol. FAO. Chemical and Technical Assessment, 61st JECFA.
 The below list of reinforcement fibres
only scratches the surface of the available
options, as examples. One was chosen which
is easy to produce and in an advance state of
development (UHMWPE); one with a
moderate-length production chain, which has
much lower creep, higher heat resistance, far
lower hydrogen consumption, etc; and two
advanced fibres frequently proposed for Venus
missions, but with difficult local production. A sail made of Cuben, a loose-fill UHMWPE-reinforced
mylar. Note how the loose fibres add haze and some loss
Reinforcement of plastics by such fibres is
of transmission. Before their acquisition by DSM Dyneema,
common in fields that require lightweight, strong Cubic Tech was working to market the fabric for use in
fabrics, such as camping and sailing. airships.381 Photo: WARDOG ® SurfingSports.com, Inc.

● UHMWPE (Spectra® , Dyneema® ): 382 383 384

It can be surprising that polyethylene, the simplest of

hydrocarbon polymers, might end up yielding among the best high
strength fibres. It boasts not only a very high ratio of tensile
strength to mass, excellent chemical resistance, and among the
best abrasion resistances of all plastics, but it is also the only
plastic that has already been produced by a system designed for
off-world usage from in-situ resources.385 It does, however, come
with the same disadvantages of polyethylene in general: creep,
Photo: fibre Line
vulnerability to UV, and low melt temperatures. UHMWPE is
extremely slick, and
feels almost oily to the touch. In addition to use as fibres, it can also be used for traditional
polyethylene uses, such as films, molded products, etc.

Gas-phase and slurry phase processes are effective for UHMWPE polymerization;
in the ISRU system developed in Carranza et al (2010), slurry phase was utilized. Gas
phase allows for lower catalyst (initiator) consumption but requires more careful
temperature control to prevent runaway polymerization. In general, several thousand grams
of product are typically produced per gram of catalyst consumed. Before the 1960s, stages
to recover catalyst from the product were frequently employed, but seldom are today. Easily
producible oxygen can be used as the catalyst, but it makes control of polymerization rates
(and thus product control) more difficult.386

The dried product can be used either as an unoriented (bulk) plastic or oriented (high
tensile) fibres. UHMWPE powder can be fed to film production systems; blended with

381
Downs, R. (2005) Very Lightweight High Tenacity Fabric for High Altitude Airships . SBIR contract HQ0006-05-C-7162.
382
Honeywell Spectra®. Honeywell. Retrieved from https://www.honeywell-spectra.com/products/fibers/
383
Dyneema®. Royal DSM. Retrieved from http://www.dsm.com/products/dyneema/en_AU/home.html
384
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
385
Sen, S., Carranza, S., & Pillay, S. (2010). Multifunctional Martian habitat composite material synthesized from in situ
resources . Advances in Space Research, 46(5), 582-592. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2010.04.009
386
Whiteley, K. S. (2011). Polyethylene. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_487.pub2
foaming agents (such as short-chain alkanes and halocarbons); cast into foam via
expansion moulding; used in 3d sintering directly; or die-extruded into unoriented strands for
use in filament printers. Contrarily, it can be gel spun into UHMWPE fibre, which can then be
fed into the production of cordage, mesh, or (in combination with UHMWPE-compatible
resins) die extruded into UHMWPE-composite products such as tubing and structural
profiles.

● Carbon fibre: 387

By nature of being produced in an

extremely heat-intensive process, carbon fibre
can withstand extreme temperatures; in anoxic
environments, it experiences no melting point,
rather sublimating at several thousand degrees. It
likewise only contains small amounts of residual
Photo: fibre Line
elements such as nitrogen and hydrogen, being
primarily (abundant) carbon. The dark colour may
be a disadvantage as an envelope reinforcement, absorbing rather than reflecting light.

The initial fibre, PAN, can be produced from acrylonitrile by either precipitation or
solution polymerization with initiators. From an ISRU perspective, solution polymerization in
nitric acid followed by gel spinning is appealing (with a nitric acid solvent, temperatures must
be kept below 5°C).388 No more than 3% comonomer should be used for PAN destined for
carbon fibre production, and the stretching factor in spinning should be at least 12:1.

Following drying, the PAN is first stabilized. This partial oxidation process occurs at
0.1-5 bar and for 1-2 hours at 470-560°K. This is followed by carbonization in a nitrogen
atmosphere, with the temperature ultimately rising to up to 3200°K for graphitization. The
resultant carbon fibre is surface-treated with sulfuric acid. Each progressive stage shifts the
composition as volatiles are driven off:389

Material %C %H %N %O
PAN 68 6 26 0
Stabilized PAN 65 5 12 8
Carbonized PAN (up to 770°K) 67 11 19 3
Carbonized PAN (up to 970°K) 72 7 18 2
PAN-based carbon fibre (1750°K) >95 0.3 4.5 0.2
HM (2500°K) 99 <0.1 <0.2 <0.1

As with UHMWPE, the resultant fibre can be used for cordage, mesh, and extruded
composites when combined with suitable resins. Carbon fibre mesh is in particular valuable

387
Biron, M. (2013). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites . Amsterdam: Elsevier.
388
Nogaj, A., Süling, C., & Schweizer, M. (2011). fibres, 8. Polyacrylonitrile fibres . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.o10_o04
389
Fitzer, E., Foley, A., Frohs, W., Hauke, T., Heine, M., Jäger, H., & Sitter, S. (2012). fibres, 15. Carbon fibres . Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.o11_o04
for use in composite layups (ideally prepreg), and carbon yarns for composite overwrap
vessels.

Cutting carbon fibre cloth for a layup. Photo: SkiBuilders.com

● Vectran® : 390

One of the newer "superpolymers",

vectran is a strong, resilient, extremely
permeation resistant, virtually creep-immune
liquid crystal polymer. While it is frequently
proposed to make balloon envelopes for
unmanned probes on Venus (and is used in the
Photo: fibre Line
Airlander 10 on Earth)391 in the form of a dense
weave fabric, it is unsuitable for that usage in a
Landis habitat in that, as a liquid crystal polymer, it is highly opaque.

While it would make for an excellent reinforcement / cable fibre, this is tempered by
the long dependency chains in its production - so long that we will only skim over them. We
begin with simple aromatics and naphthalene:

Phenol:
benzene + ½ O 2 → phenol
toluene + O 2 → phenol + CO 2 + H2O
cumene + O 2 → phenol + acetone
… and many others. All begin with benzene derivatives.392

4-hydroxybenzoic acid (Kolbé-Schmidt synthesis 393):

phenol + KOH → potassium phenoxide
potassium phenoxide + CO 2 → (KOH + 4-hydroxybenzoic acid)
(KOH + 4-hydroxybenzoic acid) + H2SO 4 → 4-hydroxybenzoic acid + K2SO 4
K2SO 4 + H2O → 2 KOH + SO 3 (electrolysis)

390
Vectran. Kuraray. Retrieved from http://www.vectranfiber.com/
391
Norris, G. (15 May 2015) Hybrid Hopes: An Inside Look At The Airlander 10 Airship. Aviation Week.
392
Weber, M., Weber, M., & Kleine-Boymann, M. (2004). Phenol. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_299.pub2
393
Boullard, O., Leblanc, H., & Besson, B. (2000). Salicylic Acid. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_477
 2-hydroxynaphthalene (2-naphthol):394
naphthalene + H2SO 4 → naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid
naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid + NaOH → 2-hydroxynaphthalene + Na2SO 4
Na2SO 4 + H2O → 2 NaOH + SO 3 (electrolysis)

6-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid:395
2-hydroxynaphthalene + KOH → potassium 2-naphthoxide
potassium 2-naphthoxide + CO 2 → (KOH + 6-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid)
(KOH + 6-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid) + H2SO 4 → 6-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid + K2SO 4
K2SO 4 + H2O → 2 KOH + SO 3 (electrolysis)

Lastly, the 4-hydroxybenzoic acid is polymerized with the 6-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid

to yield vectran. The polymerization requires acetic anhydride (generating acetic acid),396 and
thus we must add it to the production list:

Acetic anhydride (Ketene process):397

CH3COOH → H2C=C=O + H2O
H2C=C=O + CH3COOH → (H3C-C=O)2O

● PBO (Zylon® ): 398

Another "superpolymer" often discussed in the context of

Venus. PBO (poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole)) - has no
true melting point, just a (high) temperature range in which it
begins to decompose. A similar polymer, PIBO, shares many of
PBOs properties but is amorphous rather than crystalline; it has
additionally gained interest for Venus applications.

A thermoset liquid crystal polymer, PBO has one of the

Photo: fibre Line highest strength to weight ratios of any known fibre. Compared
to vectran, the production chains for PBO s monomers are even
longer and more complicated, and thus our consideration of them will be even briefer.

Terephthalic acid, the simpler monomer, has already been discussed. The other
monomer, 4,6-diamino-1,3-benzenediol dihydrochloride, is produced in the following
production process chain:

394
Booth, G. (2000). Naphthalene Derivatives . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_009
395
Montgomery, C. (1981). U.S. Patent No. US4329494 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
396
Köpnick, H., Schmidt, M., Brügging, W., Rüter, J., & Kaminsky, W. (2000). Polyesters . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_227
397
Held, H., Rengstl, A., & Mayer, D. (2000). Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry . doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_065
398
(2005) PBO fibre Zylon®. Toyobo Co. Ltd. Retrieved from
http://www.toyobo-global.com/seihin/kc/pbo/zylon-p/bussei-p/technical.pdf
 Resorcinol: 399

Benzene... Benzene…
+ propene... + SO 3...
+ O 2... + NaOH…
+ O 2... + NaOH…
+ H → resorcinol + acetone + H → resorcinol + NaSO 2

… → 4,6-diaminoresorcinol400

… → 4,6-diamino-1,3-benzenediol dihydrochloride401

Polymerization is conducted in polyphosphoric acid with sulfolane as a cosolvent, the

production of which will not be elaborated on here.402

Other polymers of note

● PFA is another fully fluorinated polymer of note, similar to FEP, but more complex to
synthesize and without particularly exceptional properties relative to FEP, excepting a
superior melting point.

● ETFE is a half-fluorinated fluoropolymer, with properties as would be expected from

such. As its properties don t generally exceed PCTFE/ECTFE (and performs worse
on corrosion resistance comparisons), and fluorine makes up a larger percentage of
its mass, its desirability is reduced.

● PVDF (Kynar™) is another half-fluorinated fluoropolymer with properties that, while

good, don t make it a standout relative to its level of fluorination. Spontaneous
combustion of PVDF deep in Venus s atmosphere is a possible cause of the Pioneer
anomaly .403

● PMMA (acrylic, Plexiglass ™) is among the most transparent of all polymers (and as
a consequence is frequently used in fibre optic waveguides). However, its barrier
and chemical resistance properties make it an inferior choice for a laminate layer.

● Polycarbonate suffers the same barrier and chemical resistance problems as

PMMA, as well as being relatively difficult to produce, not as transparent, and tending
to yellow over time. Its vulnerability to chemical attack is however lower.

399
Schmiedel, K. W., & Decker, D. (2000). Resorcinol. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry .
doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_111
400
Nader, B. S. (1994). U.S. Patent No. US5371291 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
401
Pubchem. Retrieved from
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/4_6-Diaminoresorcinol_dihydrochloride#section=Parent-Compound
402
Kricheldorf, H. R. (1992). Handbook of polymer synthesis . New York: Dekker.
403
Seiff, A., Sromovsky, L., Borucki, W., Craig, R., Juergens, D., Young, R. E., Ragent, B. (1993) Pioneer Venus 12.5 km
Anomaly Workshop Report (Volume I) . Proceedings of a workshop held at Moffett Field, California September 28-29, 1993
 ● PAN: While PAN fibres are produced as a precursor to carbon fibre, and it has barrier
processes similar to PVDC, it cannot be made into biaxially oriented films without
heavy blending.

● Barex™ is a PAN/PMMA copolymer used as a barrier film, but most of its properties
are inferior to others previously discussed.

● COC (cyclic olefin copolymer) has nearly as good transparency as PMMA and
similar permeation resistance to PVDC. Its tensile strength is a relatively
unimpressive 46-63 MPa. Production chains are very long and complex.

● Nylons and aramids not previously discussed: In general, the length of their
production chains do not justify their material properties in terms of their utility as
reinforcing fibres.

Layering discussion
The numerous factors involved in developing a proper envelope film are made more
complicated by the fact that the properties of a single "type of polymer" can vary wildly
depending on the mechanisms used to produce, polymerize, and manufacture the product.
The product must furthermore have installation and maintenance planned from the beginning,
including a method for replacing damaged envelope sections. General polymer data is
insufficient in its own right except for preliminary planning; every sample produced must be
qualified on its own.

Concerning exterior coatings:

PCTFE stands out. More halogenated than PVF, and thus more inert, it still uses
about the same amount of fluorine per unit thickness. It is not as strong as ECTFE and
certainly not PVF, but it does not need to be; its job is to protect the underlying layers from
damage by Venus's atmosphere. Its superb water permeation resistance, a standout trait,
also frees underlying layers from having to provide that capability on their own.

Alternative candidates may prove superior in some circumstances:

ECTFE: … if PCTFE workability proves too challenging, or chlorine is more limited

than hydrogen.
PVF: … if chlorine is highly limited.
FEP: … if fluorine is not limited but service lifespan for other polymers cannot meet
requirements
Stabilized LDPE, PVC, etc: … if fluorine is highly limited and can only be used for
surface treatments, if that.

Concerning barrier layers:

 PVOH and EVOH are tempting due to their incredible barrier properties, tempered by
their water sensitivity. On Earth, PVOH could likely be ruled out, due to its extreme
sensitivity to humidity; however, the extremely dehydrating nature of Venus's atmosphere
makes it a potential option for a layer near the atmosphere side. This however might
complicate manufacture and testing, both on Earth and locally. A low-ethylene EVOH
seems a more likely choice. Production of EVOH, a relatively simple process, inherently
also produces EVA, a valuable product in its own right - particular in its ability to help polymer
layers bond and to form bonding agents. Combined with PCTFE, a high degree of
permeation resistance could be achieved at low density. Interior humidity may, however,
prove a problem, and certainly will if there are no further interior layers and coatings. A
simple polyethylene layer is a possible protective layer, albeit providing little permeation
resistance, poor strength to weight performance and consuming significant amounts of
hydrogen. Either a fluoropolymer inner coating or another strength/permeation layer would be
superior.

Alternative or additional barrier layers have merit:

PVDC is stable and likewise relatively easy to produce, and brings with it the
production of PVC. However, the production of polyethylene can compete with PVC in many
applications, rendering it not as essential of a product. PVDC also carries the disadvantages
of sensitivity to manufacturing conditions and potential outgassing en route to Venus; its
surrounding layers would need to reduce outgassing to an appropriate level.

PET is a fallback; strong and with good (although not exceptional) scores in almost
every category, it has widely been proposed for use in unmanned Venus probes. However,
its moderately long production chains temper enthusiasm for its use somewhat.

Whether a coating layer for the inside of the habitat is needed depends on how much
protection the core layer(s) of the film need, as well as how prone the envelope is to fouling.
Fouling can exist in the form of dust, fog, algal growth, abrasion, and other factors which can
be reduced or eliminated by a fluoropolymer coating. The primary downside is that this
consumes an additional amount of fluorine. Any such coating, such as PCTFE, would be
expected to be as thin as possible, in contrast to exterior coatings which should be designed
to wear.

Individual layers must be bonded together, and this raises their own challenges.
Some produced films cling so strongly to each other without any adhesive or thermal
bonding that a find dusting of inert material (slip / antiblock agent) must be used in production
to enable the individual layers to be pulled apart. Others strongly resist secure bonding of
any type. Fluoropolymers in particular are notoriously difficult to bond. Among other
techniques to improve bonding, exposure to plasma and flame are most applicable to a
Venus habitat environment; these roughen and in some cases dehalogenate the surface,
allowing it to bond better.404 Plasma surface treatments can also be used to make the
external surface less hydrophobic, if further research determines that this would enable

404
Matheison, I. (1995). Pretreatments of fluoropolymers to enhance adhesion (Unpublished master's thesis). Loughborough
University.
faster ISRU liquids collection rates.405 Imported chemical products such as FluoroBonder
can also aid in adhesion.406

A PVA / EVA, PVOH / EVOH route might enable the local production of adhesives
useful for bonding layers. In some cases, layers can be melt-processed together during
manufacturing; this includes some of the more desirable fluoropolymers like PCTFE.407 An
option for cases where further melting may reduce desirable properties is a "quilted"
approach, where individual layers are melt-joined only at a series of points spaced out from
one another. There is a great deal of nuance and experimentation that will be needed to
determine the optimal solution. In the worst case, however, adhesives and additives can
always be sent from Earth, so long as their total percentage of the mass of the envelope
remains low.

Permeation calculations
For the sake of permeation analysis, we will consider a sample envelope fabric
comprised of 20 m PCTFE, 70 m PVDC, and another 10 m PCTFE (183g/m², not counting
reinforcement). We will analyze it at 22.5°C and 50kPa external pressure / 50.5kPa internal
pressure, 55% N2 / 40% O 2 / 4.9% H2O / 0.1% CO 2 atmosphere inside, for a 330x80x50
elliptical habitat with no pinholes, over species of concern. Limits in italics are due to effects
on agriculture rather than humans. Acid permeability is based on data for liquids. The effect
of ballonets on permeation is not considered.

Permeability Daily permeation Daily permeation Recommended

Specie
(m³-m/m²-s-Pa) w/ continuous scrubbing w/o continuous scrubbing limit
H2O 6.09e-15 -1.44 kg -1.44 kg -
O2 1.50e-16 -0.29 kg -0.29 kg -
N2 8.85e-17 -0.22 kg -0.22 kg -
HF 6.04e-17 2.91 ppb 1.46 ppb 200 ppt
H2S 9.88e-17 19.1 ppb 9.53 ppb 10 ppm
HCl 6.04e-18 23.3 ppb 11.6 ppb 15 ppb
H2SO4 4.83e-19 294 ppb 147 ppb 15 ppb
SO2 1.28e-15 92.7 ppm 46.3 ppm 50 ppb
CO 2.56e-16 98.8 ppm 49.4 ppm 20 ppm
CO2 2.56e-15 11.9 kg 11.9 kg 3500 ppm

First off, it would appear that we would need to scrub the internal air approximately
fifteen times per day to maintain the desired limitation to avoid effects on agriculture. This
equates to 120 m³/s, a very high rate of flow. Surprisingly, the tiny amounts of hydrogen
fluoride are just as significant as the much greater amounts of sulfuric acid, due to extreme
plant sensitivity. While celery can withstand 20 ppb of hydrogen fluoride for 3-4 weeks

405
Vandencasteele, N., Merche, D., & Reniers, F. (2006). XPS and contact angle study of N2 and O2 plasma-modified PTFE,
PVDF and PVF surfaces . Surface and Interface Analysis, 38(4), 526-530. doi:10.1002/sia.2255
406 ®
FluoroBonder . Technos Corporation. Retrieved from http://technos-corp.co.jp/english/publics/index/7/
407 ®
Voltalef PCTFE Technical Brochure. Arkema. Retrieved from
http://www-eng.lbl.gov/~shuman/NEXT/MATERIALS&COMPONENTS/MISC/PCTFE_voltalef.pdf
without injury, apricots, peaches and corn suffer severe injury at 0.4-0.6 ppb for several
months.408

Rather than circulating air so quickly through a scrubber, some other strategies might
bear consideration. The first is passive absorption, which may occur on its own to varying
degrees into condensation on the envelope. As these species are highly hygroscopic, mist
sprays may also be very effective at removing them from the atmosphere (at the cost of
increasing dehumidification requirements). Another option is that, as the daily permeation
rates are so tiny, the envelope could simply contain or be coated on the interior with basic
compounds to neutralize permeating acidic species. Lastly, plants could simply be selected
or bred for greater acid tolerance, as the plant safety limits are so much less than those for
humans.

Removing the permeated carbon dioxide is not so great of a challenge; at 0.1%

concentration and 0.6 kg/m³, 7140 m³ of air (roughly 1% of the habitat volume) must be
processed per day. Carbon monoxide scrubbing requirements are more significant, and may
be best dealt with by increasing the concentration of CO-reactive species, such as hydroxyl
radicals. Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, due to their solubilities and low permeation
rates, would likely be scrubbed out along with whatever process is chosen to deal with acids.

While the loss of oxygen and nitrogen are relatively insignificant, the loss of water is
not. Water is a small polar molecule and highly prone to permeation in polymers. 1.44kg of
water equates to 0.16kg of hydrogen, or about 5% of our previously calculated hydrogen
recovery. While this is acceptable, it does show the importance of having at least one layer
that offers significant resistance to water permeation, such as PCTFE. For resisting the
permeation of toxic species, however, layers like PVDC or particularly EVOH have much
more effect; increasing the thickness of these layers is an effective means to reduce indoor
scrubbing requirements.

UV tolerance improvement

Left: Optical
transmittance of
various plastics.
All are for 25 m
films, except PVC
(40 m) and glass
(135 m).

408
Hill, A. C. (1969) Air Quality Standards for Fluoride Vegetation Effects . Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
19:5, 331-336, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1969.10466495
 Most transparent plastics hinder UV-A transmission, but absorption of UV-B and
UV-C are quite varied. UV transmission is not entirely an undesirable property. The human
body uses UV to create vitamin D,409 while UV exposure frequently causes plants to produce
carotenoids and other compounds which are beneficial to the diet.410 Should an attempt be
made at apiculture, bees utilize UV light for navigation and suffer when it is missing (a
problem that became clear in the Biosphere 2 project); this and related problems have been
specifically researched in the context of offworld habitation.411 Nor does Venus's cloud
environment present an abnormally strong source of ultraviolet light that must be blocked
(see Solar power). However, some polymers (such as polyethylene and PBO), are sensitive
to long-term exposure to solar UV. Thin-film polyethylene without UV stabilization, exposed
to the sun for a single summer can begin to cloud and become brittle.412

The first category of compounds for preventing UV damage is absorbers, which

absorb UV light, and commonly visible light as well. Common examples include carbon
black, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, hydroxybenzopenone, and hydroxyphenylbenzotriazole.
Organic absorbers tend to have only short lifespans, and would be difficult to produce locally.
While it has the disadvantage of darkening the color of what it's added to, carbon black is
otherwise an excellent candidate for local production, being produced simple carbonization
process (its old name, lamp black, refers its formation as the soot left behind on oil lamps).
Optically opaque absorbers can only be used in fibres, not transparent films.

Another category is quenchers, generally complex nickel-based organic compounds,

but occasionally copper or manganese-based compounds. Rather than absorbing UV, they
provide excited polymers with a "safe" route to the ground state; as a consequence, they
work synergistically with absorbers. The cation usage and complex chemistry, however,
would render these a likely Earth import (in small quantities).

Radical scavengers and hydroperoxide decomposers form a third category. Both are
consumed in the process of breaking the oxidative chain, but work synergistically with
absorbers. However, quenchers also function in the same role and are not consumed, and
are likely a more appropriate solution. Radical scavengers furthermore are generally
complicated organic compounds that would be impractical to produce locally.

The most recent development in the UV protection of plastics is hindered amine light
stabilizers, or HALS. These complex organic compounds provide long-term protection by
blocking radicals in multiple phases of the oxidation process.413

As a general rule, UV-controlling additives make up no more than a few percentage

of the polymer that they're protecting. HALS absorbers are commonly used at only 0.2-0.5%

409
Holick, M. F. (n.d.). Sunlight, UV-Radiation, Vitamin D and Skin Cancer: How Much Sunlight Do We Need? Sunlight, Vitamin
D and Skin Cancer Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 1-15. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77574-6_1
410
Solovchenko, A. E., & Merzlyak, M. N. (2008). Screening of visible and UV radiation as a photoprotective mechanism in
plants . Russian Journal of Plant Physiology,55(6), 719-737. doi:10.1134/s1021443708060010
411
Cockell, C. S., & Andrady, A. L. (1999). The Martian and extraterrestrial UV radiation environment 1. Biological and
closed-loop ecosystem considerations . Acta Astronautica, 44(1), 53-62. doi:10.1016/s0094-5765(98)00186-6
412
Unpublished personal experience.
413
Ye, Y., & King, R. E., III. (2006). Additives for polyolefin film products: an overview of chemistry and effects. Ciba Specialty
Chemicals.
by mass.414 0.2% HALS Tinuvin 783 was reported to give gas pipes in accelerated aging
tests a lifetime increase from 1000 hours to 16000, equivalent to 12.5 years in direct Florida
sun.415

Creep improvement
Creep - the elongation of material over time while under stress - is a potential problem
for an airship envelope. If reinforcing fibres elongate more than the substance they're
reinforcing, the tensile loads that they're bearing become increasingly transferred to the
supported structure, ultimately causing it to fail. Uneven creep in catenary cables might
cause loads to be unevenly borne, tilting or misaligning objects. As a general rule, creep
should be reduced as much as possible, and engineering calculations must take into
account elongation over time.

One way to reduce creep, in particular with

high-creep fibres like UHMWPE, is crosslinking. UV
crosslinking in particular is suitable to use on Venus,
compared to chemical mechanisms that require
complicated feedstocks (chlorosulfonation, peroxide
crosslinking, etc); it can reduce creep by an order of
magnitude without relevant consequences to tensile
strength.416 Crosslinking also increases the wear
resistance, and even allows for operation at higher
temperatures (~250°C) for several hours at a time.417
Crosslinked polyethylene is commonly used in both PEX piping. Photo: Chixoy
medical implants and home water piping, sold as PEX.418

An additional factor which is (to a degree) under the manufacturer s control is the
degree of polymer crystallinity; highly crystalline polymers generally suffer from less creep
than amorphous ones. UHWMPE Hylamer is heated at >300°C at >235MPa, then slowly
cooled, in order to induce a high degree of crystallinity in the structure, achieving a degree of
creep reduction.419 Such high pressures may hinder its usefulness for offworld applications.

Infrared rejection
While Venus's cloud tops are the most Earthlike place in the solar system outside of
Earth, the climate conditions there are not identical. For a given level of air pressure and
414
Butola, B. S., & Joshi, M. (2013). Photostability of HDPE Filaments Stabilized with UV Absorbers (UVA) and Light
Stabilizers (HALS) . Journal of Engineered fibres and Fabrics, 8(1).
415
Stahmer, M, Micic, P (2003) Weathering of PE Pipes. Technical note VX-TN-6C. Retrieved from
http://www.vinidex.com.au/technote-parent-page/weathering-of-pe-pipes/
416
Penning, J. P., Pras, H. E., & Pennings, A. J. (1994). Influence of chemical crosslinking on the creep behavior of ultra-high
molecular weight polyethylene fibres . Colloid & Polymer Science, 272(6), 664-676. doi:10.1007/bf00659280
417
Wang, H., Xu, L., Li, R., Hu, J., Wang, M., & Wu, G. (2016). Improving the creep resistance and tensile property of
UHMWPE sheet by radiation cross-linking and annealing. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 125, 41-49.
doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2016.03.009
418
(2006). PEX Information. Tradesman Supply Inc. Retrieved from http://www.pexinfo.com/
419
Jauffrès, D., Lame, O., Vigier, G., Doré, F., & Fridrici, V. (2008). Yield, creep, and wear properties of ultra high molecular
weight polyethylene processed by high velocity compaction. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 110(5), 2579-2585.
doi:10.1002/app.28697
latitude, Venus tends to be hotter than Earth (discussed under Deployment: Where and
How). Further compounding this problem is the greenhouse effect within the envelope: solar
energy is absorbed but convection with the atmosphere is blocked by the envelope, causing
the interior temperature to rise until the radiative/convective balance equalizes. Rejecting all
light (as in unmanned probes) is not an option, and UV represents only a tiny fraction of the
solar energy. Hence, one seeks to reject as much near-IR as possible.

Such low-E additives and coatings are most commonly one of two chemicals:
antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO) and indium tin oxide (ITO), both of which have relatively
similar chemical and emissivity properties. These can be blended in with either the sol-gel
process simple mixing of surfactant-modified ATO or ITO.420 Both compounds are widely
used, particularly ITO, which is used to make transparent conductors (such as for displays),
flexible electronics, and transparent solar cell conductors. A typical concentration for low-e
purposes in fluoropolymers is 0.2-0.5% by mass.421

While neither antimony nor indium have been detected directly in Venus's
atmosphere, antimony is strongly suspected to be a minor middle cloud component, while
indium has been theorized to exist well (see Species of interest). Tin, however, is not likely
present in relevant quantities - hence, while ITO and ATO are relatively simple to synthesize,
they would require tin either from the surface or the Earth, in small quantities.

A problem exists with low-E coatings in general, in that by blocking lower frequency
electromagnetic radiation, they also tend to block radio waves, and thus would hinder any
interior radar or communications systems if applied as a continuous coating. A technique to
avoid this is to pattern the low-E areas such that any conductive pathways are broken by
narrow channels.422 A further difficulty with low-E additives and coatings comes if the
envelope is to be used as its own entry vehicle; emissivity is inversely correlated with peak
temperatures (see Ballute considerations ).

An alternative approach being investigated for use on Earth is metamaterials which

constrain infrared radiation to wavelengths which are poorly absorbed by the atmosphere,
thus enabling radiative exchange with space rather than the upper atmosphere. This can be
accomplished via the embedding of polar dielectric microspheres in the film.423

Other additives
Adding tiny amounts of liquid crystal polymers (as little as 0.01% vectra) to difficult to
process resins can increase the processability in creating biaxially oriented films by means
of creating microprotrusions, which serve to greatly decrease friction on the sheet.424

420
Puetz, J., & Aegerter, M. A. (2005). Chemical nanotechnology for transparent conducting coatings on thin-glass and
plastic-foil substrates . Journal of the Society for Information Display, 13(4), 321. doi:10.1889/1.1904934
421
Van Nutt, C. N., Enniss, J. P., Li, J. A., Port, A. B., Pickett, S. E., Stegall, J. B., Hubbard, C. L., Phillips, R. M., & Barth, S. A.
(2013). U.S. Patent No. US8613822 B2. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
422
Estinto, E., & Winsor, R. (2015). U.S. Patent No. US 8927069 B1. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
423
Zhai, Y., Ma, Y., David, S. N., Zhao, D., Lou, R., Tan, G., . . . Yin, X. (2017). Scalable-manufactured randomized
glass-polymer hybrid metamaterial for daytime radiative cooling. Science. doi:10.1126/science.aai7899
424
Wong, C. P. (1994). U.S. Patent No. US5330697 A. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
 Other additives such as plasticizers may be required in certain situations.

Ballute considerations
As previously discussed, having the habitat enter the atmosphere as its own ballute
entry vehicle offers tremendous mass advantages and simplifies inflation. However, while
ballutes do not suffer nearly the level of heating that rigid aeroshells do, the heating still poses
challenges that must be dealt with.

In a ballute, disc or toroidal shapes are optimal for maximizing drag at entry speeds;
hence, we will operate on the assumption of an initial inflation with with the envelope
pinched flat, with the central winch holding the center together and temporary wires
securing the habitat in taught positions elsewhere. Tube rigidization, as discussed previously
under Structural integrity , can useful for helping inflate the envelope to a desirable shape in a
vacuum.425 In order to minimize heating, we will base our entry profile around burning off the
transfer energy with one or more circularization passes, followed by entry. As per McRonald
1999 and unlike VAMP,426 we will assume no lift during entry; lift slows down the entry
process and lowers peak temperatures.

Performing a curve fit on the data from McRonald (1999), we arrive at the following
approximation for heating:

T = 790 * CdA-0.18 m 0.15 ε -0.23

Where:
● T is the temperature, in kelvins
● CdA is the drag coefficient times the area in square meters
● m is the total mass in kilograms
● ε is the emissivity

This is admittedly a crude approach to estimating surface heating; a proper

examination of the issue requires first CFD testing the form, then doing real-world validation.
However, this should yield a rough sense of the viability of the concept.

Our previously described baseline model, oriented gondola first, has a fully-inflated
cross section of approximately 21k m³, and a surface area of around 54k m³. We will
operate on the basis of a squished cross section of 26k m³ (assuming any burble fence /
stability hardware does not add significantly to the cross section) and a hypersonic drag
coefficient Cd = 2. With a baseline entry mass of 46.5 tonnes (see Mass budget), we get the
following relationship between emissivity and peak temperature:

425
McRonald, A.D. (1999). A lightweight inflatable hypersonic drag device for Venus entry . AAS/AIAA Astrodynamics
Specialist Converence, Girdwood, AK, August 16-19
426
Lee, G., Polidan, R.S., Ross, F. (2016). Venus Atmospheric Maneuverable Platform (VAMP) - A Low Cost Venus
Exploration Concept. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2015
 T (°K) If accurate, these figures would be troublingly high.
0.1 952 If we select carbon fibre as our reinforcement, the
0.3 740 temperature becomes irrelevant for the fibres themselves
0.5 658 (so long as they do not delaminate / detach). Being
0.7 609
produced at temperatures of thousands of degrees, these
sort of temperatures have only minimal effect on its
0.8 590
properties. Transparent polymers, however, are much
0.95 568 more vulnerable.427 428 429

As a general rule, as a substance nears Max continuous

Melting
its melting point, its mechanical properties such Material operating
point (°K)
temperature (°K)
as tensile strength dramatically decline. Hence,
FEP 530 473
for all of the polymers listed to the right, the
PET 517 413
maximum operating temperature is lower than
the melting point. Even at those temperatures ECTFE 515 438
the polymer is substantially weakened.. PCTFE 484 448
Thankfully, dynamic pressures are low during EVOH 464 373
peak heating - approximately 10 pascals for an PVF 453 383
entry vehicle of 1 kg/m².430 PVDC 450 393

As has been discussed previously, low-E coatings or additives are desirable to

reduce the greenhouse effect within the envelope. But high emissivity lowers entry
temperatures. How can this conflict be addressed? And what other means can be used to
keep entry heating under control?

● Use no low-E additives/coatings. This means accepting lower pressures in the

habitat (and lower lift, as the habitat must fly at a higher altitude). The above polymers
at the thicknesses in question tend to have naturally relatively high emissivities,
generally upwards of 80%.431

● Apply the coating after entry. The problem with this is that low-E materials should
be on or near the outside of the film, not the inside.

● Coat in accordance with temperature. Note that the prior tables concerned peak
temperatures; most of the surface is well below the peak.

● Use a lifting body for entry: As with the LEAF concept, a lifting body extends the
deceleration period and thus lowers peak heating.

427
Biron, M. (2007). Thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites: technical information for plastics users . Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
428
Baboian, R. (2005). Corrosion tests and standards: application and interpretation. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International.
429
Max Continuous Service Temperature. Omnexus. Retrieved from
http://omnexus.specialchem.com/polymer-properties/properties/max-continuous-service-temperature
430
McRonald, A.D. (1999). A lightweight inflatable hypersonic drag device for Venus entry . AAS/AIAA Astrodynamics
Specialist Converence, Girdwood, AK, August 16-19
431
Fujikura, Y., Suzuki, T., & Matumoto, M. (1975). Polymer Emissivity . Sen'i Gakkaishi, 31(9). doi:10.2115/fiber.31.9_t381
 ● Use more heat-tolerant materials on the highest-temperature areas. Not all
heating is even; high-temperature areas can use opaque, heat-tolerant materials.

● Use a sacrificial high-E coating. A high-E material (typically opaque) designed to

erode away in the atmosphere can be added as a temporary outer layer.

● Go lighter. The lower the density of the habitat, the lower the peak temperature.
Fabrics designed for ballutes typically target densities of only 10-20g/m². As noted
previously, our envelope mass estimate could prove to be pessimistic; a lighter
envelope makes for dramatically lower entry temperatures.

● Add an extended inflatable ring around the habitat. The greater the area, the
lower the peak temperatures. However, this partially defeats the purpose of limiting
ourselves to available airship hangar dimensions, as full integration testing could not
be conducted within the hangar. The ring can be either retained or lost; however, if
designed only for entry usage, it can be made much lighter.

● Use an entirely separate ballute for entry than for descent. Using a system
optimized to be a ballute, with much lighter, higher temperature fabric and larger
cross section, effectively transforms the problem to the situation described in
McRonald (1999).

● Use an aeroshell for entry. This comes with a higher mass penalty, but is mature
technology. The habitat must inflate in free-fall after detaching from the aeroshell.

Manufacturing - nonrigid components

fibre manufacture
Most primary fibres under consideration would be ideally produced via gel spinning.
A UHMWPE production case from Russell et al (2013) will be given as an example.
UHMWPE is dissolved in a solvent at 150°C and is pressurized into a spinneret containing
several hundred capillaries. Fluid filaments form directly into water as gel fibres. These are
then pulled through 120°C air at 1s⁻¹ strain at a 30x or greater draw ratio, creating 17um
fibres. In the example case, the fibres are to be bonded together by a thermoplastic to make
a composite. The fibres are laid up into the desired form, and the coating's solvent is
evaporated off. The form is then hot-pressed to melt the coating to unify the fibres.432

432
Russell, B., Karthikeyan, K., Deshpande, V., & Fleck, N. (2013). The high strain rate response of Ultra High
Molecular-weight Polyethylene: From fibre to laminate. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 60, 1-9.
doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2013.03.010
 The key aspect in all cases
is a high draw ratio; it is the
stretching process that orients the
polymer molecules, giving the
polymer its high tensile strength.
fibre can be wound onto bobbins to
be prepared for creating cordage,
or fed to be chopped for loose fill.

There is relatively little

about gel spinning processes that
Image from Yao et al (2014) 433 needs to be customized to the local
conditions, apart from general weight reductions where possible - which means by and large
swapping out steel for lighter alloys and, where possible, composites.

An ideal goal to strive for is a single multi-use gel spinning system which can handle
multiple feedstocks, rather than having to provide a dedicated system for each polymer.

Film production
For the purpose of this section, we will assume that the envelope is relatively thick
(hundreds of microns). While the envelope may reach into sufficient thickness to be
considered sheeting rather than film , for consistency we will refer to it simply as film in
this section.

Photo: Vitasheet Group

In order to discuss issues pertaining to a film production system, we will examine the
process for PCTFE film.434 To maintain properties, different parts of the system must be kept
at different temperatures. In this case, the following temperatures are maintained (where
applicable):

433
Yao, J., Bastiaansen, C., & Peijs, T. (2014). High Strength and High Modulus Electrospun Nanofibers . fibres, 2(2),
158-186. doi:10.3390/fib2020158
434
Neoflon PCTFE Molding Powder. Daikin Industries Ltd. EG-71j. Retrieved from
http://www.daikinchem.de/downloads/PCTFE.pdf
 ● Gradual transition metering screw, 2.5-3.0 compression ratio, 10-15 rpm
● 25-50mm barrel, L/D ratio = 20-25, rear/center/front: 230/280/290°C
● Adapter: 295°C
● Die head: 310°C
● Die tip: 320°C
● Melt temperature: 260-280°C, 10 minutes for each 2mm of thickness, 6.9
MPa, cooled to 250°C / 30 mín.

In order to maintain steady temperatures, thick steel is often favored, but this is
anathema to a lightweight, flight-ready system; hence a greater number of heaters and
thermocouples may be required. In-situ-produced fluids can help provide a heat reservoir
where required. Passive temperature maintenance systems, such as fluids which change
phase at target temperatures, may be of utility.

High viscosity resins often benefit from a

grooved barrel, where regular grooves jut toward or
away from the screw. This helps ensure more stable,
even, faster heating of the feed - at a downside of
generally increased torque requirements, and
sometimes greater wear.

As with uniaxial orientation, biaxial orientation

of films involves tensioning the sheet while below its Gloucester LGF (Light Groove Feed)
film extrusion barrel.
melting point but while it is still in an amorphous state.
Photo: Plastics Technology
This is usually done with heated rollers pulling the film
in the forward direction, then transverse rollers pulling it opposite the direction of travel. The
film must be held in tension until crystallization has completed. The rate of time at which the
film is held at various temperatures during this process is critical to controlling the
percentage of crystallization and the size of the crystals that form. Where film needs to be
cooled more quickly, cooling ( chill ) rollers are used.

Since the envelope exists not only as a single layer but a composite, the different
layers can be joined at any stage, including options ranging from being extruded through the
same die (coextrusion), to being produced by separate dies to merged before heat set, to
being produced entirely independently and merged in a separate stage. The optimal process
will depend on the choice of polymers and will take experimentation to determine what
produces the best bond and combined material properties.

Note that other film production processes exist - most notably, die blowing. However,
this is mainly of use for films thinner than those of concern for envelope production. If it turns
out to be possible for the habitat to utilize a film in the range of a couple dozen to a couple
hundred microns thick, particularly on the lower end, then blown film extrusion may be a
superior choice.
 Image from Li et al 2014.435 Photo: Maarten Gielen

The primary difference between extrusion and die blowing is that rather than being
linear, a die-blowing die forms a ring, with air pressure maintained in the center to form an
elongated bubble. The bubble is then narrowed with rollers and cut before spooling.
Expansion of the bubble provides the lateral expansion of the film, while the primary rollers
maintain tension in the direction of travel.

As with fibre production, it would be desirable to have any film/sheet extrusion

systems be adaptable. While the primary film need is for envelope fabric (for maintenance
and ultimately to accrue sufficient amounts to be able to build new, larger habitats), sheeting
will also be needed for various substrates, construction purposes, agricultural needs,
workshop safety sheeting, and so forth.

Spinning and weaving

Spinning fibres into cordage of various types is an activity that has been done by
hand as far back as prehistory. In its simplest form, one takes one or more fibres in a bundle
and twists both ends opposite each other, causing a kink to form in the middle. With
continued twisting, the kink continues to grow; with new fibres fed into the bundle as old ones
disappear, strings and ropes materialize, with the stress in the twists allowing friction to hold
the fibres against each other and compensating for the effects of breakage of individual
strands.436

435
Li, H., Chang, J., Qin, Y., Wu, Y., Yuan, M., & Zhang, Y. (2014). Poly(lactide-co-trimethylene carbonate) and
Polylactide/Polytrimethylene Carbonate Blown Films . International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 15(2), 2608-2621.
doi:10.3390/ijms15022608
436
Kidder, N. (2013) Making Cordage By Hand. Primitive Ways.
 In a Venus habitat, however, cordage demands
are far too high for primitive hand manufacturing
methods. In modern cordage manufacture, bobbins
(each loaded with continuous fibre or threads) move
rapidly amongst each other while twisting, tracing out
the path of the weave which is desired for the rope.
This simultaneously forms the core and jacket in
multilayer rope designs. Like with thread manufacture,
a shuttle guides the rope to its destination on a spool.
There is little that requires adaptation to local Venus Photo: Dvortygirl
conditions.

Weaving, too, is a process dating back to prehistory, improved by a variety of

technological improvements up to the modern loom. As there are many different designs and
there is relatively little adaptation required for local Venus conditions apart from mass
reduction, we will not go into details at this point. In addition to creating sparse netting for
envelope reinforcement, the same loom should be designed to handle dense weaves for
composite reinforcement and general-purpose fabrics. The ability to weave different patterns
is important for composite reinforcement, as different patterns yield different mechanical
properties in the resultant composite.437

A third process tangentially related to the

two is that of overwrap winding, particularly
useful to producing composite overwrap
tankage. The process of overwrapping is similar
to that of winding a reel onto a bobbin, except
that the fibres are first coated in a thermoplastic
or thermoset resin, with the tank going through a
bake stage after winding. Carbon fibre is the
Composite Fibre Winder - WT300 PCWM. traditional fibre for this purpose, and very likely
Photo: Winding Technology Ltd
the best option for a Venus colony. Depending
on
the substance to be contained, the inner liner may be either plastic or metal - ideally plastic,
given its greater availability until large-scale surface dredging brings greater supplies online.

Gore assembly and maintenance

Airships are generally built out of gores - strips of fabric joined at the seams, with
taper as needed to provide for shape constraints.

As discussed under Surface layers / coatings , fluoropolymers are notoriously difficult

to bond, although not impossible. It is common for unmanned Venus balloon proposals to
include the use of a polyurethane inner liner to allow for easy adhesive bonding with
connecting connecting strips of fabric at each gore (aka, briefly doubled up) - this process is

437
(2015) Understanding Carbon Fibre Cloth Reinforcement. Easy Composites.
while appealing, has a relatively complicated
route to manufacture and would ideally be
avoided. Simpler polymers such as EVA might
suit for the same purpose, but they must
demonstrate longevity in the habitat
environment. Furan thermoset resins, created
by hydrogenation of furfural from the sulfuric
acid distillation of biomass, present another
option. An alternative approach is thermal
bonding, also discussed previously in the
context of lamination. If no suitable options USS Shenandoah, under construction.
Photo: U.S. Naval Historical Center, image # NH 82262
readily available to local production can be
found, more complicated bonding agents are an acceptable temporary dependency from
Earth.

Maintenance on Venus poses particular challenges. For simplicity, it would be

desirable to be able to conduct all maintenance from within the habitat, which gives access
to only one side. In order to avoid the need for external maintenance craft, techniques should
be developed for replacing segments of gores entirely within the habitat. Of particular
"interior" challenge is maintenance within the ballonets, as the gas inside is the same as that
in the exterior atmosphere. This will require the installation of a temporary airlock (or
presence of a permanent one) over the area(s) of interest, and the operation therewithin
while fully suited up.

An interesting option for envelope

maintenance is in development by
Lockheed Martin. Known as SPIDERs
(Self-Propelled Instruments for Damage
Evaluation and Repair), they consist of
outside and inside halves, magnetically held
together, to crawl across the surface. This
allows them to conduct inspections and
patch pinholes.438
Photo: Lockheed Martin

Manufacturing - rigid components

Beyond the production of envelope film, a wide variety of other types of production
are needed as well.

438
(2016) Skunk Works' SPIDER: Self-Propelled Instrument for Airship Damage Evaluation and Repair . Lockheed Martin.
Extrusion
A significant number of parts will need to
be extruded, including pipes and structural profile
segments. Extrusion of such larger elements
proceeds relatively similar to sheet extrusion.
Hollows are achieved by having the inner portion
of the die supported earlier in the extrusion
barrel, with the flow that diverted around the
support legs re-merged after passing them. In an Tube extrusion die plates. The plate on the right blocks off
early-stage colony, extrusion would be expected the flow from the center, while the plate on the left
subsequently constraints the exterior shape. Photo:
to be primarily plastics-based (optionally
Stephen Woolverton
including loose-fill high strength fibres).
However,
in the more distant future, metal extrusion needs will be expected to increase.

Metalworking
While metals are not abundant when working
primarily within the cloud of Venus, some metal
varieties (most notably iron) can be found. Additionally,
metallic components sent from Earth will require
varying degrees of assembly, maintenance, alteration
and disassembly over time. This is particularly true
with industrial hardware elements.

Among cutting mechanisms on Venus,

Photo: Jason Kaechler oxyacetylene cutting lends itself naturally to the
environment, with oxygen being a fundamental requirement and acetylene being producible
from methane. However, not all cutting needs are well suited to oxyacetylene.

Cutting with an angle grinder, while effective, steadily consumes grinding discs, which
involve abrasives not readily replaceable without surface access. That said, only relatively
small numbers of discs are utilized for a relatively large amount of cutting. If discs are to be
manufactured locally, they are not particularly structurally complicated. The abrasive is
supported in a plastic matrix, which in turn has a fibre reinforcement weave in it to maintain
structural strength. Any local production of discs
must proceed with caution, as breaking discs are
hazardous, both to the operator and the surrounding
area, and discs must be well balanced.

A local abrasive option not requiring surface

materials for production is diamond. Discs utilizing
a diamond abrasive are often favored for use over
those with other abrasives, with use on Earth Photo: Emilian Robert Vicol

limited mainly by price.

Fine metalwork, as well as work on ceramics, is often suited by a Dremel-style tool.

As the bits for these are generally quite small, treating them as an Earth import should not be
a concern early on.

Welding can be conducted by a variety of different processes. For Venus operation,

MIG (fed by a spool of fill wire) and TIG (using a manual feed rod for fill) are most
appropriate, as wire and shielding gases are easier to produce locally than SMAW
electrodes. The ever-abundant carbon dioxide is an effective shielding gas for steel, although
not for many
other metals, such as aluminum, which require
argon or - for very sensitive tasks - helium.439
Thankfully, noble gases are recoverable from
Venus's atmosphere in distillation, and only small
quantities are required. Like oxyacetylene spray
(and unlike grinding sparks), welding drips contain
a great amount of heat energy and readily burn
through or ignite things that they come into contact
with. The work environment must be designed
with durability and fire safety in mind.
Photo: Rob Lambert

Clothes used in metalworking can be expected to be worn through at a regular rate,

including gloves, which must be designed for high temperatures. Gloves are most
commonly made out of leather, although high temperature polymers are used in some
brands.

Sandblasting is used to remove corrosion and prepare

surfaces, an issue certainly of relevance in a place where the
internal environment is humid and the external environment
acidic. There will be no shortage of compressors required on
Venus regardless, due to the various industrial processes; a
high pressure line to an existing compressor that uses an
atmospherically-acceptable gas should be sufficient.
Sandblasting systems are very simple, often consisting of
nothing more than a plastic box of abrasive and a simple
venturi nozzle to suck in abrasive as it is ejected. Abrasive is
consumed relatively quickly, although it can be recycled to
some extent; higher end designs include a vacuum system for
recovery of used abrasive. Sandblasting creates a great deal
of dust as well as occasional stray streams of abrasive. Photo: Andrea / Ancar

439
(2017) Mig Welding Shielding Gas Basis . Bernard Welding. Retrieved from
http://www.bernardwelds.com/mig-welding-shielding-gas-basics-p152080#.WMXrVHWLRhE
 It is worth examining the local atmospheric iron stream and its applicability toward
local production. Steel is at a minimum comprised of iron and carbon, but almost always
contains various alloying agents to improve its properties. As these are generally metallic
cations not found in Venus's atmosphere (Mn, Ni, Co, Al, Cr, Nb, Zr, V, W, Ti, Si, Se), they
are unavailable without surface dredging operations except via shipments from Earth, and
thus are ideally minimized. There are, however, a few potential exceptions:440

● Nitrogen, while sparingly soluble in steel at low pressures, can substitute for carbon
at high pressures, where it functions as a strong austenite stabilizer, interstitial
solution strengthener and pitting corrosion resistance agent.441 The strengthening
effect can be significant, at 5-10 MPa per 0.001% N. However, nitrogen reduces steel
workability. If controlled precisely along with carbon, "interstitial free" steels can be
produced, with superb workability and no strain aging.

● Sulfur, in small quantities, can be used to increase machinability and tool life, at the
cost of increased rates of corrosion.

● Phosphorus also increases machinability, strength and corrosion resistance,

particularly in conjunction with copper in weathering steels. However, it is embrittling
if the carbon concentration is too high.

● Lead and bismuth significantly improve machinability without sacrificing mechanical

properties.

● Boron is sometimes added in miniscule quantities (0.0015% to 0.0030%) to increase

hardness. It has not been detected in Venus s atmosphere, but does have a number
of gas-phase acidic species, and only tiny quantities are required.

● Tellurium is added to steel to increase machinability without sacrificing material

properties. It is among the most potent microalloying agents in this role, but has the
downside of making the steel difficult to hot work.

● Selenium, like lead, bismuth, and tellurium, increases machinability without

sacrificing mechanical properties. Unlike tellurium, selenium steels can be readily hot
worked. Only 0.05-0.1% are required. Selenium works synergistically with sulfur and
reduces nitrogen absorption. It also reduces hydrogen susceptibility.

Among the most important need for steel on Venus may be that of tool steels. There
are many excellent low-alloy tool steels that use little to no alloying agents not available from
Venus's atmosphere.442 While they can achieve tremendous hardness, they can suffer from
reduced lifespans compared to various higher alloy tool steels.

On the issue of keeping imports or surface requirements low, the "microalloyed"

steels are of note. These use alloying agents only required in small quantities
(0.05%-0.15%), which includes Nb, V, Ti, Mb, Zr, B and rare-earth metals. For steels that

440
Bristow, D. J., Carter, R. J., Frankes, H. E. Jr., Lewis, D. A., Mang, J. F., Sattelberger, S., Wardle, D. (2000) Ferroalloys
and Alloying Additives Online Handbook. AMG Vanadium. Retrieved from http://amg-v.com/contents.html
441
Simmons, J. (1996). Overview: high-nitrogen alloying of stainless steels . Materials Science and Engineering: A, 207(2),
159-169. doi:10.1016/0921-5093(95)09991-3
442
MatWeb Material Property Data. Retrieved from http://www.matweb.com/search/CompositionSearch.aspx
need exposure to the external environment, copper-based weathering steels (0.15-0.25%
Cu) are worthy of investigation, although they do not offer the same level of protection as
stainless steels.
When surface material becomes available,
smelting becomes an option. Smelting involves
chemothermic reduction of an ore in the optional
presence of fluxes, most commonly via carbothermic
reduction. In this reaction a combustible carbon
source strips the oxygen from an ore at high
temperatures. Fluxes assist in the formation of an
oxide slag, which is skimmed from the metal stream
before casting. In steel smelting, gaseous oxygen is
frequently injected to control carbon content. Some
smelting processes, such as aluminum, are
electrolytic (employing consumable carbon Photo: Skeeze

electrodes
as well as fluxing agents to reduce the melting point). High purity silicon production can be
combined with aluminum smelting via the Silicor process.443 Hence, a single adaptable,
multipurpose smelter involving common high-temperature hardware could keep system
masses low system mass while providing for a broad range of processes.

While it's easy to think of smelters as massive structures, there is no fundamental

requirement that they must be; smelting began its history at very humble scales, and can be
conducted at such scales with modern processes. Scale does however tend to improve
efficiency.

Ceramics
Again hindered by a lack of access to most
suitable raw materials, ceramic production can be
expected to be only a minor portion of an early
colony's local production. Until surface access
becomes widespread, most ceramic parts, such as
burner nozzles, ceramic engines, heat shields,
refractory linings and so forth can be expected to be
imported from Earth. Local application of ceramic
coatings or local castings may be conducted with slip
imported from Earth. Some 3d printing processes
Ceramic heat tiles. involving spraying and laser sintering are suitable for
Photo: Roscket Tasartir use with ceramic, and some ceramics are suitable for
use with CNC milling.

443
The Silicor Process: Environmentally Friendly Solar Silicon. Retrieved from
http://www.silicormaterials.com/component/docman/doc_download/5-environmental-white-paper.html
Solar cells
While the concept of fully-independent
production of solar cells has little immediate
likelihood on Venus, some of the various reel to reel
"printing" processes are of note for many types of
organic, CIGS, quantum dot, perovskite, CdTe and
thin-film silicon cells. In these, various conductive
layers, electron donor/acceptor layers and coatings
are continuously deposited onto a substrate. Since
the substrates make up the vast majority of the
mass of the produced solar cells, this raises the
prospect of importing the "low quantity" consumables Organic solar cell printing at VICOSC. The
semiconductor inks can be printed onto almost any
and printing onto locally-produced substrates - substrate, from plastics to steel. Photo: CSIRO
ideally integrated into the envelope production
process itself.

Wiring
While silver, followed immediately by copper, is Material nΩ·m·g/cm³
generally thought of as the best non-superconducting Sodium 45.5
metallic conductor, this is only with respect to volume. Lithium 50.3
With respect to mass (the more critical aspect for space
Calcium 52.7
applications), the top elemental metallic contenders are
listed to the right.444 By contrast, copper comes is 151.6 Potassium 59.9
nΩ·m·g/cm³. Unfortunately for a Venus habitat, sodium, Aluminum 70.2
lithium, calcium and potassium are unsuitable for either Beryllium 73.9
interior or exterior wiring usage due to their highly Magnesium 76.5
reactive natures. Hence, aluminum wiring would appear to be the mass-optimal solution.
This must be tempered by a few factors:

● Pure aluminum also has around 1000x the creep rate of copper, although
dramatically reduced with alloying agents; copper is sometimes a superior choice
where tensile loads may be present. However, superior still is composite-core
aluminum wiring, which use composites for loadbearing but aluminum for
transmission.445

● Higher gauge aluminum wiring can require more insulation mass.

444
Tables of resistivity and density sourced from http://periodictable.com/Properties/A/Resistivity.an.html and
http://periodictable.com/Properties/A/Density.an.html, respectively.
445
HVCRC Smart Conductor. Mercury Cable and Energy. Retrieved from
http://mercurycable.com/products/hvcrc-smart-conductor/
 ● Aluminum wiring is less forgiving of improper installation than copper (ultimately
leading to numerous problems in home wiring, since remedied by newer standards
and the use of AA-8000 series aluminum wire).446

NASA and US defense satellites have historically relied on copper wiring,447 but
aluminum is used by European spacecraft. NASA is seeking to increase its own TRL for
using aluminum wiring as a weight saving measure.448

No reasonable traditional wiring candidate can be produced locally without surface

dredging. Iron is a relatively poor conductor, as well as being prone to corrosion. Organic
conductors exist, but their conductivity is generally orders of magnitude lower than that of
metals. An interesting unconventional option, however, appears to be emerging: carbon
nanotube wire.449

Carbon nanotube-based wire simultaneously suspends and illuminates a bulb. Photo: Rice University

Formerly a product of research interest, carbon wire now has some commercial
producers. For example, Curtran / LiteWire recently announced their first large-scale test in a
$7B oilfield development contract.450 It boasts similar conductivity to copper on a volumetric
basis and five times better on a mass basis, as well as being highly corrosion and water
resistant and having 20 times higher tensile strength than copper.451

Further test work validating carbon wire s long-term suitability in interior and exterior
Venus environments could lead to its use as an excellent candidate for wiring on Venus. That
said, the TRL on carbon wiring for aerospace applications is at present low.

Wiring inside the habitat involves long spans of fine, low-capacity wires forming a
multiple-route grid. In order to increase their visibility to avoid inadvertent collision, they

446
Quinn, J. P. (2014). Down To The Wire: Copper And Aluminum Wiring Fight To The Finish. Electrical Contractor.
447
Patel, M. (2004). Spacecraft Power Systems. doi:10.1201/9781420038217
448
Dillard, M. Advancing Aluminum Wiring. NASA. Reference No. NNJ14ZBH026L.
449
Sprovieri, J. (2016). Can Carbon Nanotubes Replace Copper? Assembly Magazine.
450
Ryan, M. (2014) Meet the Houston startup that is going to make billions replacing copper wire. Houston Business Journal.
451
LiteWire vs. Copper . CurTran. Retrieved from http://curtran.com/benefits/litewire-vs-copper/
should be marked by brightly colored and/or glowing indicators at regular intervals.
Conductors should be spaced out as greatly as is practical.

General discussion
While much emphasis has been provided on ensuring that everything can be
produced locally, it should be noted that not everything for the initial habitat must be. It is
perfectly possible, and may in some instances be quite desirable, to build major habitat
components out of things that cannot be readily produced locally. This, however, should be
undertaken cautiously; by building out of inaccessible materials, you advance the tech
readiness level for use of those materials in a Venus habitat environment, not the tech
readiness level of the materials that actually matter. This must be taken into strong
consideration when making material sourcing decisions for the initial habitat.
 Rather than treating local food production as an afterthought for the future, it is
arguably best to see as a fundamental aspect of colonization requiring significant time to
optimize, and thus something that should be begun immediately. At the same time, it is
fraught with challenges, and plants can be unforgiving of errors. Hence, simple precautionary
planning dictates that at all time a sufficient supply of stored food should be available - initially
from Earth - to sustain the crew until they could arrive back at Earth at the next return
window, or otherwise receive an emergency resupply.

Before we can investigate what should be produced, we need to examine what is

required.

Nutrition
Human nutrition can be broken up into two broad categories: macronutrients, such as
protein, fat, carbohydrates and fibre, as well as water; and a broad range of micronutrients.
As the primary concern in an offworld environment would be a diet that lacks some of the
latter, we will examine them and consider the implications for what dietary sources 452 can
provide them.

Essential fatty acids

There are two essential fatty acids: alpha linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid (LA)453.
Additionally, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can become limited when the ALA/LA ratio is low,
454
while gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) can occasionally become limited by external factors.455

Of the two essential fatty acids, ALA makes up the majority of some seed oils, such
as flax and chia, and is found in sizeable quantities in a number of others, including hemp,
walnut, soybean, and rapeseed.456 457 Such ALA-rich oils tend to be "drying oils", with little
heat tolerance and limited non-refrigerated lifespans after pressing, and hence are best
served cold. When cooked, use of spices such as rosemary and oregano can increase heat
stability.458

LA can be found abundantly in most common plant oils, including sunflower, grape,
safflower, hemp, corn, cottonseed, and soybean.459

452
Vitamins and Minerals (2015). NHS choices. Retrieved from
http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/vitamins-minerals.aspx
453
Whitney, E. N., Rolfes, S. R. (2008). Understanding Nutrition (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth (pp. 154)
454
Sanders, T.A. (2009) DHA Status of vegetarians . Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids ; 81(2-3):137-41.
doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2009.05.013 PMID 19500961
455
Horrobin, D.F. (1993) Fatty acid metabolism in health and disease: the role of delta-6-desaturase. Am. J. Clin. Nutr . 57 (5
Suppl): 732S 736S; discussion 736S 737S. PMID 8386433.
456
Orsavova, J., Misurcova, L., Ambrozova, J., Vicha, R., & Mlcek, J. (2015). Fatty Acids Composition of Vegetable Oils and
Its Contribution to Dietary Energy Intake and Dependence of Cardiovascular Mortality on Dietary Intake of Fatty Acids .
International Journal of Molecular Sciences , 16(6), 12871-12890. doi:10.3390/ijms160612871
457
Abedi, E., & Sahari, M. A. (2014). Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid sources and evaluation of their nutritional and
functional properties . Food Science & Nutrition, 2(5), 443-463. doi:10.1002/fsn3.121
458
Bhale, S., Xu, Z., Prinyawiwatkul, W., King, J., & Godber, J. (2007). O regano and Rosemary Extracts Inhibit Oxidation of
Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acids in Menhaden Oil. Journal of Food Science, 72(9). doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00569.x
459
Orsavova et al 2009; Abedi et al 2014
 Like its parent molecule LA, GLA is also found commonly in plant oils, although not
as widely; evening primrose, borage, and currant oils naturally contain significant quantities,
460
as does a genetically modified safflower oil.461

Unlike ALA, DHA is not found in plant sources; strict vegetarians must produce all of
theirs from ALA. Rich dietary sources of DHA include fish and algal oils.462 A low dietary
intake of DHA has not been associated with negative health consequences.463

Minerals
Minerals are a relatively simple thing to provide offworld, with necessary anions being
common and nearly all cations ending up recycled (more on this shortly). That said, not all
plants are equal when it comes to taking up minerals into their edible portions. For many
minerals, deficiencies are rare, except in cases of disease. However, among those
deficiencies which do not fall into that category:

● Calcium: Deficiency is primarily an issue among women and the elderly, and often
secondary to vitamin D deficiency.464 Good sources include leafy vegetables, nuts,
seeds, many spices, milk, eggs, and canned whole fish (aka, bones).

● Iron: Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world;465 a
shortage of iron is most notably associated with anemia. Animal sources of iron
("heme") are common and readily digested. Plant sources of iron ("non-heme"),
although abundant (frequently in leafy vegetables, nuts, legumes and whole grains),
are more poorly absorbed. Some relatively rich plant iron sources, such as spinach
and swiss chard, also contain oxalic and phytic acid, which bind iron and hinder its
absorption. Other inhibitors include tannins, calcium, polyphenols, and other
micronutrients such as zinc and copper. Consumption of promoters (citric acid,
ascorbic acid, lysine, carotene, etc) and spreading out sources of iron over the day
help increase rates of iron absorption, as does a higher total iron intake.466 Perhaps
surprisingly, cooking in an uncoated iron pan yields a meaningful increase in dietary
iron consumption.467

● Zinc: A fairly common deficiency similar to iron in its properties, both in terms of
dietary sources and risk of binding with oxalic and phytic acid. However, low zinc in

460
Abedi et al 2014
461
Nykiforuk, C., Shewmaker, C. (2011). High level accumulation of gamma linolenic acid in transgenic safflower (Carthamus
tinctorius) seeds . Transgenic Research. 21 (2): 367 81. doi:10.1007/s11248-011-9543-5. PMID 21853296.
462
Abedi et al 2014
463
Sanders 2009
464
Cooper, M. S., Gittoes, N. J. (2008). Diagnosis and management of hypocalcaemia. Bmj, 336(7656), 1298-1302.
doi:10.1136/bmj.39582.589433.be
465
Iron Deficiency United States, 1999-2000. (2002). Jama, 288(17), 2114. doi:10.1001/jama.288.17.2114-jwr1106-2-1
466
Collings, R., Harvey, L. J., Hooper, L., Hurst, R., Brown, T. J., Ansett, J., . . . Fairweather-Tait, S. J. (2013). The
absorption
of iron from whole diets: a systematic review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 98(1), 65-81.
doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.050609
467
Kollipara, U. K., & Brittin, H. C. (1996). Increased Iron Content of Some Indian Foods Due to Cookware. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 96(5), 508-510. doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(96)00140-x
 plant sources is often caused by growing plants in zinc-deficient soils, an issue of
limited applicability in a properly managed hydroponics environment.468

● Iodine: Iodine deficiency is common in areas far from the ocean where there is little
consumption of marine foods.469 It is, however, relatively simple to prevent by
including iodine into a hydroponics nutrient mix. While plants do not require it (and
their growth hindered by too high of quantities), it is readily taken up and stored.470

Vitamins
Vitamins, being produced by specific biologic processes, are not as readily
supplemented offworld, except either by significant laboratory effort or by supplements sent
from Earth. Hence, consuming proper dietary sources is more important.

● Vitamin A (retinol, retinal, carotenoids ): Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of

childhood blindness and a common cause of death among malnourished children.471
Vitamin A is common in colourful vegetables (squash, carrots, etc), leafy vegetables,
milk, and abundantly in liver.

● Vitamin B1 (thiamine): Usually only common among people with poor diets (such as
alcoholics), but also those who overconsume husked white rice (not whole rice) in
their diet.472 473 Thiamine is found in a wide range of foods including meat, potatoes,
brown rice, vegetables, eggs, etc.

● Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): A condition which hinders the absorption / metabolism of

other nutrients (such as iron), mild riboflavin deficiencies are common in third world
(although rare in the first world).474 Good sources include dairy, eggs, meat, leafy
vegetables, legumes, and mushrooms.

● Vitamin B3 (niacin and related forms ): Niacin deficiency (pellagra) is primarily found
in locations which overconsume maize; however, nixtamalization - the soaking /
cooking of maize in a caustic solution, such as ash or limewater - generally prevents
this.475 Sources of niacin are common, including meat, eggs, dairy, vegetables,
mushrooms, nuts, etc.

468
Alloway, B. J. (2009). Soil factors associated with zinc deficiency in crops and humans. Environmental Geochemistry and
Health, 31(5), 537-548. doi:10.1007/s10653-009-9255-4
469
Zimmermann, M. B., Jooste, P. L., & Pandav, C. S. (2008). Iodine-deficiency disorders . The Lancet, 372(9645),
1251-1262. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61005-3
470
Smoleń, S., Kowalska, I., & Sady, W. (2014). Assessment of biofortification with iodine and selenium of lettuce cultivated in
the NFT hydroponic system. Scientia Horticulturae, 166, 9-16. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2013.11.011
471
Whitcher, J. P., Srinivasan, M., Upadhyay, M. P. (2001). Corneal blindness: a global perspective. Bull World Health Organ
vol.79 n.3 Genebra Jan. 2001. doi:10.1590/S0042-96862001000300009
472
Barennes, H., Sengkhamyong, K., René, J. P., & Phimmasane, M. (2015). Beriberi (Thiamine Deficiency) and High Infant
Mortality in Northern Laos . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases , 9(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003581
473
Abdou, E., & Hazell, A. S. (2014). Thiamine Deficiency: An Update of Pathophysiologic Mechanisms and Future
Therapeutic Considerations . Neurochemical Research, 40(2), 353-361. doi:10.1007/s11064-014-1430-z
474
Shi, Z., Zhen, S., Wittert, G. A., Yuan, B., Zuo, H., & Taylor, A. W. (2014). Inadequate Riboflavin Intake and Anemia Risk in
a Chinese Population: Five-Year Follow Up of the Jiangsu Nutrition Study . PLoS ONE, 9(2).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088862
475
Maize in human nutrition (1992). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
 ● Vitamin B9 (folic acid, folinic acid): Folate deficiency is relatively common, and is
especially of concern among pregnant women for the prevention of serious birth
defects.476 The primary source of folate is green leafy vegetables, although it can also
be found in whole grains, liver, and other sources.

● Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin, etc ): A common deficiency, and of particular concern

for offworld environments as it is not found in plant sources. B12 is only produced by
certain types of microorganisms and concentrated in higher animals - thus its
common dietary sources are meat, eggs and dairy products.477 Supplements can be
produced by bacterial culture or imported. A fortunate property of B12 is that the body
stores it for long periods of time (deficiency can take five to ten years to manifest478),
and only very small quantities (2.4 µg/d) are required in the diet.

● Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): Humans are one of the few animal species incapable of
synthesizing ascorbic acid from glucose, and thus must consume it in their diet;
bodily stores are only sufficient for overwintering (160-200 days).479 Formerly one of
the greatest causes of malnutrition-related suffering, scurvy is rare today. Vitamin C
is found in large quantities in many plant sources, and even some animal sources
contain it in sufficient quantities.

● Vitamin D (cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol): Deficiency is common, particularly among

women and those living at high latitudes, and causes a broad range of symptoms -
from bone loss to cancer to diabetes to autoimmune disease. Its prevalence and
severity has led to its consideration as a major global public health problem.480
Sources of vitamin D include sun exposure (the primary source) as well as dietary
sources such meat, eggs, and mushrooms exposed to UV light.481

Protein
Protein in general is often misattributed to being primarily available only in animal
products. Calorie per calorie, vegetables are often richer sources of protein than meat. For
example, 100 grams of 80% lean ground beef, cooked, contains 51% of one's daily value of

476
Czeizel, A., Dudás, I., Vereczkey, A., & Bánhidy, F. (2013). Folate Deficiency and Folic Acid Supplementation: The
Prevention of Neural-Tube Defects and Congenital Heart Defects. Nutrients , 5(11), 4760-4775. doi:10.3390/nu5114760
477
Woo, K., Kwok, T., & Celermajer, D. (2014). Vegan Diet, Subnormal Vitamin B-12 Status and Cardiovascular Health.
Nutrients , 6(8), 3259-3273. doi:10.3390/nu6083259
478
Andrès E, Loukili NH, Noel E, et al. Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency in elderly patients. Can Med Assoc J
2004;171:251 9
479
Armelagos, G. J., Sirak, K., Werkema, T., & Turner, B. L. (2014). Analysis of nutritional disease in prehistory: The search
for scurvy in antiquity and today . International Journal of Paleopathology , 5, 9-17. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2013.09.007
480
Palacios, C., & Gonzalez, L. (2014). Is vitamin D deficiency a major global public health problem? The Journal of Steroid
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , 144, 138-145. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.11.003
481
Chen, S., Yu, H., Kao, J., Yang, C., Chiang, S., Mishchuk, D. O., . . . Slupsky, C. M. (2015). Consumption of vitamin D2
enhanced mushrooms is associated with improved bone health. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 26(7), 696-703.
doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2015.01.006
protein and 14% of its daily calories.482 The same amount of calories from broccoli would
contain 62% of one's daily value of protein.483

The issue arises that it takes a much greater quantity of vegetables - some might
say unreasonably large - to meet one's daily caloric needs, and thus people tend to turn to
gain the majority from other caloric sources, such as carbohydrates and fats. However,
even in these cases, protein deficiency is rarely a problem. For example, the classic "carb" -
bread - provides over twice as much of one s daily protein needs as it does one's daily
caloric needs.484 Humans surviving on "bread and water" would not be possible if bread was
devoid of protein provided protein.

In short, consuming sufficient amounts of protein is not problematic for a vegan diet.
However, it is not only protein as a whole that is required, but specific amino acids as well.

Essential amino acids

Beyond basic protein requirements, it is essential that one receive enough of the
constituent amino acids which the human body cannot synthesize. The essential amino
acids are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine,
and in the long term, histidine. In unusual states, some amino acids become conditionally
essential, including arginine, citrulline, ornithine, cysteine, and tyrosine. Taurine's status as
essential is controversial, but appears to at least be essential for pre-term neonates.485

Animal proteins are considered "complete proteins", in that they have a roughly
balanced mixture of amino acids in accordance with human needs, while plant proteins are
usually not as well balanced. However, in practice this is rarely a problem;486 eating different
plant sources of protein tends to cancel out such imbalances, and it is difficult to design a
realistic vegan diet which is deficient in any essential amino acid.487

Many amino acids are also made synthetically. For example, taurine is
unquestionably essential for cats, and can be synthesized from ethanolamine, isethionic
acid, or aziridine. As cooking denatures it, pet foods are typically re-supplemented with
synthetic taurine.488

482
Beef, ground, 80% lean meat / 20% fat, patty, cooked, broiled [hamburger, ground chuck]. SELF Nutrition Data. Retrieved
from http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/beef-products/6204/2
483
Broccoli, frozen, spears, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt. SELF Nutrition Data. Retrieved from
http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/2361/2
484
Bread, whole-wheat, commercially prepared. SELF Nutrition Data. Retrieved from
http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/baked-products/4876/2
485
Laidlaw, S. A., Kopple, J. D. (1987). Newer concepts of the indispensable amino acids . Am J Clin Nutr October 1987 vol.
46 no. 4 593-605
486
Young, V. R., Pellet, P. L. (1994). Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr . PMID:
8172124
487
McDougall, J (2002). Plant foods have a complete amino acid composition. Circulation. DOI:
10.1161/01.CIR.0000018905.97677.1F
488
Tully PS, ed. (2000). Sulfonic Acids . Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
doi:10.1002/0471238961.1921120620211212.a01.
Summary
There exists a natural temptation to allocate land towards as calorie-intensive
agriculture as possible to minimize the required cultivated area and delivery mass. However,
this runs contrary to proper human nutrition. While nutrition can most certainly be maintained
via supplementation, including stocks supplied from Earth, this is a less desirable alternative
to the crew consuming diets that naturally meet their needs.

A healthy vegan diet, with the exception of B12, can be maintained without the use of
any animal products at all. This involves a mixture of whole grains, green leafy vegetables,
legumes, colourful (vitamin A-rich) vegetables, a variety of plant fats, and ideally mushrooms
raised under UV light. In such a case, B12 can be brought from Earth or produced locally via
microbial culture.

That said, a number of nutrients are easier to get via animal sources. Iron in particular
should be given attention if animal sources of food are not available to ensure adequate
absorption. Care also needs to be taken in designing hydroponic solutions such that nutrients
healthy for humans but not required for plant metabolism (such as iodine) are nonetheless
provided.

Nixtamalization of corn (hominy, masa / tortillas, etc) should be given serious

consideration over water-cooked corn, from a number of different nutritional standpoints, as
well as for its use in destroying mycotoxins.489 The required caustics are available onboard
the habitat for a number of industrial processes in which they are regenerated, in addition to
mixed oxide/hydroxide ash being produced in the high temperature incineration of waste.

Agriculture
Growing plants not only provides the most efficient conventional means for nutrient
production for humans, it also forms the basis of feedstocks for animal and fungal-based
food production. In an ideal situation, plant growth also perfectly offsets carbon dioxide
exhalation and produces the perfect amount of oxygen for breathing. In practice, these are
unachievable goals, and industrial scale gas production and waste scrubbing is still required.
490
Nonetheless, human presence offworld will invariably be tied to plants.

Plant growth requirements begin with a substrate for their roots to be anchored in,
where the roots will receive both oxygen and water. The need for oxygen is easy to overlook;
few crop plants can withstand full submersion, and with insufficient oxygen their roots begin
to brown, rot, emit a foul odor, and the plant exhibits symptoms of water deficiency and
ultimately death by dehydration. On Earth, the vast majority of plants are grown in various
soil media; however, even lightweight media tend to amount to significant amounts of mass

489
FAO 1992
490
Among the other problems experienced in Biosphere 2, oxygen levels soared and carbon dioxide levels plummeted during
the daytime, followed by the inverse situation at night. Plant gaseous waste products also soared to problematic levels.
Gases also permeate through the envelope; see Permeation calculations .
and volume on the scale of full-sized farms, as well as increasing the mass needed to
support them. As a consequence, hydroponic systems with locally produced water generally
have the most appeal. Common variants include:491

● Static solution:

Plants grow in containers of nutrient solution,

either aerated, or with the plants suspended above the
solution with a wicking medium, or alternately with intent
for roots to exist near the surface. As a general rule,
non-aerated static solution is only effective for small
plants and plants that tolerate oxygen deficiency.

● Continuous flow :
Static solution raft tank.
Photo: Bryght Knight A continuous film of liquid flows past the plant
roots, thin enough that the roots retain contact with the
air and the liquid stays well oxygenated. The trays
slope continuously downward and may contain
protrusions to help keep the flow even. Trays generally
must be covered to prevent light from reaching the
roots / prevent evaporation, and roots must be
prevented from clogging the channels. Care must be
taken to ensure that water makes it all the way down to
the final plants on the row as the plants grow and their
water needs increase.

● Ebb and flow

Corn growing in a hydroponic trough.
A less sensitive variant of continuous flow, trays
are flooded with a thick film or deep flood of nutrient
solution at periodic intervals, then drained in-between
for aeration. The greater amount of liquid helps ensure
that all roots get thoroughly soaked regardless of level
of growth.

● Aeroponics / fogponics

Rather than bulk or flowing liquid, water is

provided to roots by a nutrient mist or fog, ensuring that
they continually receive both water and oxygen. A large
Inspecting growing roots in an area can be kept moist with a very small amount of
aeroponics system in Israel. nutrient solution, rather than roots having to run along a
Photo: Yaakov Saar
trough or sit in aerated solution.

Of these, aeroponics and ebb and flow seem the most appealing. Static solution
requires bearing large loads, and producing large amounts of solution. Continuous flow is

491
Roberto, K. (2005). How-to hydroponics . Farmingdale, NY: Futuregarden Press.
sensitive to alignment and plant consumption rates. Ebb and flow allows one channel to be
flooded, then the next, then the next, allowing one to use less total liquid and less pumping
capacity (although the peak mass loading per channel is higher than with continuous flow).
By contrast, aeroponics may be challenging in terms of ensuring that fogs can reach the end
of their conduits without fully condensing out; however, if aeroponics could be shown to be
suitable for long (50-100 meter) runs (aka: very fine fogs, large conduits, fast air speeds), it
would allow for lower weight and more root space.

While flexible or segmented / folding hydroponic conduits would be possible, the most
appealing design would be to colocate rollable conduits into rollable trusses. The unified
structure would function as structural support, agricultural channels and walkways all in one.
Rope handrails would ideally be collocated with the trusses. Troughs need to be openable in
order to inspect and clean out roots, particularly in the event of root overgrowth / clogs.
Indeed, trough designs need to be failsafe against clogging events, preventing excessive
accumulation of water. Underneath each trough, extending roughly a meter to each side of
the plants at their maximum size, needs to be plastic sheeting in order to catch plant debris.
As with any area where humans may be regularly working, safety netting needs to be
located underneath.

The level of hygiene to be utilized is an open question. Continuous nutrient solution

sterilization with UV light is simple enough, but it may prove more challenging to sterilize
entire troughs between harvests, whether with UV or disinfectants (see Medicine). On the
other hand, sterilization between harvests appears to increase the risk of pythium root rot by
killing off colonies of competing bacteria.492 A no-sterilization growth approach would be ideal,
but requires experimentation to ensure its viability.

Seeds are typically started in small pieces of semirigid substrate, such as foam. An
initial batch of seeds could be pre-embedded in the habitat for shipment, to sprout as soon as
water is provided; this would allow plants to be sprouted before the crew arrives, reducing
time before the first harvest. Stems and/or roots must be supported.

Climbing plants may need plant clips and supporting cables, or a way to access them
when hanging free. Plants with heavy fruits that normally rest on the ground likewise need
support. Hanging of large, heavy fruits such as pumpkins tends to distort their growth into
elongated shapes.

Some Venus-specific aspects concerning plant growth:

492
Sutton, J. C., Sopher, C. R., Owen-Going, T. N., Liu, W., Grodzinski, B., Hall, J. C., & Benchimol, R. L. (2006). Etiology and
epidemiology of Pythium root rot in hydroponic crops: current knowledge and perspectives. Summa Phytopathologica, 32(4),
307-321. doi:10.1590/s0100-54052006000400001
Phototropism
A curious aspect for plants grown on Venus
would be the effects of phototrophism. Plants control
the direction of their growth by two factors: phototrophy
(growth toward light) and gravitropy (growth against
gravity). While gravitropy exists in a normal manner on
Venus, light comes from all sides on a Venus habitat,
nearly evenly; hence, shade from their neighbors could
encourage growth toward the undersides of the
hydroponic channels as well as the tops. This is would Seedlings near a window growing in the direction
appear to be a good thing; the greater the cross section of the light. Photo: Russell Neches

of light intercepted by plants per unit of agricultural conduit mass, the more mass efficient
agriculture becomes.

Photoperiod
The photoperiod on Venus is variable, depending on the habitat s altitude and latitude,
from nearly a week near the equator to a low, roughly constant light at the poles. As
discussed previously, the VeRa estimate of 48 hours for a ~70° latitude position may be an
optimal compromise between day length/temperature on one hand and light levels / potential
turbulence risk from the polar vortices on the other.

Plants are not adapted to 48 hour photoperiods on earth. Some, such as tomatoes
and potatoes, find long photoperiods injurious. Many, such as strawberries, require specific
photoperiods for fruit set.493 However, it s not such a simple relation. Direct multiples of 24
hours seem more tolerable to photoperiod-sensitive plants than fractional multiples - aka a
36 hour day can actually be worse than a 48 hour day. In such cases it appears that plants
interpret the light levels as if they missed a day .494 495

For problematic plants, light levels can be artificially adjusted. A simple incarnation
would be a hanging solar shade / lighting tent. One set of plants could be shaded during part
of the day while storing energy, while the same or a different set of plants could be lit up for
part of the night. While the amount of energy made available by the lighting would be well
less than the energy of the sunlight that was intercepted by the tent (after account for
photovoltaic, storage and illumination losses), the important factor is not total energy content,
but simulating a proper day length. Since this is mostly an issue for triggering fruiting, a tent
would not need to be a permanent fixture, but could rather be relocated between different
groups of plants at different stages of growth as needed.

493
Wheeler, R. M., Sager, J. C., Prince, R. P., Knott, W. M., Mackowiak, C. M., Stutte, G. W., . . . Goins, G. D. (2003). Crop
Production for Advanced Life Support Systems - Observations From the Kennedy Space Center Breadboard Project. NASA
Kennedy Space Center. doi:Document 20030032422, NASA/TM-2003-211184, NAS 1.15:211184
494
Hsu, J. C., & Hamner, K. C. (1967). Studies of the Involvement of an Endogenous Rhythm in the Photoperiodic Response
of Hyoscyamus niger . Plant Physiology,42(5), 725-730. doi:10.1104/pp.42.5.725
495
Coulter, M. W., & Hamner, K. C. (1964). Photoperiodic Flowering Response of Biloxi Soybean in 72-Hour Cycles . Plant
Physiology, 39(5), 848-856. doi:10.1104/pp.39.5.848
 A further option is the selective breeding of plants for reduced photoperiod sensitivity.
This is in addition to the simplest option, of simply choosing plants which are not photoperiod
sensitive (for example, wheat).

Plant nutrition
In hydroponics, nutrient solutions are generally variants on the Hoagland Solution ,496
which is traditionally comprised of:

Potassium 235 ppm Iron 1-5 ppm

Nitrogen 210 ppm Boron 0.5 ppm
Calcium 200 ppm Manganese 0.5 ppm
Sulfur 64 ppm Zinc 0.05 ppm
Magnesium 48 ppm Copper 0.02 ppm
Phosphorus 31 ppm Molybdenum 0.01 ppm

Nitrogen can be in the form of ammonia or nitrate, but ammonia is harmful in too high
quantities as it hinders the absorption of other cations. Iron typically works best with
chelation, but non-chelated iron would be more suitable in that it does not require the local
production of chelating agents. Silicon is now sometimes added in tiny quantities as a
micronutrient, in the form of sodium silicate. Different types of plants prefer somewhat
different types of solutions, as well as at different stages in their lives, and it would be best to
maintain three or four different tanks of solution.

A common misconception is that the goal of solution management is to maintain a

constant concentration of each nutrient. In practice, nutrients are absorbed at dramatically
different rates from solution, and if rapidly absorbed nutrients are constantly refreshed, their
concentration in plant tissue can become too high. Excess uptake of some well absorbed
nutrients, such as potassium, can cause deficiencies of poorer-absorbed nutrients, such as
calcium. The goal is to ensure that levels of nutrients in the plants remains balanced. Indeed,
it is often easier to measure nutrient levels within plant tissues than within the solution itself,
and adjust the solution based on what nutrients need more or less uptake. This comes with
the caveats that all plants on a given circuit of troughs must have similar nutritional needs
at the same points in their growth cycles. The consequence of this is that different circuits
should be fed by their own tanks. In each case, nitric acid should be added as needed to
keep pH in the 4-7 range).497

On Earth, solution is frequently discarded when it is considered imbalanced. On

Venus, a closed-loop system must be used; there can be no throwing away of nutrients.
Anions are in general easily provided by Venus s atmosphere; however, most cations require
recycling.498 Fractional crystallization can isolate specific salts from a solution concentrate.

496
Hoagland DR, Arnon DI (1950). The Water Culture Method for Growing Plants Without Soil. Calif. Agric. Exp. Stn. Circ ., pp.
39-347.
497
Bugbee, B. (2004). Nutrient Management In Recirculating Hydroponic Culture. Acta Horticulturae, (648), 99-112.
doi:10.17660/actahortic.2004.648.12
498
Bubenheim, D., & Wignarajah, K. (1997). Recycling of inorganic nutrients for hydroponic crop production following
incineration of inedible biomass . Advances in Space Research, 20(10), 2029-2035. doi:10.1016/s0273-1177(97)00937-x
Air pressure
A Venus habitat does not experience the exact same sort of ratios of pressure to
temperature, generally requiring a reduced air pressure to maintain comfortable
temperatures (around 50 kPa, or one-half atmosphere). Thankfully, this works out well for
plants. Plants can survive pressures down to the Armstrong limit (6.3 kPa), and where the
pressure reduction is performed via reduction of nitrogen levels, growth rates are usually
similar to (and sometimes better than) growth rates at atmospheric pressure. Turnip growth
at 50 kPa is similar to at atmospheric pressure. Tomatoes plants grow to similar sizes at 33
kPa as at atmospheric pressure, but with stronger stems. Lettuce grows better at 70 kPa
than atmospheric pressure. Rice only needs 10kPa partial pressure of oxygen to grow
normally. Wheat has been shown to grow better at 20kPa than at atmospheric pressure.
While there are exceptions, such as mung beans, a general trend becomes clear: reduction
in total pressure corresponds to similar or enhanced growth so long as oxygen and carbon
dioxide partial pressures remain constant.499

The reasons for this are not entirely clear, but it appears that reduced pressures
makes it easier to uptake carbon dioxide due to faster diffusion rates. The low pressures
help draw out chemicals such as ethylene from plant tissue. This latter phenomenon has the
side effect of increasing the shelf life of harvested plant products.

The one negative growth effect from reduced pressure growing is that the faster loss
of water vapour tends to triggers a drought response in plants, inducing behavior that can
have negative consequences to their growth. This raises the interesting prospect that with
selective breeding or genetic engineering, even faster growth rates could be achieved for
plants in reduced pressure environments. This is an active topic of research for Martian
greenhouses.500

Transpiration
While transpiration is a normal feature of plant growth, in an enclosed environment it
represents a significant source of humidity. Large enclosed greenhouses tend to experience
high levels of humidity and large amounts of condensation. Habitat designs must include
dehumidification for human comfort and the prevention of excessive condensation / runoff to
the bottom of the envelope. In Biosphere 2, condensation systems had to be designed to
remove 20-40 tonnes of water per day (0.23-0.46 kg/s).501 Condensation systems have the
side benefit (as in Biosphere 2) of producing potable water, thus preventing water from
having to be pumped all the way up from the industrial section at the bottom of the habitat;
the water is distilled in the process.

499
Paul, A., Ferl, R. J. (2006) The Biology of Low Atmospheric Pressure - Implications For Exploration Mission Design and
Advanced Life Support. Gravitational and Space Biology 19(2) August 2006.
500
Greenhouses for Mars . NASA. Published 24 Feb. 2004. Retrieved from
https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/25feb_greenhouses
501
Guo, T., Englehardt, J., & Wu, T. (2014). Review of cost versus scale: water and wastewater treatment and reuse
processes . Water Science & Technology, 69(2), 223. doi:10.2166/wst.2013.734
 To estimate our level of transpiration, we start with some base assumptions: 20°C at
night, 25°C at noon; 55 kPa at night, 45 kPa at noon; 10 crew members; and air with a dry
fraction of 59.9% nitrogen, 40% oxygen, and 0.1% CO 2, with humidity held at 60% (see the
discussion under Climate control). A simple estimation of leaf saturation vapour pressure
(with a night leaf temperature of 19°C, and 30°C at noon) is 2487 Pa at night and 4245 Pa at
noon. Conditions at night are kept constant; daytime conditions are scaled by time of day.

With a variety of plausible assumptions - a diet of 3000 kcal per day, an average of
1.4 kcal/gram of harvest, two harvests per year, and 10.6 tonnes of harvest per hectare - we
arrive at 3691 m² in cultivation. With a leaf area index of 3, the leaf area is 11075 m².

We need to declare some additional parameters relating to the plants. We will

assume a boundary layer diffusion resistance of 1.5 s-atm/cm; a 5x difference between day
and night stomatal diffusion resistance and the stomatal resistance otherwise defined by 0.8
+ 0.02 ( T - 32°C)² s-atm/cm. We can then use following formula to determine transpiration:

kg/s = A * kg/mol * (mol/m³leaf - mol/m³air) / (resistancestomata + resistanceboundary )

… where A is area in square centimeters. From this we derive a nighttime transpiration of

0.051 kg/s; a noon transpiration of 0.513 kg/s; an average transpiration of 0.183kg/s; and an
average 24-hour transpiration of 15.9 tonnes. With an assumed dehumidifier energy factor of
3.1 (1.16MW/kg), this requires 212 kW average power consumption, with a peak at 595 kW.
We do not investigate how dehumidifier energy factors vary based on local (low pressure)
conditions. In considering existing commercial systems, a water generator array designed
0.4kg/s under standard conditions can weigh nearly 17 tonnes.502 It seem unlikely that mass
reduction would bring the system much below 4-5 tonnes.

If a reduced transpiration is desired, the easiest way is to simply let the relative
humidity rise; this also increases the rate of dehumidification. Plant selection and/or breeding
to encourage greater stomatal closure or lower leaf area indices can also lower this figure, as
can higher internal pressures. In the above, we also do not account for food sources other
than plants; the lower the cultivated area, the lower the transpiration rate. However, we also
do not account for other sources of transpiration or evaporation, such as humans, livestock,
aquaculture, or hydroponics channels.

As noted under Climate control, air conditioning can generate significant amounts of
dehumidification - and the water collection rates are more to the point adjustable by varying
the air output temperature. While air conditioning systems are heavier - and air conditioning
power consumption a significant extra over that which must be expended for
dehumidification - it comes with numerous advantages: lower altitude (greater lift, greater
ISRU recovery), greater comfort, a broader range of latitude/altitude combinations, etc. The
decision on the balance of factors for dehumidification and climate control systems thus
requires careful implementation-specific analysis.

502
Large Scale Water Generator . WaterGen. Retrieved from
http://water-gen.com/products/water-from-air/large-scale-water-generator/
 A final note is that we are treating the habitat as a uniform body of air surrounded by
an equal-temperature envelope. In practice, the envelope is large enough to sustain
temperature differentials and convection currents. The interior is hotter than the exterior
environment, and thus hotter than the envelope. The differential is amplified by opacity
variations, such as sections of envelope covered by solar cells.

Condensation from convecting humid air is frequently problematic; it hinders light

transmission, allows for the growth of algae and mold, and can lead to water accumulation in
unwanted areas. However, properly managed, condensation could be encouraged to drip
onto catenary curtains, thus onto support cables, and ultimately to be collected in the
hydroponics channels. The greater the ratio of saturation pressures between the cold and
warm air, the more passive dehumidification will occur.

Mushrooms
As decomposers, mushrooms can rapidly
convert inedible waste plant matter into edible material,
and in effect increase the mass efficiency of agriculture.
The amount of area needed per unit production is also
small, allowing them to be collocated in a large kitchen.
A few caveats should be mentioned:

● Mushroom type: Many commonly consumed

mushrooms, such as button mushrooms, are
secondary decomposers, and require a Small-scale oyster mushroom cultivation.
substrate that has already undergone proper Photo: Rudi Ardiansyah

decomposition from a primary decomposer. This is a mass and complexity cost that
is difficult to justify. Primary decomposers, such as oyster mushrooms, can
decompose plant matter directly, and need only be feed a continuous new supply to
grow new productive mycelium.503

● Enclosed environment: Most mushrooms grow best in high humidity environments.

Additionally, high density mushroom cultivation poses a risk for mushroom worker's
lung among people who work with them (excessive spore inhalation causing
hypersensitivity pneumonitis).504 Hence mushrooms should be grown in sealed
systems with air filters embedded.

● UV light: Mushrooms do not require light to grow. However, the addition of UV light
during the growth process has been shown to dramatically increase levels of vitamin
D in mushrooms; hence, embedded UV LEDs could significantly improve crew
nutrition.505

503
Sharma, S. (2012). Advances in fungal biotechnology . New Delhi: Random Publications.
504
Mori, S., Nakagawa-Yoshida, K., Tsuchihashi, H., Koreeda, Y., Kawabata, M., Nishiura, Y., . . . Osame, M. (1998).
Mushroom worker's lung resulting from indoor cultivation of Pleurotus osteatus . Occupational Medicine, 48(7), 465-468.
505
Chen, S., Yu, H., Kao, J., Yang, C., Chiang, S., Mishchuk, D. O., . . . Slupsky, C. M. (2015). Consumption of vitamin D2
enhanced mushrooms is associated with improved bone health. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 26(7), 696-703.
doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2015.01.006
Animal products

General philosophical issues

To many people, incorporation of animal products into meals is critical to quality of
life. Being deprived of eggs, dairy, and/or meat is like punishment. As part of the success or
failure of a Venus colony depends on it being an appealing place to live, this is an issue that
should not be ignored.

To many other people, however, moral or religious issues strongly conflict with this.
Pescatarians will consume fish, eggs, and dairy, but not meat from land animals.
Vegetarians do not consume any meat. Vegans do not consume any animal products. For
people with a moral or religious objection to the killing of animals, having to live in a place
where animals are being slaughtered - perhaps animals that they interact with and have
formed a bond with - would range from disconcerting to traumatic.

This could, of course, be addressed with crew selection - whether via a formal
selection process or self-selection. One could make it clear that there will be no meat
production, and thus artificially select those who do not feel a need for it and//or are morally
opposed to it. One could contrarily make it clear that there will be meat production, and thus
artificially select in the other direction. In short, the moral/personal viewpoints of mission
planners could dictate to future colonists how their lives should be and what sort of person
should live there.

We can, however, examine the issue purely on its technical merits. Are livestock
logical, from a mass / productivity perspective? It s an easy argument to make; many types
of livestock can consume inedible plant waste, and from that can be produced food that
provides nutrition that can be difficult to acquire from other sources. But this only applies up
to a point; agricultural waste quantities are limited. Eggs and milk are more efficient than
meat production from a feed mass perspective, and particularly from the perspective of
space requirements. This would seem to argue for raising a limited amount of livestock,
maximizing their time in production of milk and eggs, and then slaughtering them when they
are no longer productive, yielding only small amounts of meat.

Ultimately, however, when it comes to moral issues, it s the people affected by them
who should be making the decisions. If people on Venus wish to allocate their resources
toward one thing or another, or make calorically / nutritionally suboptimal decisions, to a large
extent that should be their decision to make. It seems reasonable to give people options in
how to feed themselves, but leave it up to them to decide what is appropriate. If colonists
wish to keep unproductive animals around to the natural end of their lives, or not harvest any
animal products at all from them and treat them as pets, that should be their choice. If they
want to raise animals in excess for slaughter, that should likewise be their decision. The only
critical aspect is that the decisionmaking process be done in a manner that prevents strife to
the greatest extent possible. Potential colonists should be encouraged to discuss this and
any other moral issues with other existing and future colonists before travel, and as much as
possible, have decisions within a given habitat made by consensus.

All animals should be sent as the smallest breeds available to simplify environmental
management and food needs en route to Venus. Once at the habitat, animals can be
backbred to larger sized breeds using frozen sperm or embryos.

Where eggs and milk are the primary goal, sex selection is an option. For highly
accurate sex selection, IVF is an option, albeit with high labour. For lower labour options,
sperm can be sexed with over 90% accuracy (in the case of cattle) via flow cytometry,
where sperm are stained with a fluorescent DNA-staining dye and then run through a
selection gate based on how much they fluoresce.506 All selection labour can be done on
Earth.

Eggs
Birds can be brought as unhatched eggs in an incubator plus a secondary pen, as the
incubator would be desirable in the habitat regardless. The younger the birds are at takeoff,
the less physical resources they will consume in transit.

While any bird can be a source of eggs, only a relatively small number are used
commercially to any meaningful extent. In the below table, feeds are assumed to be high
caloric / grain based, for comparison purposes. Ostriches and emus are omitted due to size
reasons.

General data
Adult Peak eggs / Egg Feed / Natural Matur. Life span Min. pen Pen height
Type
mass (kg) day mass (g) day (g) diet (wks) (y) area (m²) (m)
Chicken 1.1 0.75 58 81 Mixed 20 8 0.13 0.4
Duck 2.1 0.75 60 ~170 Green 21 10 0.23 0.6
Goose 3.25 0.57 125 ~195 Green 37 20 0.23 0.8
Quail 0.15 0.78 11 25 Seed 7 2.5 0.023 0.16
Turkey 10.6 0.4 86 290 Mixed 28 3 0.46 1.3
Guinea Fowl 1.7 0.47 45 90 Protein 37 12.5 0.3 0.5
Partridge 0.4 0.11 17 35 Seed 9 10 0.1 0.3
Pheasant 1.2 0.14 32 50 Mixed 27 8 0.3 0.4

Nutrition per gram of egg 507

Egg type kcal Protein (g) Fat (g) Folate (μg) B12 (μg) A (IU)
Chicken 1.43 0.126 0.099 0.47 0.013 4.87
Duck 1.85 0.128 0.124 0.80 0.054 6.74
Goose 1.85 0.139 0.133 0.76 0.051 6.50
Quail 1.58 0.131 0.111 0.76 0.016 5.43
Turkey 1.35 0.137 0.111 0.66 0.016 5.43

506
Garner, D. L., Evans, K. M., & Seidel, G. E. (2012). Sex-Sorting Sperm Using Flow Cytometry/Cell Sorting. Methods in
Molecular Biology Spermatogenesis, 279-295. doi:10.1007/978-1-62703-038-0_26
507
(2014) SELF Nutrition Data. Conde Nast.
Nutrition per kilogram animal mass per day
Egg type kcal Protein (g) Fat (g) Folate (μg) B12 (μg) A (IU)
Chicken 53 4.7 4.7 17.3 0.45 180
Duck 39 2.7 2.7 17.1 1.16 144
Goose 41 3.1 2.9 16.8 1.13 144
Quail 90 7.5 6.4 37.8 0.92 311
Turkey 4.4 0.4 0.3 1.8 0.04 14

Nutrition per kilogram feed

Egg type kcal Protein (g) Fat (g) Folate (μg) B12 (μg) A (IU)
Chicken 717 63 50 236 6.5 2440
Duck 490 34 33 212 14 1780
Goose 682 51 49 280 19 2400
Quail 542 45 38 227 5.5 1860
Turkey 160 16 11 67 1.5 520

Before we do a species breakdown, some generalities. While the natural diets of

species vary, most species raised commercially are fed diets that are predominantly
energy-rich grains, as this reaches mature weight as fast as possible and maximizes laying
rates. This, however, has two disadvantages. First, grain-fed birds usually lay eggs that lack
some of the nutrition of those fed greens and insects; such wild feeds can result in over an
order of magnitude higher omega-3 fatty acid levels.508 509 Secondly, grains are not a waste
product on a Venus colony; one of the primary advantages of livestock is their ability to take
wastes and convert them into food.

At least in the beginning, enriched cages

would likely be optimal housing. Enriched cages
separate hens and eggs from waste, provide perching
and dust bathing, automatic egg collection, and more
room for hens versus traditional battery cages. They
provide a combination of high density / ease of
maintenance without compromising humane living
conditions. As additional habitat space becomes
available, colonists can choose whether to allocate
more space for free range style living conditions. Top Six-cage enriched system. Photo: F. Bailey
Norwood
netting will, however, be required in any situation.

Considering each species individually:

● Chickens:
While many breeds are available, only a few breeds
have been highly optimized. For our purposes, the bantam
508
Speake, B. K., Murray, A. M., & Noble, R. C. (1998). Transport and transformations of yolk lipids during development of
the avian embryo. Progress in Lipid Research, 37(1), 1-32. doi:10.1016/s0163-7827(97)00012-x
509
Speake, B. K., Surai, P. F., Noble, R. C., Beer, J. V., & Wood, N. A. (1999). Differences in egg lipid and antioxidant
composition between wild and captive pheasants and geese. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B:
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 124(1), 101-107. doi:10.1016/s0305-0491(99)00108-x
 leghorn appears best, having similar feed conversion and
mass ratios as the full-size leghorn, but with a much smaller
size; bantam genes are being used to improve feed
conversion of full-sized birds.510 Chickens dominate the egg
industry for a reason; they have been highly optimized with
excellent feed conversion ratios. Their eggs, however, aren t
as nutritious as those of waterfowl, and hens are known for
Mature bantam (left) vs. 9 week old
full leghorn. Photo: Terry Golson
random behavioral issues. Light control helps prevent feather
pecking and cannibalism.511 Roosters are famously loud; hens
● Ducks: are quieter.

We choose for analysis the khaki campbell, a small,

quiet species of duck that is an excellent layer. As a waterfowl
species, it tends to lay highly nutritious eggs. The record
number of eggs per year for any bird species is held by a
khaki campbell, who laid one every day for an entire year;
ducks can mature an egg in 24 hours, faster than a chicken
Khaki campbell. can, and lay at the same time every day.512 Ducks are also
Photo: Valencia Marky
better tempered than chickens. Daily feed ranges for ducks
● Geese: are broad, ranging from 125-230 g/day;513 514 this in part
reflects the nutrition density (typically, grain content) of the
feed.

Only one species of goose lays large numbers of large

eggs per year - Anser cygnoides , the Swan Goose. They are
however not in widespread use for egg production, and not
very refined; laying rates vary by half an order of magnitude
(we choose a median figure for the breed Huoyan ).515 Their
Anser cygnoides / Swan geese. general statistics are reasonably good, but not as good as
Photo: 4028mdk09
ducks, and their temperaments are more varied. One arguable
● Quail: advantage is their long productive lifespans.

Quail have outstanding egg production relative to their

tiny sizes. This is tempered by their moderate feed conversion
ratios and the fact that they are not adapted to consume diets
of greenery.

Bowl of quail eggs.

Photo: Fach Lectorat

510
Parkinson, G. B., Cransberg, P. H. (2006) Evaluation of a bantam cross egg layer . Proceedings of the 18th Australian
Poultry Science Symposium, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, 20-22 February 2006
511
Jacob, J. (2015) Feather Pecking and Cannibalism in Small and Backyard Poultry Flocks . Extension.
512
Walbert, D (2008). Khaki Campbell egg production. The New Agrarian.
513
Duck Management Guide. Central Poultry Development Organization (Southern Region). Hesserghatta, Bangalore.
514
Meulen, S. J., & Dikken, G. D. (2004). Duck keeping in the tropics . Wageningen: Agromisa Foundation.
515
Buckland, R. B., & Guy, G. (2002). Goose production. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
 ● Turkeys:

Not commonly marketed, turkey eggs represent

neither good feed conversion ratios nor utilization of space,
and the large size of turkeys is a disadvantage for shipping.
Their eggs are relatively poor in nutrition and harder to open.
Turkeys are mainly raised for their meat; eggs could be a
Turkey egg. Photo: Jason Hollinger
potential byproduct of this.
● Guinea fowl:

No egg-laying statistics related to guinea fowl are

particularly outstanding. They can be noisy. Their natural diet,
rich in insects rather than greenery, makes them a suboptimal
choice for conversion of agricultural waste.
Helmeted guineafowl. Photo: Ken
Goulding

● Partridge, pheasant:
Neither partridges nor pheasants represent good
sources of eggs, primarily due to the low numbers of eggs
laid per year. No nutritional information on their eggs is
available.

Red-legged partridge. Photo: Pierre Dalous

From this, it appears that quail, with their tiny size and superb laying rate, would be an
excellent starter bird for egg production, fed with seeds from fruit and vegetables that
humans find undesirable or inedible. For larger-scale egg production in the future, however,
any combination of leghorns and khaki campbells would be optimal, with the former fed
predominantly from waste greenery, and the latter entirely so. Other breeds in the future can
be backbred from shipments of frozen semen or eggs as desired.

Dairy
The same backbreeding and transport-as-young principles that applies to laying birds
apply equally to dairy livestock. This may be more important due to the dramatically larger
sizes. Indeed, the size of dairy animals and their high rates of waste production make proper
pen design important; it should be easy to shovel waste into collection troughs for either
incineration/cation recovery or reuse as feed in aquaculture. Preventing unintentional falls of
such large animals, or their waste, implies very secure pens and overhead netting. Where
offspring are not desired, hormone treatment can induce milk production (demonstrated in
cattle, expected to be viable in other species).516

Adult Liters Milking days Gestation Concentr. Dry matter Matur. Life Min. pen
Type
mass (kg) / day / gestation period (d) kg/day kg/day (wks) span (y) area (m²)
Goat 35 2 305 150 0.6 1 51 10 0.9
Sheep 50 1.4 210 150 1.5 2.2 65 11 1.3
Cow 280 12 300 280 1.7 6 113 18 7
Water Buffalo 550 8 280 320 3.8 5 120 25 12
Yak 250 3 168 260 1.5 7 190 22 6
Camel 350 6 Years 410 0 10 235 45 12
Alpaca 55 0.8 245 345 0 1.5 61 20 1.5
Horse 25 0.6 183 345 0.4 0.4 60 40 0.6
Donkey 90 0.9 200 365 1.3 0.6 105 30 2.3
Reindeer 60 0.4 170 215 0 2.8 95 20 1.6

Concentrate and dry matter are based on typical lactation feeds; a decrease in
concentrates (fats, protein, carbohydrates) will correspond with a decrease in milk yields.
The above table is far from comprehensive; other species that have been used for milk
production include zebra, elk, moose, llama, pig, mithun and musk ox, among others. As
with laying birds, breeds have been chosen for combinations of small size and high
productivity. Nutritional content varies significantly between types of milk:

Nutrition per 100g 517 518 519

Type kcal Protein (g) Fat (g) Lactose (g) B12 (μg) Calcium (mg) Notes
Short-chain fatty acids
Goat 119 4.9 8 6.8 0.10 201 Easy to digest
Sheep 100 5.6 6.4 5.1 0.71 197 Efficient for cheese
80% of world production
Cow 62 3.3 3.3 4.7 0.36 122 Easy to process
Used in mozzarella
Water Buffalo 99 4 7.5 4.4 0.4 112 Easy to process
Yak 82 3.5 5.8 3.9 - - Easy to process
30x more vitamin C vs. cow s
Camel 64 3.1 3.2 4.3 0.2 115 milk; antibiotic; difficult to process.
Alpaca 67 5.8 5.1 5.6 - 195 Calcium figure from llamas
Horse 48 2 1.6 6.6 - 133 Similar to human milk
Donkey 37 1.6 0.7 6.4 - 68 Similar to human milk
Reindeer 184 10.4 16.1 2.9 - - Easy to process

516
Magliaro, A., Kensinger, R., Ford, S., O Connor, M., Muller, L., & Graboski, R. (2004). Induced Lactation in Nonpregnant
Cows: Profitability and Response to Bovine Somatotropin. Journal of Dairy Science, 87(10), 3290-3297.
doi:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(04)73465-7
517
Muehlhoff, E., Anthony, B., Deirdre, M. (2013) Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
518
Barłowska, J., Szwajkowska, M., Litwińczuk, Z., & Król, J. (2011). Nutritional Value and Technological Suitability of Milk
from Various Animal Species Used for Dairy Production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 10(6),
291-302. doi:10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00163.x
519
(2014) SELF Nutrition Data. Conde Nast.
Nutrition per kilogram animal mass per day
Type mL kcal Protein (g) Fat (g) Lactose (g) B12 (μg) Calcium (mg)
Goat 48 53 2.2 3.6 3.0 0.04 90
Sheep 16 15 0.86 0.98 0.78 0.11 30
Cow 20 12 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.07 23
Water Buffalo 11 10 0.41 0.78 0.46 0.04 11
Yak 5.5 5.4 0.28 0.37 0.26 - -
Camel 11 5.3 0.29 0.3 0.4 0.02 10.9
Alpaca 8.9 6.5 0.53 0.47 0.52 - 18
Horse 12 5.3 0.22 0.18 0.73 - 15
Donkey 3.8 1.2 0.05 0.02 0.21 - 2.2
Reindeer 3.8 7.7 0.41 0.64 0.11 - -
● Concentrates treated as requiring 25% more animal mass vs. dry forage

Nutrition per kilogram dry forage

Type Liters kcal Protein (g) Fat (g) Lactose (g) B12 (μg) Calcium (mg)
Goat 0.4 442 19 28 30 0.4 741
Sheep 0.34 208 12 13 11 1.5 409
Cow 1.3 430 23 23 33 2.5 847
Water Buffalo 0.8 641 26 49 29 2.6 726
Yak 0.29 160 8.3 11 7.7 - -
Camel 0.58 193 11 11 15 0.69 398
Alpaca 0.43 261 21 19 21 - 718
Horse 0.67 165 6.7 5.5 23 - 457
Donkey 0.32 61 2.6 1.2 11 - 112
Reindeer 0.11 166 8.8 2.5 2.5 - -
● Concentrates treated as yielding 25% more milk vs. dry forage

By species:

● Goats
Goat milk has a good nutritional profile except for
B12, which is unfortunately poor. Our data here is for the
Nigerian Dwarf, an AA-genotype (little to no goaty odour to
the milk)520 variety with an unusually high butterfat content.
Milking periods are long, daily production large, and fecundity
is high, with 2-5 kids per kidding and less than a year to
maturity. Nigerian dwarfs are often raised as pets and are
renowned for having a good temperament. The West African
Nigerian dwarf goat and kids. Dwarf is smaller (20-25 kg) but not as efficient of a milk
Photo: Woodland Trails Farm
producer, so the benefit of elevated milk production probably
justifies avoiding the backbreeding delay. As with all goat
breeds, bucks have a strong "animal smell" to them.521

520
Barłowska, J., Szwajkowska, M., Litwińczuk, Z., & Król, J. (2011). Nutritional Value and Technological Suitability of Milk
from Various Animal Species Used for Dairy Production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 10(6),
291-302. doi:10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00163.x
521
Starbard, A. (2015). The dairy goat handbook: for backyard, homestead, and small farm. Minneapolis, MN: Voyageur
Press.
 ● Sheep
While the sheep data is for the awassi,522 the
ouessant would make a better transport species, at 30% the
size (50kg vs. ~13-16kg); the latter is the smallest sheep
breed on Earth.523 However, the ouessant is a poor dairy
breed, so it's a question of how fast one wishes to get
production online vs. minimizing transport mass.
Crossbreeds may be able to yield the best benefits of each.
Awassi ram. Photo: Steven Walling

Sheep milk has a superb nutritional profile including,

opposite to goats, large amounts of B12. It additionally
provides particularly high yields in cheesemaking. Significant
variability is reported in Awassi milk production levels.524

Ouessant sheep. Photo: Eponimm

● Cows Miniature cows generally produce roughly the same

milk to body mass ratio with similar or better feed conversion
as their full-size counterparts, at ⅓ to ½ the mass.525 Zebus
(a meat breed) are even smaller. The major dairy breeds,
such as Holsteins and Jerseys, each have miniature
variants; Jerseys are somewhat lighter/better feed
conversion with a longer productive life.526 Cow milk has the
best creaming rate (formation of a fat layer on the surface).
527
The nutritional profile is average. Even as a miniature, a
Miniature jersey cow. Photo (crop): 280kg (adult mass) ruminant would still represent a
Hatchet Cove Farm
significant transportation cost. Mini jersey bulls have
● Yak unusually good temperament.528

While proving a fairly nutrient dense, easy-to-process

milk, a yak's 2 l/day milk production does not justify its large
size; indeed, on Earth active breeding programmes exist to
improve Yak production by crossbreeding with cattle.529 That
said, the ability to breed with cattle would allow for
backbreeding if desired.
Yak in Tajikistan. Photo: Ekrem Canli

522
Shoenian, S (2007). Sheep 101. Retrieved from http://www.sheep101.info/breeds.html
523
Glenday, C., Delgado, A., Montsech, D., Miciulevicius, G., & Soms, R. (2015). Guinness world records 2016. Barcelona:
Planeta Pub Corp.
524
Epstein, H. (1985). The Awassi sheep with special reference to the improved dairy type. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
525
Roth, A. The Many Benefits of Miniature Cows . Modern Farmer. 15 June 2006.
526
Capper, J., & Cady, R. (2012). A comparison of the environmental impact of Jersey compared with Holstein milk for
cheese production. Journal of Dairy Science,95(1), 165-176. doi:10.3168/jds.2011-4360
527
Barłowska, J., Szwajkowska, M., Litwińczuk, Z., & Król, J. (2011). Nutritional Value and Technological Suitability of Milk
from Various Animal Species Used for Dairy Production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 10(6),
291-302. doi:10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00163.x
528
Guide to Miniature Cattle Breeds for Your Small Modern Homesteading Farm. Modern Homesteading.
529
Park, Y. W., Haenlein, G. F., & Wendorff, W. L. (2017). Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals . Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons.
 ● Water buffalo
Like sheep's milk, buffalo milk provides a high yield in
cheese production. The nutritional profile is similar to cow's
milk, but with significantly greater amounts of milkfat.
However, the large size and shortage of dwarf breeds
makes them a generally inferior transport option. They
cannot be backbred from cattle directly,530 but as a closely
related species, an embryo could likely be carried using a
Murrah water buffalo.
Photo: Kleo Marlo cow as a surrogate. One advantage of water buffalo is that
they are slightly more efficient at converting fibre than cattle.
● Horses 531

Like other equids, mare s milk is relatively

nutrition-poor milk (2g protein / 100g, 1.6g fat /100g), more
similar in composition to human milk.532 While this is often
thought of as desirable from a health perspective, it is less
so from a nutrient conversion perspective. While horses are
generally thought of as large animals, some breeds can
Falabella miniature mare and colt.
reach surprisingly small sizes; the falabella is the smallest
Photo: Jono Bacon
breed, with an average mature size of 18-45 kg.533
● Donkeys

Miniature mediterranean / Sardinian donkeys have

the smallest adult sizes, with the Asinara variety weighing
only 80-90kg.534 While donkeys can t be backbred from
horses (mules and hinnies generally being sterile), a horse
could potentially be a surrogate. However, donkey milk is
particularly nutrient poor (even compared to horse milk), and
Sardinian donkeys. Photo: JLAN production rates are even lower - making them of relatively
little interest from a waste conversion perspective.
● Camels

Dromedaries, being better milk producers than

bactrians, are considered here. Camel milk has a fairly
typical nutritional profile except for one factor: vitamin C is
highly elevated, 30 times greater than cow's milk. However,
this benefit is of relatively little utility, as agriculture makes
vitamin C easy to acquire. Camels can be milked for

530
Patil, S., & Totey, S. (2003). Developmental failure of hybrid embryos generated by in vitro fertilization of water buffalo
(Bubalus bubalis) oocyte with bovine spermatozoa. Molecular Reproduction and Development, 64(3), 360-368.
doi:10.1002/mrd.10269
531
(2015) Buffalo: Feeding. Animal Husbandry . TNAU Agritech Portal.
532
Park, Y. W., Haenlein, G. F., & Wendorff, W. L. (2017). Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals . Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons.
533
Falabella Breed Information. Horse Breeds List. Retrieved from http://horsebreedslist.com/horse-breeds/49/falabella
534
Porter, V. (2016) Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding.
 protracted lengths of time after calving. Camel milk is poor
for cheesemaking.535 Their large size makes them
impractical to transport, although they can be backbred from
the much smaller new-world camelids (llama, alpaca,
guanaco, vicuña). An adult Vicuña averages only 35-65 kg,
vs. 450-540 kg for a dromedary.536 The cama, a camel-llama
hybrid, is smaller than either camels or llamas, at 50-70 kg.
Camels consume particularly poor-quality forms of forage
Kenyan herders milking a dromedary. (including thorny and salty plants), and have low feed
Photo: ILRI
requirements; in times of shortage they can survive for
● Alpacas months on as little as 2 kg dry matter per day.537

Alpacas are the second smallest camelid (after the

wild vicuña). Alpaca milk has a very high protein
concentration - both in comparison to other camelids, and in
general.538 New World camelids are only rarely used for milk
production (being more popular for wool), but the available
data suggests good conversion rates.539 540 Dwarf breeds
are only slightly smaller than full size breeds, < 55kg vs.
Photo: Christophe Meneboeuf 70kg.541

● Reindeer

Reindeer milk (popular among arctic peoples) is

exceptionally rich, three times higher in protein vs. cow s
milk, five times higher in fat, and easy to process. However,
lactation rates are very low, rendering it difficult to justify the
animal's moderate size.542 Females of the the smallest
subspecies, the Svalbard reindeer, reach around 53-70 kg at
Milking reindeer, Tsaata Village. maturity.543 Moose milk is similar to reindeer milk, although
Photo: François-Olivier Dommergues
not as rich, and not as extensively utilized.

In summary, goats seem an easy choice to start out dairy production, offering good
feed conversion and outstanding production levels relative to their low body mass. They eat
a diverse diet, and nigerian dwarfs are popular as pets. However, B12 production is low, and
if bucks are to be raised, odour would dictate locating livestock pens well away from crew
areas. Sheep by contrast yield large amounts of B12, but yields are lower, and the optimal

535
Barłowska et al 2011.
536
Kindersley, Dorling (2005). Animal The Definitive Visual Guide to the World’s Wildlife. pp. 236 237. ISBN 0-7894-7764-5.
537
Yagil, R. (1982). Camels and Camel Milk . Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-101169-9
538
Parraguez, V.H., Thénot, M., Latorre, E., Ferrando, G, Raggi, L.A. (2003) Milk Composition in Alpaca (Lama Pacos):
Comparative Study in Two Regions of Chile. Arch. Zootec. 52: 431-439
539
Leyva, V., Markas, J. (1991) Involucion de la glandula mamaria en alpacas y efecto sobre el peso corporal y produccion
de fibra. Turrialba. 41:59-63.
540
Vaughan, J. Feeding Alpacas to Maximize Their Reproductive Potential. CRIA Genesis.
541
Miniature Alpaca. Tanglewood Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.tanglewoodfoundation.org/miniature-alpacas.html
542
Park, Y. W., Haenlein, G. F., & Wendorff, W. L. (2017). Handbook of milk of non-bovine mammals . Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons.
543
Pedersen, Å. Ø. Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) . Norwegian Polar Institute.
shipping method requires backbreeding or the creation of new miniature dairy breeds. Many
other species have points to argue in their favour, although some such as yaks and donkeys
would be difficult to justify.

As processing of many dairy products involves aging under controlled temperature

and humidity conditions, the refrigeration system in the kitchen must allow for both
temperature and humidity control, ideally with multiple, individually-adjusted compartments.
Cheesemaking requires small amounts of rennet and/or other products; these can be
provided from Earth, or harvested; rennet can be produced either from carcases or via
microbial culture. Without rennet, simple cheeses can be produced from almost any acid,
including citric acid (ex. paneer), tartaric acid (ex. mascarpone), and vinegar (ex. ricotta).

Meat
Regardless of crew actions, meat is inherently generated by the process of raising
animals, in that if not slaughtered they will eventually die a natural death and thus be a
potential source of meat. If the crew is not opposed to slaughter, this can at times be the
nutrition-optimal solution, such as when an animal's productivity has declined and more
efficient feed conversion can be achieved by their replacement with a younger animal. And of
course, given sufficient space and feed, animals can be raised with the specific intent of
maximizing growth for slaughter. It falls on the crew to decide what they are comfortable
with.

In the first two cases, however, it can be demonstrated that the amount of meat
produced is very small. We will look at how much meat will be produced per crew member if
livestock experience a linear increase in mass up to maturity and produce eggs or milk for
30% of their natural lifespan.

# to produce 250 kcal/day Total living

Days to first Production Meat, g/day
Type egg or milk per crew animal mass
production days per crew
(mature and immature) (kg)
Chicken 5.4 140 877 5.5 5.4
Duck 3.6 147 1096 7.2 5.8
Goose 2.2 259 2191 6.8 2.8
Quail 23.5 49 274 3.3 10
Turkey 10.6 196 329 91 174
Goat 0.54 360 1096 16 11
Sheep 0.52 458 1205 22 14
Cow 0.12 793 1972 30 11
Water Buffalo 0.07 839 2739 32 8.9
● Edible carcass mass taken at 50% of live animal mass

As can be seen, with the exception of turkeys, the production of sizeable amounts of
milk and eggs yields only small amounts of meat, even with slaughter. The reason for the
exception in the case of turkeys is due to their nature of very poor producers of eggs, and
thus requiring large amounts of animal mass (and correspondingly large feed consumption).
 If more meat is desired from traditional sources, it must be specifically raised as
such. However, it quickly becomes apparent that significantly greater amounts of feed and
space will be required, even if the process (breeds, feeding) is optimized for meat rather than
dairy or eggs. Contrarily, lab-grown meat is rapidly reaching maturity, and startups are
seeking to scale up for consumer sales.544 Lab-grown meat is efficiently produced and
provides no moral qualms. However, its feedstocks must be carefully controlled, rather than
being a way to convert agricultural waste.

Aquaculture
Tanks loaded with water can be heavy, but when empty, fibre-reinforced tanks need
not be. Aquaculture can be fed by several means, including algae / aquatic plant growth,
agricultural waste, and in some cases animal waste. The latter is a common, albeit
controversial practice in tilapia farming in China, and can provide for a portion of their diet at
the cost of contamination and odour concerns.545

Aquatic phototrophs tend to have high

photosynthetic efficiency.546 Fish production can
be in the same tankage as algae, yielding a low
fish density. At 75g/m²/day algae growth
(accounting for elevated light and easily boosted
CO 2), and with mature tilapia consuming 4% of
their body mass per day, growing ~3g/day (450g
body mass),547 each square meter of
clear-bottomed fish pond produces 12.5 grams of
meat per day. In-situ production requires
High density tilapia farming in California. Photo: Torti
inaccessible areas for algae/plants to shelter to Tude
prevent overgrazing.

Conversely, fish can be raised in a setup separating high density fish farming from
algae cultivation. The latter has been investigated for use on Mars.548 The net mass of fish
production in either algae-based system is limited primarily by the amount of light falling on
the water. High density systems, while preventing overgrazing and being more convenient,
require more careful environmental control to ensure proper oxygenation and removal of

544
Hafner, J. (2017, March 16). Lab-grown chicken strips, made from animal cells, debuted by startup. USA Today .
545
Brown, C. L., Yang, T., Fitzsimmons, K., & Bolivar, R. B. (2014). The Value of Pig Manure as a Source of Nutrients for
Semi-Intensive Culture of Nile Tilapia in Ponds (A Review) . Agricultural Sciences, 05(12), 1182-1193.
doi:10.4236/as.2014.512128
546
Dismukes, G. C., Carrieri, D., Bennette, N., Ananyev, G. M., & Posewitz, M. C. (2008). Aquatic phototrophs: efficient
alternatives to land-based crops for biofuels . Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 19(3), 235-240.
doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2008.05.007
547
Lim, C. (2008). Tilapia: biology, culture, and nutrition. New York: Food Products Press.
548
Muller, M. S., Bauer, C. F.. Oxygen Consumption of Tilapia and Preliminary Mass Flows through a Prototype Closed
Aquaculture System. NASA-TM-111882
 wastes, as well as a method of supplying algae from
their growth pond. Aeration is generally not required
for low density cultivation.

Collection of certain algae (notably laver,

also chlorella), even without the raising of fish, can
provide a vegan source of B12. This requires
filtering, drying, and depending on the species of
algae potentially further processing to render it edible
NASA / ARC tilapia aquacultire experiment
or extract the B12 as a supplement.549

Algae/water plant ponds and low-density fish

ponds can be used for swimming, so long as animal
waste is not used in the process. Algae ponds can
provide enrichment and potentially nutrition for
waterfowl such as ducks and geese, although access
to water is in no way a requirement.

As a general rule, aquatic species of interest Edible sea lettice sometimes coats beaches.
cannot be transported as cryopreserved eggs or Photo: Thesupermat

embryos (sperm cryopreservation is not a problem). There are exceptions - for example,
salmonid eggs have been successfully cryopreserved,550 but these are predominantly
carnivorous species and thus inefficient for production. Despite much work, egg
cryopreservation has not been achieved with common farmed vegetarian species such as
tilapia.551 However, most aquatic species demonstrate a useful property, in that when
environmental conditions are poor, rather than dying, they exhibit little to no growth. This
enables shipment of young in tiny volumes without significant growth during transit.

As an example, we look at the case of

tilapia. Red tilapia fingerlings grow from 1
gram to 225 grams at 28°C, but simply by
reducing the temperature to 22°C they reach
only around 30 grams in the same timeperiod.
Rate of growth also depends strongly on
feeding. Just to reach 1 gram size in ideal
conditions takes approximately 4 weeks for
tilapia - far longer in suboptimal conditions.
Even in some real-world growth tests not
Tilapia fingerlings. Photo: Goldentilapia.com LLC
designed to minimize growth, the 4-week size

549
Watanabe, F., Yabuta, Y., Bito, T., & Teng, F. (2014). Vitamin B12-Containing Plant Food Sources for Vegetarians .
Nutrients, 6(5), 1861-1873. doi:10.3390/nu6051861
550
Rall, W. F. (1993). Advances in the Cryopreservation of Embryos and Prospects for Application to the Conservation of
Salmonid Fishes. Genetic Conservation of Salmonid Fishes, 137-158. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-2866-1_10
551
Poleo, G. A., Godke, R. R., & Tiersch, T. R. (2005). Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection Using Cryopreserved, Fixed, and
Freeze-dried Sperm in Eggs of Nile Tilapia. Marine Biotechnology, 7(2), 104-111. doi:10.1007/s10126-004-0162-5
can be as little as 100mg. Eggs are hatched 650-1350 per liter in small systems. In short,
keeping significant numbers of tilapia small during a long transit should be readily achievable
by the use of diet restriction and temperature reduction.552

We will not go into an exhaustive list of species for aquaculture (including fish,
shellfish, crustaceans, etc), only to note that all species utilized should be efficient grazers
and/or detritivores. Species already well established for aquaculture should be used such
that the details concerning their rearing are well understood. For example, with tilapia, it is
important that either all fish in the primary tank be males, or that harvesting is done before
the fish reach maturity; otherwise, they will breed in the primary tank, which has the effect of
creating many small fish that eat disproportionately much compared to their body mass but
stand no chance of reaching adulthood. A secondary hatching/fingerling tank setup - ideally
that which they were transported to the habitat in - is required for breeding.

Apiculture
Generally unthinkable from the perspective of an early-phase Mars habitat, the large
sizes of a Landis habitat allow for both sufficient agricultural capacity to sustain a small hive
of honeybees as well as sufficient space to separate the crew from the hive.

Transport to Venus may at first appear to be an issue, but the seasonal cycle of
beehives suits well for transportation. Honeybees stop foraging at low temperatures. When
outdoor temperatures have dropped sufficiently, the queen stops laying and the hive
population reduces to minimize resource consumption. During this period they form up into a
ball known as the winter cluster, which slowly moves across the comb, eating their honey
reserves (generally around 20kg for a typical hive in a typical winter). Hives can also be fed
with sugar water and protein supplements during periods where the temperature is high
enough to allow bees to leave the hive. As soon as temperatures rise sufficiently, the queen
begins laying a new generation of workers to rapidly expand the hive for the spring.553 554

In short, a sealed box containing a climate controlled hive needs little to no

maintenance in transit. Bees are hygienic animals, keeping their hive clean of all debris and
potential sources of contamination - including removing bees that die inside. Indeed, bees
have already been flown aboard the Space Shuttle, even demonstrating the ability to produce
honeycomb in weightlessness.555

552
Santos, V. B., Mareco, E. A., & Silva, M. D. (2013). Growth curves of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) strains cultivated
at different temperatures . Acta Scientiarum. Animal Sciences, 35(3). doi:10.4025/actascianimsci.v35i3.19443
553
Routh, J. (2012) Spring Feeding of Honey Bees . British Beekeepers Association.
554
Seeley, T. D., & Visscher, P. K. (1985). Survival of honeybees in cold climates: the critical timing of colony growth and
reproduction. Ecological Entomology, 10(1), 81-88. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1985.tb00537.x
555
Poskevich, D. (1989) A comparison of honeycomb structures built by Apis millifera (SE82_17). In: Jackson JT, Christie
NW, comps.Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) Final Reports of Experiments Flown. Houston TX: National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center; 1989 Oct. JSC 24005.
 Rates of annual honey production in semitropical environments vary widely;
however, the Australian average is 75 kg.556 Open sources of water must be made available,
as bees collect water to drink and thermoregulate.
It is an open question as to how
honeybees would navigate inside a 3d
environment without a distinct ground , including
dealing with changes of habitat pitch and with no
distinct sun disc. Bee navigation is a complex
topic involving both sun angles (which their brains
automatically adjust for the passage of time when
the sun is not visible) and vision. Their
navigational ability appears to be hindered in the Honeybee pollinating an avocado flower.
absence of ultraviolet light.557 Bees convey Photo: Andrew Mandemaker
positions to each other via waggle dancing
on the comb, where upwards movement corresponds to the current sun position and the
distance corresponds to the distance from the hive; bees choose to listen or ignore it based
on their individual level of success at finding food, and can dispute a waggle with a 380hz
buzz.558 A bee navigating to a particular location flies a direct beeline to its approximate
location, then begins a random search looking for the pollen/nectar source.

In short, while their random-search behavior at destinations may provide some ability
to compensate, bee navigational systems are not designed to convey three dimensional
information and are premised around the presence of some form of ground and sun disc. If
testing reveals difficulty in finding food resources, light cues could be mimicked with LED
lights on the envelope that move based on the time of day. Additionally, solar cells on the
lower envelope might be interpreted as some form of ground. However, experimentation will
be required.

Bees do have a degree of learning ability. While often researched in terms of ability
to learn what colours and shapes provide the best food resources,559 of greater applicability
is their ability to learn to recover from circadian rhythm disruptions.560 This might assist in
adapting to longer day lengths.

The area which a single hive can pollinate varies greatly based on race, colony
strength, food availability, and other conditions - one study found ranges varying from 45 to
5983 meters.561 Colony strength is important; a wide range of fungal, bacterial, viral diseases
and macroscopic parasites infest bees and hives, including nosema, varroa and tracheal

556
Gibbs, D. M. H. Muirhead, I. F. (1998) The economic value and environmental impact of the Australian beekeeping
industry .
557
Cockell, C. S., & Andrady, A. L. (1999). The Martian and extraterrestrial UV radiation environment 1. Biological and
closed-loop ecosystem considerations . Acta Astronautica, 44(1), 53-62. doi:10.1016/s0094-5765(98)00186-6
558
Nieh, J. C. (2010). A Negative Feedback Signal That Is Triggered by Peril Curbs Honey Bee Recruitment. Current Biology,
20(4), 310-315. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.12.060
559
Jones, P. L., & Agrawal, A. A. (2017). Learning in Insect Pollinators and Herbivores . Annual Review of Entomology, 62(1),
53-71. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-034903
560
Ludin, N. M., Cheeseman, J. F., Merry, A. F., Millar, C. D., & Warman, G. R. (2016). The effects of the general anaesthetic
isoflurane on the honey bee (Apis mellifera) circadian clock . Chronobiology International, 33(1), 128-133.
doi:10.3109/07420528.2015.1113987
561
Abou-Shaara, H. F. (2014) The foraging behaviour of honey bees, Apis mellifera: a review. Veterinarni Medicina, 59, 2014
(1): 1 10
mites, american and small hive beetle, wax moth, european foulbrood, stonebrood,
chalkbrood, deformed wing, sacbrood, acute bee paralysis, and numerous others. Keepers
generally must open up hives multiple times a year to inspect for and treat diseases and
parasites, as well as to monitor the queen. The ability to send, as much as is possible, a
completely sterile and pest free stock would be of great advantage to local apiculture.

While flowers intended specifically for

providing bees large amounts of pollen and nectar
could be grown (additionally providing for a nice
living environment), and honey is a desirable
product, the pollination service provided by bees for
agricultural crops is arguably the most valuable
benefit they bring. Plant needs for pollination range
from no benefit, to improved yields, to pollination
Electric tomato pollinator. Photo: Sucatool
being essential for fruit set. Pollination can be done
by hand, and there exist tools to simplify it; however,
this is a high labour task. More recently, a prototype
drone-based pollination system has been
developed, using an ionic gel to transfer pollen.562

Prototype pollination drone.

Photo: Eijiro Miyako

562
Chechetka, S. A., Yu, Y., Tange, M., & Miyako, E. (2017). Materially Engineered Artificial Pollinators . Chem, 2(2), 224-239.
doi:10.1016/j.chempr.2017.01.008
 While it can be desirable to operate initially using only resources available from the
atmosphere, the ground below provides a wide variety of resources, both locally useful and
potentially valuable for export. However, the hostile surface environment requires careful
consideration.

Surface access
No solid surface in the solar system better
conjures up images of Hell than Venus - a planet whose
highest point, Skadi Mons is named after a Norse
giantess whose very name means "damage". The 45
bar / 380°C (just below the melting point of zinc)
environment there at 10.7 km is tame compared to the
planetary mean of 95.6 bar / 467°C.563 Multiple
volcanoes show signs of recent activity,564 while Ganiki
Chasma was observed giving off infrared flashes
indicative of ongoing volcanic eruption.565 Only a handful
of landers have landed on Venus's surface, and
returned us only a small amount of data. How Venera 8 surface image. Photo processed by
accessible can such a location be? Don P. Mitchell.

The answer is, "surprisingly accessible" - in a broad sense.

Let us look at the Venera landers. Based around a roughly spherical titanium
pressure shell on the outside, they were then lined with thermal insulation, followed by a
"heat accumulator". This was simply a phase-change material which can store a great deal
of heat before it continues its change in temperature - in this case, lithium nitrate trihydrate,
which melts at 30°C. As for the cooling system, there was none. Simple thermal inertia
allowed the landers to survive for over two hours using 1970s insulation technology.566 This
is not a limit; the larger the size of the lander, the longer the possible survival times, due to
the greater the ratio of thermal mass to surface area and thicker insulation. The dense
atmosphere makes gentle landing easy - Venera 7, a heavy metal sphere in near free fall
after its parachute failed, hit the ground at only 17 m/s (38 mph) and continued operating.567

While the interior of a lander is relatively easy to keep at a comfortable temperature

for a few hours, much more challenging are any external moving parts or pieces of sensitive
scientific equipment. By the time of Venera 13 and 14 in 1981, however, the USSR had
solved these problems - lubricants which tolerate high heat, motors whose magnets have
high curie temperatures, etc.568 Motors designed for extraction of smoke in fire emergencies

563
Fegley, B., Jr. (2016). Practical Chemical Thermodynamics for Geoscientists . Academic Press.
564
Shalygin, E., Basilevsky, A., Markiewicz, W., Titov, D., Kreslavsky, M., & Roatsch, T. (2012). Search for ongoing volcanic
activity on Venus: Case study of Maat Mons, Sapas Mons and Ozza Mons volcanoes . Planetary and Space Science, 73(1),
294-301. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2012.08.018
565
Shalygin, E. V., Markiewicz, W. J., Basilevsky, A. T., Titov, D. V., Ignatiev, N. I., & Head, J. W. (2015). Active volcanism on
Venus in the Ganiki Chasma rift zone. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(12), 4762-4769. doi:10.1002/2015gl064088
566
Mitchell, D. P. (2004) Venera: The Soviet Exploration of Venus .
567
Mitchell, D. P. (2004) Venera: The Soviet Exploration of Venus .
568
Mitchell 2004.
tend to be optimal for use in Venus environments.569 Magnetic actuators and induction
motors can provide for penetration-free connections between the inside and the outside.
Optical transparency is provided by fused quartz or high temperature glasses such as
Vycor, which are widely used in scientific research. Alloys compatible with the surface's
anhydrous acids and sulfur dioxide are well understood.

Getting back off the surface may likewise sound exceedingly difficult, but this too is
well understood conceptually (although at relatively low TRL). There are two primary
techniques. The first is phase-change balloons, similar to the technique used for buoyancy
control and discussed previously. A liquid, such as ammonia, is condensed and stored in a
pressure vessel. This helps provide thermal inertia for the lander, while its pressure steadily
builds. When it is time to leave, the ammonia is allowed to flash to vapour inside a
heat-tolerant balloon, such as a PBO/PIBO, carbon fibre, and/or metal-based fabrics. The
balloon is either allowed to grow vertically, or a secondary balloon is deployed, to allow for
greater inflation volume as it rises over the course of 1-2 hours. At altitude, the lander and
habitat head for rendezvous, having been separated by many hundreds of kilometers by the
zonal winds ( overshooting" the altitude can help a lander catch up by putting it into faster
zonal winds). After docking, offloading, and recharging, any non-condensed phase-change
liquid is re-chilled and its balloon is retracted / repacked. The lander drops off toward its next
destination, landing approximately 45 minutes later.

In a future situation with multiple habitats, redocking with the same habitat is no
longer necessary; 10-20 habitats at the same latitude could each pick up the lander launched
by the
habitat ahead of them, thus significantly increasing throughput.

An alternative to the phase change balloon is the bellows

balloon, also discussed previously. A metal bellows is expanded
or contracted by a winch or actuator, changing its volume and
thus its density. Due to the high pressures at the surface, a very
small bellows has the capability for very large changes. A
bellows balloon is envisioned in the VME and VISE mission
concepts, and Venus-compatible bellows have already been 0.8m diameter bellows.
created and tested in the lab.570 571 Due to the limited size of a Image: NASA / JPL-Caltech
bellows, however, a
secondary balloon would be necessary to reach habitat altitudes.

Long-term operation at the surface is difficult, although surprisingly possible. Power

can be provided by solar triple junction cells (albeit only at 8.7 W/m²),572 RTGs (albeit with

569
Bar-Cohen, Y., Bao, X., Badescu, M., Sherrit, S., Lee, H. J., Zacny, K., . . . Mumm, E. (2015). Drilling and Sample Transfer
Mechanisms for Potential Missions to Venus . Inner Solar System, 163-187. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19569-8_8
570
Kerzhanovich, V., Hall, J., Yavrouian, A., Cutts, J. (2006) Dual Balloon Concept For Lifting Payloads From The Surface Of
Venus . Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. Fourth International Planetary Probe Workshop.
Pasadena, CA, USA, June 27-30, 2006
571
Amato, M., & Williams, D. (2015). Accessing the Venus Lower Atmosphere and Surface- from Venera and Pioneer Venus
to VISE and VITaL. Inner Solar System,71-100. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19569-8_4
572
Landis, G. A., & Haag, E. (2013) . Analysis of Solar Cell Efficiency for Venus Atmosphere and Surface Missions. 11th
International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference. doi:10.2514/6.2013-4028.
cooling challenges),573 or wind. The latter been the most proposed, including Venera-D's
proposal of a surface wind turbine and vetrolet kite, and Zephyr, which proposed to use a
sail for locomotion.574 A particularly curious proposal is AREE, a NIAC design study for an
electronics-free wind-powered walking rover.575 Venus's surface winds are mild, usually only
around 1 m/s, but because of the high density still contain significant amounts of energy.

As far as recovering material from the surface, a variety of methods have been
researched for the purpose of scientific sample returns, including drills, hammers, ultrasonic
bores, thermal spalling, thermal melting, and cutting blades.576 One might add explosives to
the list, in an environment where in-situ production of nitric acid is available. All of these
options, however - studied for taking very small volumes of scientific samples - are only
necessary where there is unbroken rock.

Venera 9 , close view. Photo processed by Don P. Mitchell.

Venus's atmospheric density, about 67kg/m³,

is about halfway between that of water and air on
Earth on a logarithmic scale. Surface dredging -
using the same fan as is used for propulsion -
suggests a means for rapid collection of bulk loose
material.

While robotic access is clearly the critical

path for resource collection, the question inevitably
turns to humans. As for any destination in space,
there are many reasons always put forth for sending
humans out on missions. They can fix things. They
can repair things. They can operate faster. They can Landslides, like this on Aphrodite Terra, periodically
expose fresh material.
make serendipitous discoveries. There is some merit Image: NASA / JPL.
to each of all of them.

Do any of these justify the cost of developing systems to put humans on the surface?
This is highly unlikely.

573
Landis, G. A., & Mellott, K. C. (2007). Venus surface power and cooling systems . Acta Astronautica, 61(11-12), 995-1001.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.12.031
574
Badescu, V., & Zacny, K. (2015). Inner solar system: prospective energy and material resources . Cham: Springer.
575
Sauder, J. (6 April 2007) Automaton Rover for Extreme Environments (AREE) . NASA / JPL.
576
Bar-Cohen, Y., Bao, X., Badescu, M., Sherrit, S., Lee, H. J., Zacny, K., . . . Mumm, E. (2015). Drilling and Sample Transfer
Mechanisms for Potential Missions to Venus . Inner Solar System, 163-187. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19569-8_8
 However, there is a much simpler point to make, which is simply that people will want
to go there. And when people are paying the great cost to make an interplanetary journey, the
relatively small incremental cost of developing the capability to place people on the surface
becomes increasingly justified, if not outright obvious.

Maxwell Montes rises steeply over the surrounding terrain - Venus's Mount Everest.
On its slopes, snows or frosts of some conductive or semiconductive material such as iron
pyrite, bismuthinite or galena covers the ground.577 The deep Diana Chasma (~15°S, ~155E,
-2.9km altitude) is a a 100 km wide / 900 km long canyon featuring a 7 km deep dropoff from
its surrounding cliffs; Venus s rocks are much harder than Earth s due to a lack of water,
allowing for more dramatic landscapes.578 Venus even has the longest river channel in the
solar system (Baltis Vallis), 7000 km long and
20-100m deep, carved by an unknown substance -
most likely an exotic low-temperature lava such as
oily-black natrocarbonatite.579 At these low altitudes,
when the night falls, the ground may glow a dim
crimson. While Mars is often compared to Earth's
deserts, Venus has no comparison. It's a whole world
down there, nearly as large as Earth and sculpted by
The lava glow from Ol Doinyo Lengai, Earth’s processes totally alien to our experience.
only active carbonatite volcano, visible only after
sunset. The fast-flowing 500-600°C lava is only
Climbing Mount Everest is only accessible to
slightly hotter than the surface temperature at lower
altitudes on Venus. fit, costs $30-$100k per attempt580 (compared to
the
Photo: Marco Fulle - www.stromboli.net the
$100k that SpaceX predicts that their ITS launch
system will eventually provide round-trip tickets to Mars for)581 and kills half a percent of the
people who attempt it. 1000 people try annually.582 What candle does Everest hold to the
surface of Venus? It s safe to say that eventually - even if the timeframes for achieving such
launch price reductions are more delayed than proponents would prefer - there will be
interplanetary tourism.

Clearly, if one can deliver landers to the surface, they could deliver humans to the
surface in a "submersible" style vehicle. But that is not the personal experience that
adventure seekers desire. Traditional space suits cannot function in such conditions, but
there is one kind that can: hard-shell suits. Used today for deep-sea diving, NASA originally
developed hard suits for the Apollo programme; progress proceeded faster than on the
competing soft suit programme, but the latter eventually won out due to weight.

577
Radar-Reflective Minerals Tested Under Venus Near-Surface Conditions (2014) Radar-Reflective Minerals Tested Under
Venus Near-Surface Conditions . American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2014, abstract #P21B-3913
578
Nimmo, F., & Mckenzie, D. (1998). Volcanism And Tectonics On Venus . Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
26(1), 23-51. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.23
579
Komatsu, G., Waltham, D., & Bray, V. J. (2014). Canali (Venus) . Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms, 1-8.
doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9213-9_36-1
580
Hansmann, H (2003, 1 May) How Much Does It Cost to Climb Everest? Outside.
581
Musk, E (2016). Making Humans a Multiplanetary Species . 67th International Astronautical Congress, Guadalajara.
582
Jenkins, M. (2013, June) Maxed Out on Everest. National Geographic.
 NASA continued work on hard suits, culminating in the AX-5 in 1988.583 While easily
superior to soft suits in enabling a full range of motion, they were never able to overcome the
weight disadvantage. Today, hard shell suits see use in the form of atmospheric diving suits
for deep underwater repair and recovery, such as the Newtsuit, Exosuit and WASP.

Exosuit, an atmospheric diving suit with a crush pressure 2/3rds

NASA AX-3 hard-shell pressure suit. Photo: NASA
that of Venus’s surface. Photo: Nuytco Research, Ltd.

A Venus hard suit, like an unmanned lander, would need the same outer layers:
pressure shell and insulation. Inside, a heat accumulator like with Venera could be used, or
contrarily, a heat pump. In Landis et al (2011), a 216W Stirling Duplex heat pump is
assessed to be sufficient to maintain a 1m sphere at 250°C;584 one to two additional stages
could reduce this to body temperature.

The pressure shell, insulation, and thermal management will, of course, make the suit
quite heavy. However, there is a simple workaround to the problem, desirable regardless of
the suit mass: the aforementioned bellows balloon. And as with an unmanned probe, with
just a small bellows balloon, a person in such a suit could fly. With small wings, they could
soar and glide as well, with dive speeds up to or exceeding Venera 7's descent speed of 17
m/s (attempting to fly with small wings is not recommended on Mount Everest).

Some aspects of the sources of revenue for a Venus colony have already been
briefly addressed, such as sales of deuterium and the potential for tourism. We will briefly
cover several others here, after first addressing the surface composition.

Surface resources
A brief summary of our knowledge of Venus s surface would be: not much .
However, the little that we do know can give some clues as to what elements of value might
be recoverable from it. First, we list the surface mineral types detected by the various
landers and some concentrations of incompatible elements therein (boldfaced samples
analyzed with XRF):585 586

583
Benson, E. A. (n.d.). Investigation of a Cable-driven Parallel Mechanism for Pressure Suit Arm and Motion Assistance.
University of Maryland.
584
Landis, G. A., Dyson, R., McGuire, M., Oleson, S., Schmidt, G., Grantier, J., … McCurdy, D. (2011) Human Telerobotic
Exploration of Venus: A Flexible Path Design Study . 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons
Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Aerospace Sciences Meetings. doi:10.2514/6.2011-335
585
Abdrakhimov, A.M., Basilevsky, A.T. (2002) Geology of the Venera and Vega Landing-Site Regions . Solar System
Research. 36: 136. doi:10.1023/A:1015222316518
586
Kargel, J. (1993). The Volcanology of Venera and VEGA Landing Sites and the Geochemistry of Venus . Icarus, 103(2),
253-275. doi:10.1006/icar.1993.1069
 Lander Description U (ppm) Th (ppm) K (ppm)
Uncertain; initially thought granitic because of the high
Venera 8 rate of incompatible elements, but Venera 13 found the 2.2 6.5 40000
same from samples that were apparently basalt.
Venera 9 Tholeiitic basalt / enriched MORB. 0.60 3.65 4700
Tholeiitic basalt / normal or enriched MORB. Hard,
Venera 10 0.46 0.7 3000
decrystallized, highly weathered.
Leucitic basalt / weakly differentiated melanocratic
Venera 13 - - 33000
alkaline gabbroid
Venera 14 Tholeiitic basalt / MORB - - 1700
Vega 1 Tholeiitic basalt / normal MORB 0.64 1.5 4500
Vega 2 Anorthosite-norite-troctolite 587
0.68 2.0 4000

Incompatible elements are elements that fit poorly within the crystal structure of rock.
They are the first elements to enter the melt phase of a solution and the last phase to leave it;
as a consequence, they help tell of the history of the magma that formed the rock.
Examples
of incompatible elements are potassium,
rubidium, cesium, strontium, barium,
zirconium, niobium, hafnium, rare earth
elements, thorium, uranium, and tantalum.

As a consequence of their histories,

different types of rocks tend to have different
levels of incompatible elements. Basalts
(low-silica) are normally low in incompatible
elements - particularly mid-ocean ridge
basalts (MORB); contrarily, rhyolites (high
silica) and granite are high in them. To give an
Classification of gabbroic rock.
example of typical values from basalts from
the Earth and the moon:

Body Sample U (ppm) Th (ppm) K (ppm)

Earth N-type MORB 0.047 0.12 600
Earth E-type MORB 0.18 0.60 2100
Earth OIB 1.02 4.20 12000
Moon Low-Ti olivine 12002 0.22 0.75 415
Moon Low-Ti olivine 15545 0.13 0.43 300
Moon Low-Ti pigeonite 12064 0.22 0.84 580
Moon Low-Ti pigeonite 15597 0.14 0.53 500
Moon High-Ti, low K 70125 0.13 0.34 415
Moon High-Ti, high K 10049 0.81 4.03 3000
Moon Low-Ti, aluminuous 14035 0.59 2.1 830

587
Surkov, Y. A., Moskaleva, L. P., Scheglov, O. P., Dudin, A. D., Kharyukova, V. P. (1986) VEGA-2 Lander Analysis of Rock
Composition in Northern Aphrodite Terra. Soviet Astronomy Letters , vol. 12, Jan.-Feb. 1986, p. 28-31.
 The peculiarly high values on Venus suggest the presence of highly evolved,
well-differentiated basalts; the reason for these enrichments are not well understood.
Concerning specific minerals suggested by the landers: anorthosite, while common on the
moon, is rare on Earth; while different anorthosites share extreme plagioclase enrichment
and depletion in incompatible elements, their various parent rocks and fractionation
processes are still a topic of dispute.588 Troctolite is similar to anorthosite except for with
significant olivine enrichment instead of plagioclase - olivine being one of the first minerals to
settle to the bottom during differentiation. Leucitic basalts, enriched in a high excess of
potassium, are very rare on Earth. Indeed, only 0.1% of Earth upper crust is comprised of
rocks as rich in potassium but as mafic as the Venera 8 and 13 samples.589

Surface features suggest the

same story of slow differentiation
processes. Large bolide impacts are
not particularly common on Venus,
but they create abnormal amounts
of low-viscosity melt, which seems
to persist for great lengths of time
and often even overflow the craters
of the impacts that created them.
This is likely in no small part due to
the high surface temperature
Addams Crater, with overflowing lava field. Image: NASA
environment.590

Even in places where rhyolite seems to exist, it seems to be a consequences of

secondary differentiation. Venus s pancake domes bear many similarities to Earth rhyolite
domes (albeit abnormally smooth on radar echoes); if so, given the acidic environment they
form in, they too would likely be due to secondary differentiation of basalts, akin to rhyolite
volcanism in Iceland.591

Left: 3d reconstruction of Venusian pancake domes. Image: NASA.

Right: Panum Crater, California - rhyolite dome with tuff ring. Photo: USGS.

588
Ashwal, L. D. (2012). Anorthosites . Springer-Verlag Berlin An.
589
Kargel, J. (1993). The Volcanology of Venera and VEGA Landing Sites and the Geochemistry of Venus . Icarus, 103(2),
253-275. doi:10.1006/icar.1993.1069
590
Dong, C. E. (2015) Analysis and Comparison of Physical Properties and Morphology of Impact Melt Flows on Venus and
the Moon to Determine Atmospheric Controls . Standard Theses . 24.
591
Taylor, S. R., & McLennan, S. M. (2010). Planetary crusts: their composition, origin and evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
 A final factor to note is the theorized
natrocarbonatite volcanism on Venus as an explanation for
apparent river canyons like Baltis Vallis, as well as a
number of other surface features. Carbonatites -
low-temperature lavas which look like oil, flow like water
and oxidize to bright white - are rare on Earth, with only one
active carbonatite volcano in existence. These lavas are -
again - highly differentiated and rich in incompatible
elements.592

In short, it seems that if you re looking for magma

differentiation and diversity different from Earth, Venus is
the place to look.

Slow magmatic differentiation and layered mafic

Natrocarbonatite stream.
intrusions (LMIs) are associated with valuable Photo: Marco Fulle - www.stromboli.net
mineralization. In such deposits on Earth, gabbros are
frequently associated with economically important deposits
of chromium, nickel, cobalt, gold, silver, platinum, copper and titanium, although this depends
on the parent rock.593 As a highly enriched end member, anorthosite is frequently found with
the most valuable deposits in LMIs - bands of chromite (~100km long, <1.5m thick), the
Merensky type platinum-group deposits, vanadium-rich magnetite layers, copper, gold, tin
and others.594 Highly incompatible element-rich lavas like carbonatites are widely associated
with valuable deposits of phosphorus, niobium, tantalum, uranium, thorium, copper, iron,
titanium, vanadium, barium, fluorine, and zirconium. As an example, South Africa s rich
Palabora complex has produced valuable quantities of copper, cobalt, zirconium, hafnium,
gold, silver, nickel, and platinum. It is rare among carbonatites for not containing significant
deposits of niobium and rare earths.595

Long-lasting bolide melt pools are likewise associated with very valuable mineral
deposits. For example, the Sudbury Basin represents one of the world s largest known
impact craters; the result has been one of the world s largest mining centers, producing
massive quantities of nickel, copper, platinum, palladium and gold.596

Differentiation of magmas is one of the major means to concentrating minerals.

Additional keys to concentrating minerals and the creation of ore bodies are weathering and
transport.

● Fluids selectively dissolve minerals soluble in them and carry them until they are no
longer soluble, leaving them behind as precipitates
592
Ionov, D. (1998). Trace Element Composition of Mantle-derived Carbonates and Coexisting Phasesin Peridotite Xenoliths
from Alkali Basalts . Journal of Petrology,39(11-12), 1931-1941. doi:10.1093/petroj/39.11-12.1931
593
Kumar, M. M., Krishna, G. V., Reddy, S. V., Kumar, R. A., & Ratnakar, J. (2016). T he Boggulakonda Gabbros, Prakasam
District, Andhra Pradesh, India: A Rich Source of Building Material. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering,
16(053), 84-89. doi:10.9790/1684-16053018489
594
Ashwal, L. D. (2012). Anorthosites . Springer-Verlag Berlin An.
595
Heinrich, E. (1970). The Palabora Carbonatitic Complex - A Unique Copper Deposit.
596
Ames, D. E., Davidson, A., & Wodicka, N. (2008). Geology of the giant Sudbury polymetallic mining camp, Ontario,
Canada. Economic Geology , 103(5), 1057-1077.
 ● Physical transport my fluids relocates minerals from one location to another until the
environmental conditions (speed, turbulence) can no longer keep the minerals aloft.
This tends to create areas that are eroded and areas in which deposits collect, while
depositing denser minerals in different locations than lighter ones.

● Chemical and biologic processes selectively alter certain minerals while leaving
others unaltered, changing their abilities to be dissolved and/or eroded/transported.

On Earth, surface fluid flows include water, air, and solid flows such as glaciers and
tectonic alteration, while pressurized water and magma alter minerals under the ground.
Earth s atmosphere is a very effective means of transport and chemically attacks minerals
with oxygen, but is a poor solvent. Liquid water, underground and on the surface, is an
excellent solvent, and readily varies in pH and dissolved minerals. This allowing for chemical
weathering and deposition, in addition to physical weathering and transport by waves and
rivers. Glaciers expose deeper rocks to the surface while tectonic forces compress and
transport minerals to different environments. Frost, salt crystal growth and plants break up
rocks. Magmatic intrusions heat surrounding rocks allowing for leaching and mineral
alteration.

A key to many of these processes is

changes in environment. Minerals dissolved in
hot deep waters would be retained in those
waters if the environmental conditions remained
constant. But as these mineral rich waters seep
to the surface, the temperatures and pressures
drop, precipitating out chert, gypsum, and other
hydrothermal minerals.The greater the number
of differing stages that act on a deposit, the more The iron hat of a gossan ore deposit on Thompson
enriched it can become in various minerals. For Island. Photo: John Scott, Thunder Bay Geological
Services, Thunder Bay, Ontario.
example, the old gold mining phrase Gold
wears
an iron cap refers to gossan deposits, where sulfuric acid (formed from the action of water
and oxygen on pyrite) heavily eats away at the rocks, leaving resistant minerals such as
quartz (heavily stained red/brown/yellow by dissolved iron), and the gold contained therein.597
Subsequent processes can further concentrate it - for example, alluvial and bench deposits
occur when frost, glaciation and other means break up the deposit, allowing water to
transport it, where gold settles out when the flow rate drops.598

At a first glance, this may appear to be a negative for Venus - and every other body in
the solar system apart from Earth. While Venus has ample tectonic deformation and
volcanism, it has no biologic activity, no liquid water, no ice, and no glaciers. However, if one
is looking for minerals different than those found commonly on Earth, they re not looking for a
second Earth; they re looking for a planet that has its own different, but still powerful

597
Kelly, W. C.. Gossan. Encyclopedia of Earth Science Mineralogy, 194-195. doi:10.1007/0-387-30720-6_55
598
(1994) Extraction and Beneficiation of Ores and Minerals, Volume 6: Gold Placers . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA 530-R-94
processes of dissolution, physical transport and chemical weathering. And Venus takes
some of these to extremes.

Unlike Earth s atmosphere, which only dissolves water and small amounts of other
compounds, Venus s dense, hot, acidic atmosphere is expected (and in some cases has
been detected) to dissolve a staggeringly broad array of compounds, precipitating them out
at different altitudes (see Species of interest). Some of the elements considered likely to
undergo such precipitation include tellurium and indium compounds, each worth hundreds of
dollars per kilogram and occasionally spiking higher. High altitude frosts are particularly
appealing targets for sampling.

As discussed previously, liquids (likely low temperature magmas) have carved an

extensive network of river canyons (canali) via thermal erosion. This phenomenon has only
small-scale examples known on Earth, including examples with carbonatite lavas.599 The
amount of thermal erosion needed to carve a river channel larger than the Amazon River is a
transport process entirely alien to our experience.

Volcanic features appear to be much more

abundant on Venus than Earth, with more than a
hundred supermassive (100-1000 km diameter)
volcanoes, as well as orders of magnitude more
smaller volcanoes scattered around the planet.
Perhaps one of the most unusual fluid possibilities is
the suggestion in Bolmotov (2014) that Venus s
atmosphere might at times in the past have collapsed
600
Elastomer o-ring dissolving in supercritical CO 2. into a supercritical fluid foam. Supercritical CO 2 is
Photo: Martyn Poliakoff commonly used as a solvent on Earth. In magma,
supercritical carbon dioxide, along with water, is a major contributor to mineral mobility and
lode formation.601 602 In lava flows, by Henry s law the equilibrium CO 2 level is many orders of
magnitude higher than on Earth, increasing mineral mobility at shallow depths.

Lower levels of water would appear to be a hindrance, but it has been argued that the
continued presence of water vapour in Venus s atmosphere implies that the mantle is not
fully devolatilized. Not only would water assist in differentiation and reduction of viscosity at
depth, the water could even persist at up to 1% concentration in surface melts, due to
Venus s high atmospheric pressure.603 Such water would not persist once cooled; Venus s
rugged landscapes strongly suggest a hard, water-degassed crust.

599
Kerr, R. C. (2001). Thermal erosion by laminar lava flows . Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 106(B11),
26453-26465. doi:10.1029/2001jb000227
600
Bolmatov, Dima, et al. Structural evolution of supercritical CO2 across the Frenkel line. The journal of physical chemistry
letters 5.16 (2014): 2785-2790.
601
Kokh, M. A., Akinfiev, N. N., Pokrovski, G. S., Salvi, S., & Guillaume, D. (2017). The role of carbon dioxide in the transport
and fractionation of metals by geological fluids . Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 197, 433-466.
602
Lowenstern, J. B. (2001). Carbon dioxide in magmas and implications for hydrothermal systems . Mineralium Deposita,
36(6), 490-502.
603
Elkins-Tanton, L. T., Smrekar, S. E., Hess, P. C., & Parmentier, E. M. (2007). Volcanism and volatile recycling on a
one-plate planet: Applications to Venus . Journal of Geophysical Research, 112(E4). doi:10.1029/2006je002793
 In addition to liquid transport, Venus s surface winds have been directly observed
relocating dust from surface landers. While usually only blowing around a meter per second
or less, the high density means that the atmosphere still has the ability to loft and transport
particulate. Venus s lofted particulate is likely to be finer than Earth s, and conditions tend to
form smaller dunes than elsewhere in the solar system due to the dense atmosphere. The
characteristic dune length is ~20m on Earth, ~600m on Mars, but only ~10-20cm on Venus.
Radar data suggests such micro-dune deposits in
the southern hemisphere. Venus also has two fields
of large dunes - Menat Undae and Al-Uzza Undae,
the latter of which, at 67°N, would be well within range
of a habitat designed for a nominal 70°N. Also
detected by radar are thousands of wind streaks and
features interpreted as yardangs.604
Yardangs in Kalout, Dasht-e-Lut. Photo: Thorsten
In short, Venus has most everything you would want to see in a planet if you were
looking for mineral prospects - high temperatures, fluids eroding and transporting minerals
into areas of different temperature and pressures, extensive intrusive volcanism, tectonic
alteration, evidence favorable to heavy magma stratification, and so forth. While we have
little data to say with any certainty at all what minerals of value can be found on Venus, all of
the pieces together make it a compelling prospecting target.

To determine what might be worth transport to Earth, we will examine many of the
most valuable naturally-occurring elements on the market (prices as of 11 January 2017).
Where there is a significant difference in the price per kilogram between the mass weighted
value of the element in its refined state and in its ore state, the value of the ore will be given.

Silver605 $540 Rhenium606 $2.4k Iridium607 $23k

Terbium608 $550 Scandium609 $4.2k (oxide) Palladium610 $24k
Beryllium611 $835 Thulium612 $6k (old data) Rhodium613 $26k
Lutetium614 $1.3k (oxide) Cesium615 $13.2k Platinum616 $31k
Ruthenium617 $1.3k Osmium618 $13k Gold619 $38k
Xenon620 $2.3k

604
Bourke, M. C., Lancaster, N., Fenton, L. K., Parteli, E. J., Zimbelman, J. R., & Radebaugh, J. (2010). Extraterrestrial
dunes: An introduction to the special issue on planetary dune systems . Geomorphology, 121(1-2), 1-14.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.04.007
605
Gold Price. Retrieved from http://goldprice.org/
606
Catalysts . BASF. Retrieved from https://apps.catalysts.basf.com/apps/eibprices/mp/
607
Rare Metals Prices and Charts . Quandl. Retrieved from https://www.quandl.com/collections/markets/rare-metals
608
Mineral Prices. Retrieved from http://mineralprices.com/
609
Mineral Prices. Retrieved from http://mineralprices.com/
610
Palladium Prices and Charts . Quandl. Retrieved from https://www.quandl.com/collections/markets/palladium
611
SMM Ranking by Metal Price Increase. Retrieved from
https://news.metal.com/newscontent/100717662/SMM-Ranking-by-Metal-Price-Increase-(Weekly)20161230
612
Hedrick, J. B. (1998) Rare-Earth Metals . USGS. Retrieved from
https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/740798.pdf
613
Rare Metals Prices and Charts . Quandl. Retrieved from https://www.quandl.com/collections/markets/rare-metals
614
Lutetium oxide price worldwide from 2010 to 2025 (in U.S. dollars per kilogram) . Statista. Retrieved from
https://www.statista.com/statistics/450175/global-reo-lutetium-oxide-price-forecast/
615
Anguolo, M.A. (2012) Cesium. USGS. Retrieved from
https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cesium/mcs-2012-cesiu.pdf
616
Rare Metals Prices and Charts . Quandl. Retrieved from https://www.quandl.com/collections/markets/rare-metals
617
Rare Metals Prices and Charts . Quandl. Retrieved from https://www.quandl.com/collections/markets/rare-metals
618
Live Osmium Prices . Tax-Free Gold. Retrieved from https://taxfreegold.co.uk/osmiumpricesusdollars.html
619
Gold Price. Retrieved from http://goldprice.org/
620
Xenon Gas . AliBaba (various suppliers). Retrieved from https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/xenon-gas.html
 A note of caution must be given on these mineral prices. While some of these are
traded in large quantities, like gold and platinum, others, like scandium and cesium are
traded in small quantities, and thus may be subject to high price fluctuations. This can
however go both ways; depressed prices of certain elements can skyrocket when new
products suddenly increase the demand for them (rare earth elements have proven
particularly prone to this). High volume commodities, however, are easier to plan for.

Export of elements at values over $10k, and particularly high demand elements like
gold and platinum at over $30k, is potentially quite justifiable as launch costs continue to
decline, so long as access to Venus orbit can be proven to be reliable, without significant use
of expendable hardware. In the long term, a much broader range of elemental exports may
further prove economic.

Tempering this, however, is the difference between local and remote production
costs. Due to Venus s lack of industrial infrastructure and our adaptation to life on Earth, our
home planet always begins with a major advantage in production costs. Every fluid, every
spare part, every crew consumable imported to Venus comes at a huge expense. In the long
run, however, it is essentially unavoidable that this will be overcome, as local costs on Venus
drop, while Earth resources must be recovered from ever more challenging sources. On
Venus, resources are extracted from concentrated, never-before mined surface deposits
and - in some cases - even the air itself.

In short, mining for the purpose of extracting valuable elements for export shows
significant promise in the long term. In the short to mid term, however, it is likely to face
difficulties of shipping costs and local production costs.

Gemstones
In contrast to valuable elements, gemstones can offer far greater value density. We
will examine the potential using prices from Gemval621 and omitting the most commercially
desirable stones (diamond, emerald, opal, ruby, sapphire, spinel and tanzanite).

Low quality gems are typically worth ½ to 1 orders of

magnitude less than top quality gems. For the least valuable
listed gemstone (quartz), top quality prices are $1.56/ct for
less desirable varieties of quartz at 1ct size. On the other side
of the spectrum, top grades of paraïba tourmaline sell for
$17259.43/ct at 3ct size - that is, $86m/kg. Clearly, gems
Paraïba tourmaline. Photo: Don Guennie
pose a potential export at even high payload return prices.

Fine paraïba tourmaline is hardly the only expensive entry on the list. Top quality
benitoite ranges from $8-21m/kg. Sunstone, $0.7-5.5m/kg. Common tourmaline,
$0.8-14m/kg. Taaffeite, $11-37m/kg. Aquamarine, $0.4-3.3m/kg. Axinite, $0.3-3.3m/kg.
Rhodochrosite, $1.0-3.6m/kg. Demantoid garnet, $3-32m/kg. Pezzotaite, $3.5-14m/kg.
Tsavorite garnet, $0.7-12m/kg. Colour change garnet, $1.1-14m/kg. Chrysoberyl,
$1.0-7.1m/kg. And so forth, over numerous gem species.
621
Reference Value of Gems . Gemval. Retrieved from http://gemval.com/;prices are as of 11 January 2017.
 This list hardly counts as the most expensive gem species overall.622 623 High quality
alexandrite, diamond, serendibite, grandidierite, musgravite and jadeite regularly sell for
$10-20k/ct ($50-100m/kg). Painite can sell for $50-60k/ct ($100-120m/kg). Exceptional
diamonds are almost unbounded. The Pink Star Diamond, at
59.6 carats, sold in 2017 for $71.2m, a whopping $6B/kg. Red
diamonds, of which only 35 are known, likewise sell at around
$5B per kilogram.

What makes the most valuable gems valuable is their

rarity and how exotic they are. Yet it is not at all unrealistic that
there may be gemstones that exist on Venus that simply do The Pink Star Diamond, sold for
around 70% of the price of a
not exist on Earth, due to the dramatic difference in the
54.4-tonne payload Falcon Heavy
environmental conditions. The potential price per kilogram of rocket launch.
quality cut Venusite is, again, practically boundless. Photo: Diamond History Girl

Clearly, even with near-term small-scale return prices and extreme local production
costs, gemstones can prove economic for export. Furthermore, a Venus habitat comes with
a far greater degree of mobility as well in comparison to a lunar or Mars habitat, improving
search propects. Such an economic possibility comes with critical caveats, of course: that
such gem-bearing pegmatites or other deposits exist, can be found, and can be reasonably
recovered.

How prone is Venus to generating valuable gemstones? Clearly, when it comes to

some types, not likely . Opal, for example, is a hydrated amorphous form of silica; it is
incompatible with Venus s hot, desiccating environment. Many minerals that are not directly
hydrated still form in hydrothermal veins or otherwise due to the action of liquid water. For the
majority of minerals of interest, however, the keys to their formation are generally some
combination of slow cooling, heavy differentiation, unusual fractionalization processes, and
so forth. Venus appears quite promising in these regards.

Should further surface exploration provide strong signs of indicator minerals, targeted
exploration could potentially yield a relatively fast means to shift Venus from a negative to a
positive trade deficit.

Decorative / collectible stone

While gemstones requires exploration and research, a far simpler means for
near-term trade is no more complicated than ordinary rock.

Martian meteorites - far from pristine, and of no use other than as collectors items -
frequently sell for $1m/kg or more. The most valuable, Black Beauty, is estimated at a value
of $10m/kg.624 Values of lunar samples vary widely, from $330k for 1.8kg in 2012625 to three

622
Nace, T. (2015, 2 Nov) 12 Most Expensive Gemstones In The World. Forbes
623
10 Really Expensive Gemstones: From Tanzanite To Pink Star Diamond. Finances Online.
624
Sutherland, S. (2014, 2 Dec.) What does it take for a rock to be worth $10,000 a gram? Being from space is a good start.
The Weather Network.
grams from Russia s Luna 16 sold for $442.5k ($147.5m/kg).626 Interestingly, while origin
matters, it matters in the opposite manner as one would expect: samples returned by space
agencies are worth far more than those which arrive as impactors. The number of known
meteorites on Earth to have come from Venus is zero.

Meeting the demand of collectors is an interesting market, but one which can be
readily saturated with imports. However, it can be expanded into the exotic decorative / semi
precious stone market, which is far larger. When your average mineral baron, tech billionaire
or royal figure is looking for a new countertop for their yacht, there s no question that My
countertop is made of the finest tuscan marble does not have the same ring as My
countertop comes from the slopes of a Venusian volcano.

While even relatively mundane minerals have some potential for use in this fashion,
the more attractive and durable they are, the greater the value and market size. And again, in
this regard, Venus appears to deliver. Venus s rocks appear to be hard and slowly cooled.
The Vega 2 and Venera 13 samples are gabbroids. Gabbro, sold as black granite , is a
strong mineral with large, distinct crystal growths throughout it. Occasionally gabbro is found
in orbicular forms, each orb being a crystallization center.

Orbicular gabbro from Dehesa, San Diego Volodarsk-Volhynsky anorthosite,

Polished troctolite. Exhibit GLAHM County. Photo: Eurico Zimbres Ukraine. Photo: James St. John
134797; ©The Hunterian, University of
Glasgow

Carbonatite from Jacupiranga Estado de São Paulo. Norite. Photo: Denis Finnin, American
Photo: Eurico Zimbres Museum of Natural History.

625
(2002, 15 Oct.) Moon Rock Brings $330,000 To Lead $1,066,000+ Meteorite Event At Heritage Auctions . Heritage
Auctions.
626
Ulivi, P., & Harland, D. M. (2004). Lunar exploration: human pioneers and robotic surveyors . London: Springer-Verlag.
 Troctolite is an olivine (peridot)-rich, a somewhat speckled, feldspar-rich gabbroic
rock. Sometimes anorthosite minerals express labradorescence (a bluish iridescence) due
to the presence of the feldspar mineral labradorite; labradorite-rich samples are sold as
gemstones under the name spectrolite.

It remains an open question as to what

degree rocks on Venus will be weathered /
altered and to what depth. For example, while
anorthosite is abundant on the moon, the lunar
highland samples are generally breccias;627
heavy bombardment shatters the lunar surface
and the fragments slowly cement back together.
Venus is well shielded from bombardment
against all but large impactors, but has a hot, Labradorite, UCL collections. Photo: Mary Hinkley

acidic atmosphere. Venera imagery shows varying levels of weathering between sites. It s
also worth noting that with the high levels of tectonic deformation on Venus, a wide range of
metamorphic species can be expected in addition to the discussed igneous species.

Returns of any Venus rocks will present a ready market beginning in the short term
after a colony is established. The greater the magnitude of exports, the lower the value per
kilogram - but significant value will always remain. Cutting and polishing of mineral samples
to the rough desired form before export will maximize the value per kilogram by eliminating
waste material that would be otherwise need to be eliminated on the Earth end. Waste from
the process can be fed into various production streams that call for abrasives or minerals
desirable for smelting.

Agricultural products
Kopi Luwak coffee sells for $350 per kilogram - and Hacienda La Esmeralda for
$770. The most expensive cheeses sell for nearly $1300 per kilogram.629 The most
628

expensive wines sell for thousands to hundreds of thousands of dollars per bottle.630 The
most expensive teas can sell for over a million dollars per kilogram, over thirty times their
weight in gold.631

What is it that causes people to pay so much for some agricultural products? As with
the luxury market in general, it s the combination of rarity and desirability. Indeed, in many
cases claims of the rarity are artificially inflated - for example, Kopi Luwak is believed to be
produced in quantity far exceeding the supposed 500 kilograms per year.632 The reputation,
however, combined with the supposed rarity, inflates its price.

627
Ashwal, L. D. (2012). Anorthosites . Springer-Verlag Berlin An.
628
Top 10 Most Expensive Coffee In The World: Luwak Coffee Is Not The No. 1. Finances Online.
629
Semigram, R. (2016, 8 April) 15 of the World's Most Expensive Cheeses . Mental Floss.
630
Top 10 Most Expensive Red Wines In The World: Cabernet Sauvignon Tops The Lis t. Finances Online.
631
Sutcliffe, T. (2016, 26 April) The drink that costs more than gold. BBC News.
632
Kwok, Y. (2013, 2 Oct) The World’s Most Expensive Coffee Is a Cruel Cynical Scam. TIME.
 Reputations get inflated by supposed differences in products - however tenuously
connected to quality. Kopi Luwak passes through the digestive system of a civet. Pule is one
of the world s few donkey cheeses. Every expensive wine has a whole history explaining its
unique provenance. Da Hong Pao tea comes from a few trees cultivated since ancient
times. The story, plus its rarity, builds its price.

Which brings us back to Venus. Rarity is enforced - payload limitations and transport
costs ensure that only small amounts of agricultural products will ever arrive at Earth. The
environment has numerous differences that can give every product its own qualitative
differences - unusual day lengths, low air pressures, different atmospheric gas mixtures,
characteristic water mineral concentrations, different gravities, and so forth. And the very
concept of food coming from another planet gives it its own exotic story.

In short, all of the pieces are present for agricultural exports (which can survive the
journey) commanding very high prices on Earth - indeed, potentially enough to justify the
export costs and turn a profit in small quantities.

Indirect export of energy

Iceland is the world s 11th largest aluminum producer, but ranks #173 in terms of
population. Little aluminum is used domestically. Nor are there any economic aluminum
deposits in the country. Ore is shipped to Iceland, and finished aluminum shipped out, simply
for one reason: electricity is cheap in Iceland, and aluminum refining is an
electricity-intensive process. Iceland is, in effect, exporting energy.633

While there are no prospects of exporting a product as cheap as aluminum from

Venus, the same general concept remains: energy can be exported indirectly. And as
mentioned previously, Venus has massive potential sources of both wind and solar energy
compared to Earth. In the early days, high local production and labour costs will make
effective energy costs far cheaper on Earth; however, in the long term, Venus has the
potential to experience cheaper energy costs than Earth, and perhaps significantly so. How
can it be exported?

● Manufactured isotopes
Some of the most value-dense substances that exist are various isotopes - with even
greater mass density than the rarest gemstones. The global medical radioisotope market is
expected to reach $8B in 2017 and is rapidly growing.634 Even the most commonly
produced medical radioisotope, 99Mo, is worth $46B/kg.635 Per-kilogram shipping costs are
essentially irrelevant when it comes to such value densities.

There are several hundred isotopes in-demand for various medical, industrial and
research applications. Different isotopes are manufactured by different processes. Some are

633
Chu, H. (2011, 26 Mar). Iceland divided over aluminum's role in its future. LA Times .
634
(2016, 28 Dec) Radioisotopes in Medicine. World Nuclear Association.
635
(2009) Molybdenum-99/Technetium-99m Production Costs . NCBI.
best produced in nuclear fission, and have little applicability to Venus Some are separated
from naturally occurring minerals. An additional class is most easily produced by
bombarding targets with high-energy particles from accelerators; these would be the local
focus.

While some desirable isotopes are stable, most in demand are radioisotopes, which
have limited lifetimes, often in the range of a few days to several months. The
aforementioned 99Mo, for example, has a half-life of 2.7489 days - far too short for transit
back to Earth with low energy trajectories. In most cases, Venus would need to produce
parent isotopes which produce the desired isotope by decay; this which would significantly
reduce the range of radioisotopes of interest. However, utilizing high energy returns opens up
significantly more options, with returns possible in months or even weeks. This raises the
cost per kilogram of returns dramatically, but said cost per kilogram is essentially irrelevant
given their extreme value density. A single gram s return may pay for a heavy-lift rocket
launch on Earth.

One potentially interesting radioisotope for production is 22Na, which can be

produced (alongside 26Al) by bombarding water-cooled magnesium targets with deuterium.
636
As a cold positron source, it has been suggested for use in an antimatter-initiated fusion
rocket, yielding a specific impulse of over 100 thousand seconds. Startup Positron
Dynamics hopes to demonstrate such a thruster by 2019.637 More down to Earth, it has
recently gained interest as a PET scanning isotope (see Medicine)

Perhaps the ultimate form of storage of energy for propulsion via particle accelerators
is the creation of antimatter for direct antimatter annihilation engines. However, as
technology is as of yet not advanced for antimatter propulsion to be practical, this does not
bear extensive consideration.

While energy costs may make up the vast majority of some types of accelerator
operation, there still remains the dependency in that the cost of building the accelerator
locally must be affordable. This is to say, as much of the mass as possible should be from
local production. The exact balance of economic factors depends on the difference between
local and Earth energy prices and the ratio of capital to energy costs.

636
Rightmire, R. A., Kohman, T. P., & Allen, A. J. (1957). Production of carrier-free aluminum-26 and sodium-22. The
International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 2(3-4), 274-279. doi:10.1016/0020-708x(57)90271-5
637
(2016, 24 Oct) Positron Dynamics near term work to proving out antimatter catalyzed deuterium fusion propulsion with
over 100,000 ISP. Next Big Future.
 ● High energy research
If accelerators useful for isotope
production become cheaper to operate on Venus
than on Earth, then it becomes likely also
cheaper to conduct high-energy physics
research on Venus using the same accelerators.
Particle accelerators are also useful for many
types of medical research (such as X-ray
synchrotron light sources for investigating protein
structures)638 and chemistry.
ORNL Spallation Neutron Source. Photo: DOE

● Computation
Data processing demand continues to grow. While power consumption isn t as
extreme relative to capital costs as that of operating enrichment facilities or some particle
accelerator applications, they still make up around half of the costs of operating a datacenter.
639
While this sort of difference cannot readily justify the expense of sending entire compute
clusters of Venus, it could prove economic should the ability to locally produce casing,
cooling, etc be established; lightweight, complicated components such as CPUs and GPUs
could be economically imported.

Applications to be run on Venus cannot be highly bandwidth or latency restricted, with

an exception for cases in which the operators/users can reside locally.

● Electronics
Conversely, the same lightness that makes
complicated electronics a potentially viable import
makes them a potentially viable export. To pick an
example valid as of 11 Jan 2017, the lowest retail
price for a 128MB MicroSD card on Amazon.com
is $40. At a weight of 0.4 grams, this is represents
an energy density of $100k/kg. Samsung s
announced 256MB MicroSD card has a launch
price of $249.99, or $625k/kg.640 While retail prices
are higher than wholesale, there clearly exists the An finished silicon wafer ready for dicing, worth two
orders of magnitude more than its weight in gold. Photo:
Seb
potential for electronics exports even at high launch costs. High density integrated circuits
such as are used in CPUs and GPUs can represent even higher value density (although

638
Experimental Techniques at Light-Source Beamlines . DOE
639
Koomey, J. G., Belady, C., Patterson, M., Santos, A., Lange, K-D. (2009) Assessing Trends Over Time In Performance,
Costs, And Energy Use for Servers . Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Stanford University, Microsoft Corporation,
Intel Corporation, Hewlett-Packard Corporation
640
(2016) Samsung Electronics Introduces the EVO Plus 256GB MicroSD Card, with the Highest Capacity in its Class.
Samsung Newsroom.
whole CPU/GPU masses, dominated by casing and heat management mass, are far less
value dense).

The primary constraint, thus, is not launch costs, but local production costs; it would
need to be demonstrated that local production costs could actually be kept lower than on
Earth, in addition to accounting for the shipping cost. Consequently, these possibilities are
largely long term and unlikely to prove economic in the short to mid-term.

Science
Today, Earth pays for the costs of all scientific research conducted by and for
humanity. In the short to mid-term, Earth would continue to be expected to pay for research
conducted on Venus, which would by most logically be conducted based from any habitats
present. Such funding means covering the costs of both the people and hardware involved in
the research.

However, there are also prospects for science not pertaining to Venus being located
on Venus. Of particular note are systems in which physical separation is critical, such as
astronomical interferometry (interplanetary radio telescope array, interplanetary gravitational
wave observatory, etc). While technically such systems could be located at any point in
space, only physical bodies offer the possibility of local production of the bulk their mass,
and the advantages of Venus in this regard (both in terms of material resource production
and supporting human labour) have been discussed.

Note that scientific hardware does not need to be located within the middle cloud
layer; it can be located higher, with the caveat that the higher it is to be lofted, the larger the
envelope must be per unit lift.

Services
Increasingly, many jobs today are outsourced, with people telecommuting from great
distances to do the same job. Programming, design, research, engineering, and so forth -
any work which does not require a person to be co-located with physical facilities or partake
in regular travel, and which is tolerant of some communications latency. The same applies to
a Venus habitat: Earth could literally outsource jobs to Venus.

For this to be a net positive economic activity, the value of the work of an individual
would need to exceed the value of their personal consumables sent from Earth, as well as
what they consume indirectly by virtue of the needs of the colony as a whole. This can be
more easily viewed by considering a colony as a whole: if for a colony of 200 it takes the
labour of 100 people to provide for all needs and maintenance, and 100 people can handle
outsourced services, then for the colony to be operating in the black the trade deficit on
physical goods must be less than the value of the labour for the outsourced services. In the
above example, if the average individual conducted a job worth $70k per year, yielding $7m
revenue, and launch costs to the habitat from Earth were $10k/kg, then to run in the black
the colony could import no more than 700kg - roughly one small-payload rocket per year.
This would mean an average of 3.5 kg of high-value-density objects imported from Earth per
colonist per year.

Any physical exports from the colony would lower the trade deficit and thus increase
the amount of annual imports without requiring operating at a loss.

VISA fees
A relatively simple means is available to ensure that every colonist has the means to
support themselves is VISA fees. Under such a scheme:

● All immigrants, whether permanent or temporary, are required to purchase a round

ticket, not simply a one-way ticket.

● In addition to ticket costs, they must downpay the cost of their share of consumables
from Earth, as well as the cost of hiring someone to do their share of the colony s
labour on the assumption that they do not work. This would need to cover the time
between when they arrive and the next return launch window.

● If they have not by the time of that launch window downpaid their living expenses for
the subsequent launch window, they must return on the next flight.

● Parents are responsible for the costs of their minor children, whether born on Earth or
on Venus.

● A small percentage fee needs to be tacked on to account for unseen costs to the
colony.

● Everyone who works locally is paid a salary for their work, roughly cancelling the
downpaid cost of their share of the colony s labour (but not the cost of their imports).
Those who don t work (people of means, tourists, etc) receive no local salary.

● If the colony has exports, they offset every residents import costs.

● Local salaries are adjusted based on predicted labour availability and needs.

In short, the approach would resemble that of VISA applications in many places on
Earth, where applicants must prove the ability to sustain themselves during their residence
period. The primary difference is that on Venus the primary expenses are communal rather
than personal, and hence the proven assets must go into a communal fund.

Such a system should be inherently balancing and responsive to the needs of

individuals and the colony. It would allow people who normally wouldn t have the means to
sustain themselves to do so by holding a job. In turn, local labour would support tourists and
those who have the means to pay to live there without working. During labour shortages,
advances paid on local salaries to prospective workers could fund ticket subsidies,
allowing those who have no other means to travel to the planet to immigrate. This, again, has
analogues on Earth.

Distribution of labour
It is common to hear, when offworld colonies are discussed, what will people there
actually do? There appears to be a common perception that whenever people live offworld
there will be mechanical systems conducting all labour.

This is - quite unfortunately - not a realistic hope. As with on Earth, and likewise on
the International Space Station, robotic systems are limited in their capabilities. The problem:
1) labour throughput, 2) ability to handle diverse/complex tasks, and 3) development costs
are three mutually exclusive aspects when it comes to robotics. Furthermore, the cost for
developing a habitat is high; money will not be in excess to allocate to automation where
automation is not essential. To put it another way: the last thing that money would be put
towards would be expensive systems to allow residents to sit around doing nothing all day.
Even relative simple systems such robots that roll along hydroponic conduits to assist in
harvesting or other agricultural tasks, are unlikely to be present in an early colony, when the
money could instead be dedicated toward development of better ISRU systems that reduce
the annual cost of resupplying the colony.

Let us look at some of the types of work that would be necessary in an early-stage
colony and a possible distribution of labour to support it.

● Cooking: Likely to be only part-time work for an initial colony.

● Food processing: Raw agricultural products can require significant amounts of

processing. Grains need to be threshed, winnowed and ground. Nuts must be
shelled. Pastas and breads need to be made, and a yeast culture nurtured. Dairy
products need to be individually made - cheeses, butters, etc. Various food products
need to be dried. Vinegar needs to be fermented. The complete list is quite long. In an
early-phase colony, the chef is a natural match for this work.

● Primitive skills: Many things typically done

by hand in earlier societies would again be
hand work, including manufacture of soaps
and hair products from fats and hydroxides,
manufacture of rough paper from plant fibre
slurries, sewing, and so forth. Some of these
products are best made in a kitchen
environment, and could again go to the chef.
Others may be more suited to other crew Homemade paper from 8 varieties of Kansas plants.
members. Local paper would be primarily for sanitary needs.
Photo: Lawrence Farmers’ Market

● Medicine, veterinary medicine, and dentistry: A single individual would be

expected to perform all of these tasks until the population grows significantly, and in
 the early phases it would not be a full-time job. Others people may be required to
assist in procedures at times.

● Chemist: A chemist will be required to assist with numerous tasks, including

medicine production, scientific research, and manufacture.

● Research: Significant scientific research would be expected to be conducted in

various fields concerning the local environment; if you have a manned platform
offworld, you will use it to its full extent so long as it s crewed.

● Maintenance: Things break; everything must be designed to be repaired or replaced.

One or more people should be trained in repairing the diverse array of systems
onboard. In particular...

● Chemical engineering: An individual will be needed to operate, expand, and

optimize the numerous ISRU systems onboard.

● Machinists: Initially only a part-time position; as manufacturing capabilities expand,

so will the needs for people with skills in welding, cutting, CNC / printing operation,
and so forth. The number of people working in manufacturing will drastically expand
when working on constructing new habitats.

● Agriculture: The large area of plants needed to maintain a colony will mean
dedicating at least one, probably multiple people to the task. This number will be
expected to grow linearly with the population, up to the point that the population size is
sufficient to justify the investment into automated equipment to assist in planting,
inspection for disease, maintenance and harvesting. Beyond farming tasks,
monitoring of plant health, optimization of nutrient solutions, tracking of food yields,
and testing harvests for nutritional content represent additional workload.

● Livestock: Maintaining livestock and fish production, if present, would initially be only
part-time in an early colony, and the job will not exist at all until such livestock / fish
production has commenced.

● Janitorial: Beyond the simple need to keep common areas tidy (and empty the toilet
for cation recovery), removing dust and debris that accumulates around the envelope
will involve a significant amount of time. This involves moving about on rigid
framework elements and/or ropes, making it somewhat more glamorous than
janitorial work on Earth.

● Assembly: Initially only in low demand (beyond the installation of new systems), a
very large amount of labour will be needed for the assembly of new habitats and
expansion of existing ones.

Additional labour over time - regardless of scaleup - will involve caretaking, both of
children, the infirm and the elderly.
Scientific Mission
It can be well argued in general that if one s only
goal is scientific research, that offworld human habitation is
not worth the expense in the short to mid term. The
standard argument is that one could launch an order of
magnitude more robotic missions relative to the cost of a
single manned mission - launched to diverse locations,
with diverse sets of hardware. The argument continues
that humans are ultimately limited in their
science-gathering ability by the equipment that they arrive
with, just like robots, except that integrated equipment on
robots is lighter than that designed for human hands. That
the main thing humans bring to the table is reduced
latency, but when you can only afford robotic missions
roughly annually either way, it doesn t matter whether their
mission is accomplished in days or months. That while
humans may be able to repair some (but not all) types of
DAVINCI probe descent.
system failures, this is countered many times over by the Artwork: NASA/GSFC
fragility of humans.

And all of these things are, at least in the short term, true. However, Venus presents
an unusual case. Because at Venus, latency does matter.

Unlike most solid bodies in the solar system, the surface of Venus is very hostile,
and the amount of time that probes can spend there - unless extensive measures are taken -
is limited. For a Mars probe, it s just fine - even beneficial - for a probe to sit idle, charging its
batteries or processing samples. On Venus s surface, sitting around waiting for commands
is highly problematic. A probe may land on yet another piece of tholeitic basalt, just
centimeters from a granite outcrop or other feature representing an exciting new find;
however, as it can t afford to wait for human input, it will dutifully sample from the basalt
because time is limited. With real-time control, interesting locations can be targeted as they
come into view. A surface probe can be controlled, driven or flown to whatever appears
interesting en route. With only a few hours time at the surface, low-latency communications
allows for vastly more science to be conducted.

Low latency does not require the presence of humans in the middle cloud
environment; humans in orbit could accomplish the same feat.641 642 But humans need to be
at Venus either way. And only in the cloud environment is there the potential to self-sustain,
or at least reduce the consumables from Earth - as well as conduct in-situ atmospheric
science.

641
Schmidt, G., Landis, G. A., Oleson, S. HERRO Missions to Mars and Venus using Telerobotic Surface Exploration from
Orbit, AIAA SPACE 2011 Conference & Exposition, AIAA SPACE Forum. doi:10.2514/6.2011-7343
642
Landis, G. A., Dyson, R., McGuire, M., Oleson, S., Schmidt, G., Grantier, J., … McCurdy, D. (2011) Human Telerobotic
Exploration of Venus: A Flexible Path Design Study . 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons
Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Aerospace Sciences Meetings. doi:10.2514/6.2011-335
 A Venus probe, unless bandwidth is to be limited, requires a relay to communicate
with Earth. Again, this does not need to be within the atmosphere - although this would
reduce the required gain on the lander, making it simpler and lighter. A manned habitat can
provide this capability for an unlimited amount of time, while largely self-sustaining. Hostile
environments for landers also imply greater maintenance needs than are typical elsewhere
in the solar system. Maintenance can only realistically be done within Venus s cloud
environment.

In short, regardless of the balance of the humans-versus-robots debate, if there is

any location in which the balance would favour humans, it s Venus.

It is somewhat difficult to lay out the scientific mission, as that will depend largely on
what is discovered between now and the commencement of operations at the habitat. It may
be tempting to view this as meaning there will be less to study , but in practice, just the
opposite is true. When you have relatively unknown bodies with very basic questions
unanswered, cracking the surface of those questions tends to open up a whole range of
even greater questions.

We will, however, examine some of the Venus topics open today and hardware that
could be used to help investigate them. First, we list the VEXAG goals for Venus.
Investigations that should be advanced before final design / construction of a habitat will be
marked in red; investigations that are important for manned habitation but not required before
completion of design/construction will be marked in yellow; and investigations of only indirect
applicability to human habitation will be marked in blue.

● I. Understand atmospheric formation, evolution, and climate history on Venus

○ A. How did the atmosphere of Venus form and evolve?
■ 1. Measure the relative abundances of Ne, O isotopes, bulk Xe, Kr,
and other noble gases to determine if Venus and Earth formed from
the same mix of solar nebular ingredients, and to determine if large,
cold comets played a substantial role in delivering volatiles.
■ 2. Measure the isotopes of noble gases (especially Xe and Kr), D/H,
15N/14N, and current O and H escape rates to determine the amount
and timeline of the loss of the original atmosphere during the last stage
of formation and the current loss to space.
○ B. What is the nature of the radiative and dynamical energy balance on Venus
that defines the current climate? Specifically, what processes control the
atmospheric super-rotation and the atmospheric greenhouse?
■ 1. Characterize and understand the atmospheric super-rotation and
global circulation, including solar-anti-solar circulation above ~90 km
and planetary-scale waves, by measuring the zonal and meridional
wind structure and energy transport from the equator to polar latitudes
and over time-of-day from the surface to ~120 km altitude. Use global
circulation models to comprehensively connect observations acquired
over different epochs, altitudes, and latitudinal regions.
 ■ 2. Determine the atmospheric radiative balance and the atmospheric
temperature profile over latitude and time-of-day, from the surface to
~140 km altitude, in order to characterize the deposition of solar
energy in the cloud layers and re-radiation from below, including the
role of the widespread UV absorber(s).
■ 3. Characterize small-scale vertical motions in order to determine the
roles of convection and local (e.g., gravity) waves in the vertical
transport of heat and mass and their role in global circulation.
○ C. What are the morphology, chemical makeup and variability of the Venus
clouds, what are their roles in the atmospheric dynamical and radiative energy
balance, and what is their impact on the Venus climate? Does the habitable
zone in the clouds harbor life?
■ 1. Characterize the dynamic meteorology and chemistry of the cloud
layer through correlated measurements of formation and dissipation
processes over all times-of-day and a range of latitudes. Analyze
cloud aerosols, including their particle sizes, number/mass densities,
bulk composition, and vertical motions. Study the abundances of their
primary parent gaseous species, such as SO 2, H2O, and H2SO 4, as
well as minor cloud constituents, such as Sn and aqueous cloud
chemical products.
■ 2. Determine the composition, and the production and loss
mechanisms, of Greenhouse aerosols and gases, including sulfur
cycle-generated species and UV absorbers, and their roles in the
cloud-level radiative balance.
■ 3. Characterize lightning/electrical discharge strength, frequency, and
variation with time of day and latitude. Determine the role of lightning in
creating trace gas species and aerosols.
■ 4. Characterize biologically-relevant cloud and gas chemistry,
including 13C/12C and complex organic molecules.
● II. Determine the evolution of the surface and interior of Venus
○ A. How is Venus releasing its heat now and how is this related to resurfacing
and outgassing? Has the style of tectonism or resurfacing varied with time?
Specifically, did Venus ever experience a transition in tectonic style from
mobile lid tectonics to stagnant lid tectonics?
■ 1. Through high-resolution imaging and topography, characterize the
stratigraphy and deformation of surface units in order to learn the
sequence of events in Venusian geologic history. This includes
assessing any evolution in volcanic and tectonic styles and analyzing
any evidence of significant past horizontal surface displacement.
■ 2. Measure radiogenic 4 He, 40Ar, and Xe isotopic mixing ratios in the
atmosphere to determine the mean rate of interior outgassing over
Venus s history.
■ 3. Combine geophysical measurements with surface observations to
characterize the structure, dynamics, and history of the interior of
Venus and its effects on surface geology. Relevant geophysical
approaches include, but are not limited to, gravity, electromagnetics,
 heat flow, rotational dynamics, remnant magnetization, and
seismology.
■ 4. Determine contemporary rates of volcanic and tectonic activity
through observations of current and recent activity, such as evaluating
thermal and chemical signatures, repeat-image analysis, ground
deformation studies, and observations of outgassing.
■ 5. Determine absolute ages for rocks at locations that are key to
understanding the planet s geologic history.
○ B. How did Venus differentiate and evolve over time? Is the crust nearly all
basalt, or are there significant volumes of more differentiated (silica-rich)
crust?
■ 1. Determine elemental composition, mineralogy, and petrography of
surface samples at key geologic sites, such as the highlands
tesserae, in order to understand the compositional diversity and origin
of the crust.
■ 2. Determine compositional information for rocks at large scales using
remote sensing to gain a regional picture of geochemical processes.
■ 3. Determine the structure of the crust, as it varies both spatially and
with depth, through high-resolution geophysical measurements (e.g.,
topography and gravity, seismology), in order to constrain estimates of
crustal volume and lithospheric structure and processes.
■ 4. Determine the size and state of the core and mantle structure (e.g.,
via geodesy or seismology) to place constraints on early differentiation
processes and thermal evolution history.
■ 5. Evaluate the radiogenic heat-producing element content of the crust
to better constrain bulk composition, differentiation and thermal
evolution.
■ 6. Characterize subsurface layering and geologic contacts to depths
up to several kilometers to enhance understanding of crustal
processes.
● III. Understand the nature of interior-surface-atmosphere interactions over
time, including whether liquid water was ever present.
○ A. Did Venus ever have surface or interior liquid water, and what role has the
greenhouse effect had on climate through Venus' history?
■ 1. Determine the isotopic ratio of D/H in the atmosphere to place
constraints on the history of water. Determine isotopic ratios of
15
N/14N, 17O/16O, 18O/16O, 34S/32S, and 13C/12C in the atmosphere to
constrain models of paleochemical disequilibria.
■ 2. Identify and characterize any areas that reflect formation in a
geological or climatological environment significantly different from
present day. Determine the role, if any, of water in the formation of
highlands tesserae.
■ 3. Search for evidence of hydrous minerals, of water-deposited
sediments, and of greenhouse gases trapped in surface rocks in order
to understand changes in planetary water budget and atmospheric
composition over time.
 ○ B. How have the interior, surface, and atmosphere interacted as a coupled
climate system over time?
■ 1. Characterize elemental composition and isotopic ratios of noble
gases in the Venus atmosphere and in solid samples, especially Xe,
Kr, 40Ar, 36Ar, Ne, 4He, and 3He, to constrain the sources and sinks that
are driving evolution of the atmosphere, including outgassing from
surface/interior.
■ 2. Understand chemical and physical processes that influence rock
weathering on Venus in order to determine contemporary rates and
identify products from past climate conditions. At large scales,
determine the causes and spatial extent (horizontal and vertical) of
weathering regimes such as the high-elevation lowering of microwave
emissivity. At local scales, evaluate the characteristics of weathering
rinds and compare to unweathered rocks.
■ 3. Determine the abundances and altitude profiles of reactive
atmospheric species (OCS, H2S, SO 2, SO 3, H2SO 4, Sn, HCl, HF, ClO 2
and Cl2), greenhouse gases, H2O, and other condensables, in order to
characterize sources of chemical disequilibrium in the atmosphere
and to understand influences on the current climate.
■ 4. Determine the current rate of sulfur outgassing from the surface and
characterize the atmospheric/surface sulfur cycle through
measurements of the isotopic ratios of D/H, 15N/14N, 17O/16O 18O/16O,
34
S/32S 13C/12C in solid samples and atmospheric measurements of
SO 2, H2O 2, OCS, CO, 34S/32S and sulfuric acid aerosols (H2SO 4).

Beyond broad mission goals listed above, a number of specific phenomena of

applicability bear investigation:

● Precipitation: Initially interpreted as no precipitation, a later analysis of Vega data

argued that both balloons experienced significant precipitation during their time in the
middle cloud layer.643 Understanding the existence, varieties, nature, and distribution
of any such precipitation form(s), and correlating it to satellite data to enable
long-term study and development of an improved predictive model, is critical to
habitat safety and ISRU capabilities.

● Minor atmospheric species: Understanding minor atmospheric species in the

middle cloud layer, and less importantly in other layers, is important to developing
ISRU systems and determining production rates. Particular curiosities from a
scientific perspective include the nature of the upper atmospheric UV absorber and
determining what happened to Venus s mercury inventory.

● Surface aerosols: Photometric observations from the Venera 13 and 14 landers

detected a layer of absorbers at 1-2 km altitude at both landing sites, alternatively

643
Dorrington, G. E. (2013). Preliminary evidence for drizzle in the middle cloud layer of Venus . Advances in Space
Research, 52(3), 505-511. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2013.03.026
 speculated as sand/dust lofted by surface winds, volcanic ash, and metallic /
semiconducting condensates similar to those suspected at higher altitudes.644

While this in no means intended to be exhaustive, examples of scientific equipment

available to the habitat, lander(s), or inside the laboratory can include:

Hardware Used on Purpose

Detailed mapping of the surface, including changing
Phased-array radar Habitat surface features. Discussed under Radar and
communications.
Multiple, separated around the envelope for limited
RF lightning detectors Habitat
triangulation.
Observe variations in spectral absorption to determine
Visible / UV spectrometer Habitat
changes in atmospheric species
Near-IR spectrometer Habitat Detection of active volcanism / thermal anomalies.
Fluxgate magnetometer Habitat, lander Probe the internal dynamics of the planet.
Determine the density of fogs in different atmospheric
Nephelometer Habitat, lander
layers.
Measure temperature, pressure, windspeed,
Meteorological package Habitat
precipitation.
Observe real-time/high resolution images of
Visible camera Habitat, lander
meteorological and surface phenomena.
Identify subsurface compounds via detection of gamma
Gamma ray spectrometer (GRS) Lander radiation emitted via passive activation by cosmic
radiation.
Mid-IR spectrometer Lander High resolution mid-IR mapping from <16km
Multiple, left on the surface at various points to measure
Corner reflector Lander/dropped
surface deformation
Lander, optionally
Seismograph Detect tectonic and volcanic activity
dropped
Lander, optionally Measure temperature, pressure, windspeed, aerosol
Surface meteorological package
dropped deposition.
TDL spectrometer Laboratory Detection of trace species in gaseous samples.
Determine isotopic signature of atmospheric, surface
Mass spectrometer Laboratory
samples
Attenuated total reflectance
Laboratory Identifying compounds in solid and liquid samples.
spectrometer (ATRS)
In addition to weighing samples, measure the local
Microbalance Laboratory gravitational field for detecting local gravitational
anomalies.
Gas chromatograph Laboratory Identification of vaporizable, non-ionic compounds.
Elemental and chemical analysis of recovered surface
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) Laboratory
samples.

A complete list of laboratory equipment is beyond the scope of this assessment, as

is further analysis of habitat and lander communications system needs.

644
Grieger, B., Ignatiev, N. I., Hoekzema, N. M., & Keller, H. U. (2004). Indication of a near surface cloud layer on Venus from
reanalysis of Venera 13/14 spectrophotometer data. Proceedings of the International Workshop Planetary Probe
Atmospheric Entry and Descent Trajectory Analysis and Science, 6-9 October 2003, Lisbon, Portugal. ISBN 92-9092-855-7,
In-transit
Beyond ensuring that the envelope is sufficiently vacuum-compatible and can survive
the transit without degradation or problems with deployment, the space environment must
also be accounted for.

While holes from micrometeoroid punctures on their own would not be a serious
threat due to the low habitat overpressure, the folded nature of the envelope when packed
means that every impact will cause numerous perforations, yielding a cumulative effect over
the course of the transit. Thermal management in-transit is an additional need; sunlight is
much more intense in space than in the middle cloud layer, and there is no convective
cooling.

We will investigate a common thermal / minor impact shielding scenario. First we

must determine the risk of micrometeorids en route to Venus. Based on the calculations in
Motoyashiki et al (2008)645 for the Akatsuki Venus probe for a thruster of projected area
0.06m², we will scale the cumulative probabilities by a 1000x projected area increase. This
yields an expected value of 1000 impacts at E >= 0.005J, 100 at E >= 0.13J, and 10 at E >=
1.6J.

Complete shielding from all impacts is impractical due to the packed size; some
degree of pinholes must be accepted. However, to the degree that the thermal management
system can also double as standoff fragmentation layer(s) for minor impacts, this would be
advantageous.

Another concern with any packed fabric in space is vacuum welding. Generally
thought of as a concern for metals, polymer layers can also become joined in the absence of
an atmosphere. Maintaining a small amount of residual gas between layers can prevent this.
646

Other details, such as in-transit communications, control, guidance, propulsion, et

cetera are beyond the scope of this book.

645
Motoyashiki, Y., Hasegawa, S., Okudaira, K., & Sato, E. (2008). Micrometeoroid impact on ceramic thin components for
interplanetary probe. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 35(12), 1666-1671. doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2008.07.051
646
Griebel, H. (2011). Reaching high altitudes on Mars with an inflatable hypersonic drag balloon (Ballute) . Wiesbaden:
Vieweg Teubner Verlag.
Entertainment
Human beings require time to relax - a lesson which NASA learned the hard way with
the fourth Skylab crew in 1973, when stress from overworked crew members ended up
coming to a head in a series of adversarial conversations with ground control:

"We need more time to rest. We need a s hedule that is not so pa ked. We don’t ant
to e er ise a ter a meal. We need to et thin s under ontrol." 4

Often erroneously described as a "mutiny" by the press after the crew inadvertently
left their radios off for an orbit, the event nonetheless left its mark on future planning.
Humans in space are, when it comes down to it, still human. In a scenario of long-term
habitation of another worlds, the recreational needs of the crew should be seen as similar to
those we are already used to on Earth.

Many entertainment options can be seen as individual personal hobbies, wherein

mass requirements are low and there is little hardware involved that can be effectively
shared among the crew. For example, if an individual enjoys knitting, and there is a means
aboard for producing yarns (industrial-scale, simple mechanical, or hand-spun), there is no
reason to object.
As laptops or tablets should be seen as
standard equipment in lieu of paper, e-books,
videos and games can be shared from the
habitat s central server. Multiplayer games can be
played across the local wireless network.
Lightweight, potentially hanging chairs and
couches in the common area can provide a
gathering area around a large screen for social
TV, movie and gaming activities.

Also in the common area, a multipurpose

Matrix 54 7-in-1 convertible gaming table convertible gaming table would allow for table
Image: Amazon.com games such as pool, table tennis, air hockey,
magnetic boards (printed on or
displayed via a screen) for games such as checkers / chess, go, and so forth, as well as as
providing a flat surface for playing cards and small-group common dining. All loose pieces
must be able to be secured (magnetic or otherwise) to account for habitat rolling in severe
turbulence, habitat acceleration during ascent vehicle launches, and so forth.

647
Hitt, D., Garriott, O. K., & Kerwin, J. (2008). Homesteading space: the Skylab story. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska
Press.
 Balls for ball games would be acceptable for use within locations in which they 1) are
large enough to not be at risk of falling through safety netting, and 2) for use only in games
where they cannot reach velocities that could pose a safety hazard.

Some activities, however, are

likely to stem naturally from the unique
environment that such a habitat
provides. For example, given a habitat
dozens or even hundreds of meters in
height, with the crew located at the top,
with safety netting below, it might prove
difficult to stop crew members from
using that feature recreationally, such as
indoor skydiving, bungee jumping, rope
Slacklining, zip lining, and a full range of circus rope / net activities
swings, etc. The abundance of plants are possible within the cavernous interior.
also provides opportunity for hobby Image: Will McPherson

gardening, including plants of lesser utility to the crew (such as flowers, topiary, etc). The
potential inclusion of low-density aquaculture environments might allow for swimming.

Particularly for a habitat in which "space tourism" has shown potential, the external
environment provides numerous "extreme sports" possibilities. Even in a scenario where no
manned vehicle for surface access has been developed, kilometer-long bungee jumps
from beneath the habitat would provide no shortage of thrills. With a watercooled suit, rapid
controlled descents could be extended to several kilometers beneath the habitat, potentially
through gaps in the cloud layer, allowing for a helmet-mounted IR camera to see the surface
in optical windows.

As discussed under "Surface Access", with the availability of hard-shell atmospheric

diving suits, a descent to the surface would provide a most extraordinary experience for
occupants - first a ½ to 1 hour skydive, followed by controlled flight around the landmarks
of a very alien planet, with each dive being to explore an area that no human has ever set
eyes on before.

While such activities represent the extreme end of entertainment, basic entertainment
activities, however, represent an imposition of very little mass - only requiring proper
budgeting of crew workloads to ensure sufficient time off.

Medicine
Some aspects of medical care have already been discussed, such as the possibility
of colocating medical facilities with the common area until a habitat is large enough to justify
a dedicated medical area, and the use of the same laboratory facilities that conduct
atmospheric and surface analysis to perform sample analysis and batch medication
synthesis. However, medical care involves much more than generalities. Much of this
section will be based on issues discussed in Barrat and Pool (2008).648

On the International Space Station, medical

care focuses around local treatment of minor
conditions, but stabilization for evacuation to Earth
for major conditions. Indeed, there is no requirement
for a physician to be on board, and the CMO has
only 80 hours of medical training. On Venus,
evacuation to Earth can take many months even if
an available return vehicle is present in orbit at an
appropriate launch window; this renders evacuation
only suitable for treatment of chronic conditions. Ultrasound examination in the International Space
Telemedical consultations are available, but realtime Station’s Columbus Laboratory. Photo: NASA

control of
remote systems for surgical procedures is not possible due to communications delays. In
short, the crew must be qualified to treat serious conditions, and have the hardware needed
to do so.

Many organizations on Earth have experience operating medical facilities in remote

areas that can experience infrequent, unpredictable restocking, and can contribute
knowledge. Surgical needs, in particular, are of concern. The most common cause of
evacuation from patrol submarines (in addition to psychiatric events) is suspected
appendicitis, a so-called minor surgical condition. A 6-person crew can be expected
experience a minor surgical event once every 3-6 years.

Based on the dimensions of the medical facility planned for Space Station Freedom
and inflating that by 50%, we arrive at around 30m² of floor space. By contrast, a 4.4m
common area core with 4.3m foldout leaves to expand its floor area (13m total diameter)
equates to 133m². A core with 2.1m foldout leaves (8.5m diameter) equates to a floor area of
57m². Rollable floor designs can be half a dozen or more meters wide (stored vertically
inside the launch vehicle fairing) and effectively unlimited length without the need for leaves.
In short, the floor area requirements can be readily met - and in the large-leaf or rollable floor
scenarios, potentially left permanently dedicated to medical purposes.

Considering the equipment intended for Freedom, in addition to the medical hardware
used variously on Skylab, Shuttle, MIR and ISS, proposed hardware for future missions, and
expanding it as required for longer-term care with no quick access to Earth facilities, we
come up with the following categories of small hardware needs (not intended to be
exhaustive):

● General medicine: Blood pressure cuff, stethoscope, speculas, neurological exam

instruments, thermometers, magnifying glass, sterile gloves, masks, sheeting, sterile
clothing, tubex injectors, reusable syringes (multiple types)

648
Barratt, M. R., & Pool, S. L. (2008). Principles of clinical medicine for space flight. New York, NY: Springer.
● Ophthalmology: Eye pads, eye shield, fox shield, ophthalmoscope with spare bulb,
visual acuity card, intraocular lens implants, iris scissors, spatulum, fluorescein strips

● Otorhinolaryngology: Otoscope w/reusable speculas and spare bulb, aural

extraction equipment, aural probe, aural speculum, mouth/throat/laryngeal mirrors,
laryngoscope, nasal light guide, ophthalmic extraction equipment, ophthalmic loop,
ophthalmic spatula, slit lamp, laryngoscope, tracheostomy equipment, tongue
depressors, nasogastric tube, myringotomy knife, ear curettes

● Dental: Cutters, drills (mechanical and hand-operated), carver file, cement spatula,
excavator, extractors, forceps, fuse, nozzle, plugger, pulp extractors, scraper,
smoother, tweezers, speculum, scalpel, tooth probe, dental syringe, scalers and
curettes, toothache kits (eugenol, cotton pellets, tweezers), fillings, articulating paper.

● Urology: Urinary catheters, nozzles, leg bag, therapeutic ultrasound

● Other fields: Pelvic exam kit

● Intravenous: Administration sets (powered and unpowered), flowmeter, infusion

device, venous catheters, cannula, pressure infuser, three-way valves, D5W
solution, infusion set

● Surgical, post-surgical care, and rehabilitation: Head-mounted lights, endoscope

and laparoscope plus accessories, surgical masks, sterile drapes, towels, tissue
forceps (various), scalpels, lancets, retractors, hemostats, probes, needle holder,
needle driver, oro- and nasopharyngeal airways, intubation bulb, suction and tubing,
respiratory support system, end-tidal CO2 detector, air temperature monitor, chest
drain, hemoglobin meter / oximeter, sutures / needles, surgical lubricant, hand grip
dynamometer, digital spirometer.

● Wounds / fluid management: Tissue adhesives, tapes (varied), gauze and

absorbent cotton products / packings (widely varied), cloth bandages, adhesive
bandages (varied), butterfly closures ("Steri-Strips"), benzoin swabs, tourniquet,
plastic spatula (ointment), petroleum jelly, splints (varied)

● Pathology and analysis: Culture dishes/discs and media (including sensitivity

discs), swabs, streakers, loop holders, specific gravity refractometer, slide stainers
(with slides and reagents), slide dispenser, oxidase strips, hemolysis applicators,
hemacheck assembly, urine test strips, hCG test, portable clinical blood analyzer and
accessories (including control solutions), microscope and accessories, immersion
oil, capillary bulbs & tubes, finger lancets, culture incubator.

● Samples and waste: Hazard identification labels, bags (chemical resistant, red
bio-wipe, ziploc), absorbent wipes, vials / containers (ex: urine sample), waste
canisters
 ● Health, safety and monitoring: Total organic carbon analyzer (water), ion-selective
electrode assembly (water), microbial air sampler, gas monitors (fixed and portable),
temperature monitors, radiation monitors

The most diverse diagnostic imaging tool currently employed in space is sonography,
with a range of applications including abdominal, gynecological, thoracic, muscle and tendon,
vascular, small parts, and heart (echocardiography). But others should be noted:

● Electrography: Comprising a broad array of

medical systems that work by similar means
(electrocardiography, electroencephalography,
electromyography, etc), electrography represents
another imaging modality with comparably
lightweight hardware.

● X-ray scanner: While no full X-ray imaging system

has been deployed to space, a small DXA
Holter electrodes for EKG.
experiment for measuring mouse bone loss has
been prepared.649 X-rays are used in a variety of modalities, among them direct
imaging, fluoroscopy (real-time imaging), and angiography (x-ray after injection of a
contrast agent). Multipurpose X-ray systems exist, are not particularly large, and
most of the volume is housing and supports that could potentially be produced locally.
650

● Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Generally thought of as very large, heavy devices, a

miniature TRASE MRI system has been developed for space applications.651 Such
an device sized for arms and legs would weigh under 50 kg, while one sized for the
whole body would weigh around 700 kg; by contrast, MRI systems on Earth often
mass around 10 tonnes.

● Positron Emission Tomography: While it would be desirable to make use of PET

imaging; however, traditional PET imaging involves the use of sizeable particle
accelerators to create short-lived radioisotopes (such as fluorine-18) which are then
used to manufacture tracer compounds (such as 18-fluorodeoxyglucose). The short
half-lives involved are measured in minutes, prevent importing such compounds from
Earth. However, an alternative approach in development involving the use of
radiolabeled nanoparticles allows the use of long-lived positron sources (such as
22Na) by ensuring that they do not persist in the body.652

649
Shi, J., Lee, S., Uyeda, M., Tanjaya, J., Kim, J. K., Pan, H. C., . . . Soo, C. (2016). Guidelines for Dual Energy X-Ray
Absorptiometry Analysis of Trabecular Bone-Rich Regions in Mice: Improved Precision, Accuracy, and Sensitivity for
Assessing Longitudinal Bone Changes . Tissue Engineering Part C: Methods , 22(5), 451-463. doi:10.1089/ten.tec.2015.0383
650
Radiography systems . Medical Expo. Retrieved from
http://www.medicalexpo.com/medical-manufacturer/radiography-system-3034.html
651
Sarty, G.E., Sharp, J., Tomanek, B., Turek, K., Obenaus, A., Scott, ... Pierson, R.A. (2012) A Magnetic Resonance Imager
for the International Space Station. 63rd International Astronautical Congress, Naples, Italy. IAC-12-A1.3.13
652
Faraj, A. A., Alotaibi, B., Shaik, A. P., Shamma, K., Jammaz, I. A., & Gerl, J. (2015). Sodium-22-radiolabeled silica
nanoparticles as new radiotracer for biomedical applications: in vivo positron emission tomography imaging, biodistribution,
and biocompatibility . International Journal of Nanomedicine, 6293. doi:10.2147/ijn.s93523
 Concerning radioisotopes, a number of sealed-source brachytherapy (radiation
therapy) isotopes have sufficiently long half-lives for import to be viable, including 137Cs
(30.17y ), 60Co (5.26y ), 106Ru (1.02y ), and to a lesser extent 192Ir (73.8d) and 125I (59.6d).
The unsealed brachytherapy isotope 89Sr (50.57d), used for palliative bone pain treatment,
could also be potentially imported.653 In terms of local usage of accelerators for production of
radioisotopes, plasma wakefield devices are a promising avenue toward achieving high
energies with small systems.654

At a minimum for medical facilities, a common table (such as a multipurpose gaming

table or meeting table) can be repurposed for exams and surgery with the use of sterile
plastic sheeting. Sterilization of large objects (including sheeting) in addition to smaller
objects (such as gloves and medical instruments) should be taken into account in choosing
an autoclave for the laboratory. A procedure for testing for pinholes should be in place.

Antiseptics, both for sterilization of surfaces and topical treatment of patients, are
important, and a desired target for local production. While antiseptics such as iodine, brilliant
green tincture and benzalkonium chloride are not well suited to simple local production, ethyl
alcohol has been used since time immemorial, and hydrogen peroxide can be generated
from water by simple electrolysis.655 Some antiseptics (and other medical products) come in
the form of coatings on applicator sticks, such as silver nitrate; these would ideally be
handled in a reusable manner where the coating can be reapplied from a bulk solution.

Due to the presence of an autoclave for sterilization, safe syringe reuse is possible.
While not typically performed, needle reuse is also possible, with caution; for example, while
earlier studies of diabetics demonstrated little problem with needle reuse ranging from 4-200
injections, with only occasional redness as a side effect,656 more modern studies have
associated it with lipohypertrophy.657 Handling of used needles presents a safety risk; proper
procedures or hardware (such as self-retracting needles 658), as well as needles designed to
maintain sharpness (or resharpenable / self-sharpening) should be investigated. It should be
noted that even single-use needles represents only a small import mass.

Dealing with stockpiled blood and transfusions can be challenging in space, raising
interest in alternative solutions. In particular, hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOC)
have gained interest as an alternative to red blood cells, as they are broadly compatible,
sterile and readily stockpiled - albeit at a higher risk of adverse clinical events in usage.659

653
Nuclear Wallet Cards . Retrieved from http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/wallet/wc7.html
654
Litos, M., Adli, E., An, W., Clarke, C. I., Clayton, C. E., Corde, S., . . . Yocky, G. (2014). High-efficiency acceleration of an
electron beam in a plasma wakefield accelerator . Nature, 515(7525), 92-95. doi:10.1038/nature13882
655
(2010) Electrochemical Hydrogen Peroxide Generator . Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas.
656
Chlup, R., Marŝálek, E., & Bruns, W. (1990). A Prospective Study of the Hazards of Multiple Use of Disposable Syringes
and Needles in Intensified Insulin Therapy . Diabetic Medicine, 7(7), 624-627. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.1990.tb01461.x
657
Blanco, M., Hernández, M., Strauss, K., & Amaya, M. (2013). Prevalence and risk factors of lipohypertrophy in
insulin-injecting patients with diabetes . Diabetes & Metabolism, 39(5), 445-453. doi:10.1016/j.diabet.2013.05.006
658
Van Dyke, L. R. (1999). U.S. Patent No. US 6413236 B1. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
659
Weiskopf, R. B., & Silverman, T. A. (2013). Balancing potential risks and benefits of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers .
Transfusion. doi:10.1111/trf.12339
 Where blood supplies are required, the
crew would be expected to be willing to donate to
restore any deficiencies. This would require that
hardware for apheresis be on-hand, as well as
additives to stabilize the blood such as sodium
citrate and adenine. Glucose, usually added and
also needed for parenteral feeding, is locally
replenishable from starch, so long as imported
stocks of alpha-amylase, glucoamylase and
Apheresis machine separating blood. Photo: NIAID
glucose isomerase are maintained. Hydrochloric
acid and chloralkali-sourced caustic soda (also required) are available locally. The process is
ideally performed with a dedicated system, but for small quantities can be done via batch
synthesis. In the early phases, import of glucose is a simpler option.

For any legitimate colony, obstetrics must be taken into account. Concerning
neonatal care, a infant incubator (transport-style) might be desirable in the event of an
unplanned pregnancy, and could be shipped in advance of planned pregnancy, to have on
hand as needed. However, most of the capabilities of an incubator - blood pressure
monitoring, oxygen hood, IV pump, pulse oximeter, etc - could likely be provided by existing
equipment if care is taken to ensure their compatibility with neonates. The simplicity of
bubble CPAP makes it an appealing means to deal with infant respiratory distress syndrome,
in comparison to mechanical ventilation.

We do not go into a full breakdown of medications, and instead consider it premised

on the full the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines 660 (supplemented as needed), which
is too extensive to cover here. Only a small fraction medications would be available in forms
ready for patient dosing; the remaining will be in concentrated forms for compounding.
Compounding fillers can be widely varied, and should be selected based on local availability.
Of the WHO medication list, most items are very small; however, sizeable elements include
the inhalation medicines (halothane, isoflurane, nitrous oxide and oxygen); blood and blood
components (plasma, platelet concentrates, packed red blood cells and whole blood); and
long-term parenteral feeding needs (glucose, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, water).

As a general rule, inhalation anesthesia is prohibited in space medicine, due to the

confined spaces; even small gas leaks could prove highly hazardous to crews. This rule
does not apply on Venus due to the extremely large enclosed volume. Easily producible
inhalant anesthetics such as nitrous oxide should ideally be favoured over more difficult (but
nonetheless potentially producible) anesthetics such as isoflurane and halothane. Tankage
mass still must be accounted for.

Water sourced from dehumidification can be highly pure; so long collection and
storage systems are designed to ensure a high level of sterility (such as a UV sterilizer built
into each tank), it should be sufficient for IV needs. Sodium and potassium chloride are
readily produced from fractional crystallization of the hydroponics system (already a

660
(2015) WHO Model Lists of Essential Medicines . World Health Organization. Retrieved from
http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/en/
requirement to ensure that the nutrient solution remains balanced). Production of glucose is
described above.

It can be difficult to justify, from a mass and labour perspective, most local production
of medication and medical supplies. However, if one retains sight of the long-term goal - the
ability to survive and thrive independent of Earth - it makes sense to attempt to nurture
nascent production as much as possible.

It should be noted that some medications are

relatively simple to produce. There are many recipes for
capsicum waxes and oils for pain, making use of the
anesthetic properties of the capsaicin from hot peppers.
Throat lozenges are often pectin-based sweets containing
a mild anesthetic or other soothing compound, such as
steam-distilled eucalyptus or mint oil. And indeed, many
modern medications for more serious conditions are
simple extracts (or simple derivatives thereof) of plant
compounds. Opium is produced from opium poppies.
Digoxin, from foxglove. Atropine from belladonna. L-dopa
from velvet bean. Ephedrine from ephedra species. The
total list of plant-, fungal- and microbial-derived drugs
would be prohibitively long. While simple tinctures of
Foxglove, source of the heart medication plants can frequently be hazardous due to varying levels
Digoxin (Lanoxin). Photo: Jcart1534
of the active compounds, the presence of a broad suite of
chemical analysis hardware for study of the local environment makes precise dosing quite
achievable. Each medicinal plant grown locally serves a double purpose: preserving an
additional piece of Earth's biodiversity offworld. Contrarily, microbe-produced drugs offer the
potential of efficient production at very small scales.

Most concerns with space medicine have to do with the microgravity environment,
which is large inapplicable to Venus habitation. An exception to this is recovery from any
physical degeneration / radiation exposure in-transit. In particular, patients can be expected
to have experienced some degree of muscle atrophy upon arrival, and will need a period to
adjust. Early scheduling of physical activities, such as cargo offloading, should be planned
around the capabilities of individuals taking into account their reduced muscle mass.

Travel to other planets is inherently self-quarantining; multi-month transits are longer

than most disease incubation times. Plans should be in place on how to handle arriving
spacecraft on which contagious disease outbreaks of note have occurred.

Concerning the Venus environment itself, any health consequences of exposure to

the external environment, as described in Chemical Environment and Resource
Considerations , must be well studied. Long-term workplace exposure to sulfuric acid fumes
is associated with cancer and other adverse health effects, although this should not be of
concern inside a properly developed habitat with proper atmospheric monitoring. Protracted
skin exposure to the external environment can be expected to be associated with dermatitis,
and short-term eye exposure would be expected to be associated with pain, redness, and
blurred vision. Eye exposure to sulfuric acid, the most serious acute risk factor, is treated by
flushing with water or saline solution for at least 20 minutes; hence, water or saline solution
should be located immediately near airlocks in case of an accident. Decontamination is not
required if the patient has only been exposed to mists. Significant inhalation of sulfuric acid
(>5 mg/m³) is treated by a beclomethasone inhaler and humidified oxygen; IV steroids can
also be of utility. Patients should be monitored for at least 24 hours.661 Potentially a more
significant threat is that of carbon dioxide poisoning. In addition to resuscitative measures if
the patient has gone into cardiac arrest or respiratory failure, the primary objective is
correction of hypoxaemia via monitoring with a pulse oximeter while administering oxygen.662

Medications typically measured in "drops" can be problematic in offworld

environments, as droplet sizes can be affected by gravity. Venus's flight-altitude ~8.7 m/s²
gravity is close to, but not identical to, Earth's 9.8 m/s²; the average droplet size will tend to
be slightly larger on Venus.

As is standard in space medicine, dosing of over-the-counter medications such as

aspirin should be left to the discretion of crew members. As an emergency precaution,
defibrillators, ambu bags and other emergency equipment should be accessible in multiple
locations.

A difficult aspect to control is circadian rhythms. While extreme polar locations can
experience roughly 24-hour days, other locations experience day-lengths ranging from a
couple Earth days up to nearly a week. Unusual light cycles are, it should be noted, not
abnormal on Earth; residents of high latitude locations experience little dimming (if any)
during summer days and little light (if any) during winter nights, for months on end. Excess
light is commonly addressed with blackout curtains around sleeping areas. Some individuals
experience seasonal affective disorder, which is commonly treated by phototherapy,
psychotherapy and/or medications;663 however, as this is a condition related to prolonged
periods of consistent lighting, not cycling between light and dark periods, its applicability is
not direct. Further study is needed concerning the effects of 36-120 day photoperiods for
protracted lengths of time. Mass and power constraints prohibit lighting the entire volume of
the habitat at night, even to room-lighting levels; however, the areas within and immediately
around living quarters can be kept well illuminated with LED lighting.

An advantage to the Venus environment is that people can be readily physically

isolated from each other if need be, including for quarantine or to deal with antagonistic
interpersonal issues between crew members. However, more serious issues that involve a
risk of harm to self or others must be dealt with. As per NASA guidelines, short-term control
of aggressive individuals can be handled through tape / binding of their limbs and
tranquilizers.664 However, unlike on the International Space Station, such individuals cannot

661
(2012) Sulfuric Acid. BASF Chemical Medical Emergency Medical Guidelines. Code E015-004.
662
(2003, 18 March) Managing hypoxia and hypercapnia. Nursing Times
663
(2014) Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). Mayo Clinic. Retrieved from
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seasonal-affective-disorder/basics/definition/con-20021047
664
(2001) Behavioral - Acute Psychosis - Emergency. International Space Station Integrated Medical Group (IMG) Medical
Checklist. NASA. JSC-48522-E4.
be readily transported back to Earth. Consideration should be given toward the removal of all
sharp / heavy objects from a bedroom and the ability to seal safety netting completely
around it, with respect to the netting s durability against an individual determined to escape.
Containment of problematic crew members during a return voyage is an issue left to the
design of the interplanetary transfer stage, the design elements of which are not discussed in
this book.

Radar and communications

Radar and communications involve multiple requirements:

● Communication with Earth

● Communication with surface probes
● Communication with orbital and incoming spacecraft
● High resolution surface scanning with radar
● Weather radar
● Communications with Earth must be tolerant of hardware failures
● Radar should not disrupt communications with Earth

The radar system most commonly used on spacecraft is synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) and variants such as inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) or interferometric
synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). All make use of the spacecraft s motion between the
emission of a radar pulse and the registration of its return in order to emulate the use of a
larger aperture, and thus higher maximum achievable resolution. This immediately raises a
challenge for a habitat-borne radar system, which moves moving at two orders of magnitude
lower velocity than an orbital spacecraft yet flies only half an order of magnitude closer to the
ground.

Instead, the optimal design in the case of a habitat is a phased-array radar. In a

phased-array, multiple independent antennas function together to emulate a single larger
antenna, with the emulated aperture proportional to the maximum distance between
individual antennas. For most spacecraft and habitats, this separation would be relatively
small; however, in the enormity of an inflated Venus habitat, these distances could be
substantial. The maximum achievable resolution is governed by:

Rtarget = * R / Bn

Where:
● Rtarget is the resolution at the target
● is the wavelength
● R is the radar target distance
● Bn is the perpendicular baseline (distance between antennas perpendicular to
the path of the beam)
 For the band in question, we favor the judgement of the VERITAS team in their InSAR
analysis, and begin by selecting X-band - specifically, for space-based observations at 30°,
they determine an optimal 3.8cm wavelength.665 We then adjust for the difference between
the middle cloud and orbital environments. Taking into account having the habitat being
located partway through the atmosphere s radar-absorption cross section, the availability of
abundant low-mass-penalty power provided by the habitat s inflatable solar power system,
and an easier-to-justify greater antenna mass for a manned mission versus an unmanned
one, we consider allowing a 20x increase in acceptable atmospheric attenuation to be be a
pessimistic assumption. As atmospheric attenuation rises quadratically relative to the
frequency, this yields a further drop in the wavelength to 0.85cm. This puts us in Ka band
(35.3 GHz).

Entering that into the above equation, and

assuming a baseline of 300 meters from an altitude
of 55km with an assumed angle of 30 degrees to the
perpendicular (a path length of 63.5km), we arrive at
a maximum resolution of 1.8 meters (without
considering enhancement techniques such as
combining multiple looks). By contrast, the VERITAS
proposal aimed to map Venus at 15 meters per pixel,
and the best current mapping of Venus (Magellan)
Crow’s Nest phased-array antenna; elements are
does not exceed 101m.666 The lower altitude would distributed throughout the volume such that their side
also yield significantly improved height accuracy. lobes do not interfere. Image: Christian Wolff

In short, even if an unmanned radar mapping probe such as VERITAS is utilized

between now and the time of habitat deployment, and even if the habitat s radar system is for
various reasons not as as precise as the above figures suggest, an atmospheric habitat still
offers the potential for dramatic improvement in the ability to resolve fine surface features. In
addition, the long-term observation from a permanent habitat presents the opportunity to
monitor for changes in the terrain, such as tectonic shifts, mass wasting, volcanic
processes, and alterations in surface reflectivity.

A phased-array antenna provides additional benefits as well:

● The ability to take part in multiple simultaneous independent radar and

communications tasks, with capacity for each task allocated as needed.
● Rapid digital steering of the beam
● Graceful degradation in the event of hardware failures

Like with SAR, a phased array radar can function in backscatter, altimetry, and
emissivity measurement modes. A disadvantage is that geometric precision is critical to
controlling phased array timing. Given that the habitat structure will flex, all antennas must

665
Hensley, S., Smrekar, S., Nunes, D., Seu., R., Lombardo, P., et al. (2016) Single Pass X-band Radar Interferometry for
Topographic Mapping of Venus. 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.
666
Grayzeck, E. (1997). "Magellan: Mission Plan". NASA / JPL.
have the means to precisely calculate their distance relative to each other multiple times per
second.

K-band is not commonly used for weather radar on Earth due to high absorption,
although it does provide some limited range. X-band is commonly used for portable,
low-gain, short-range weather radar systems on Earth, generally around 250km range in
good weather but under 50km range in the rain. Longer-range weather radar generally uses
C or S band. Higher frequency radars allow for the detection of smaller particles 667 - of
significant scientific on interest on Venus. S-band, having been used for previous radar
observations of Venus, would allow for more direct data comparisons. Additionally, the ability
to handle multiple frequencies increases the variety of radio science experiments that can be
conducted. In short, the ability to operate in a range of different bands is worth further
consideration.

Concerning Earth and spacecraft communications, precise pointing is required.

While steering is one of the advantages of phased-array systems, the habitat must know
its current position over Venus s surface. While timing between sunrise and sunset could
yield approximate locations, radar and/or IR observations of the surface would yield much
greater precision.

As noted under Infrared rejection, low-E coatings tend to significantly hinder radio
transmissions - but this can be worked around by printing them out as a non-continuous
layer. Carbon fibre, if used as a reinforcing fabric, needs to ensure that it does not provide
significant attenuation for the radio system. This is likely to be more of a concern for loose-fill
CF than for cable reinforcement - the former being a relatively poor choice on its own due to
light absorption.

Without an orbital relay, communications blackout would occur for approximately half
of each atmospheric superrotation period ( day ). This can be addressed by utilization of one
or more communications relay satellites.

Orbital hardware
In order to maintain nighttime communications, at least one relay satellite would be
required. This is not so much of an imposition as an opportunity; having satellite
observations of the local environment to correlate with conditions observed by the craft
would be of tremendous utility in enhancing models of Venus's atmosphere, as well as in
providing weather forecasts to the habitat.

For a single-satellite scenario, an approximately geostationary orbit (with respect to

the superrotation rate in the habitat environment rather than the surface) would seem the
logical choice. For a 48-hour circulation (VeRa zonal wind speed estimates), this would be a
circular orbit at 56582km with zero inclination - high enough to keep occultation of Earth by
Venus relatively rare. In the future, three such satellites could provide global coverage to

667
(2000) Radar Bands . Everything Weather / Weather Edge.
Venus outside the far polar regions as well as prevent communications blackouts. Contrarily,
there are a wide range of inclined elliptical orbits which can provide coverage in a
multi-satellite environment while allowing for low-altitude passes.

Beyond communications / observation satellites, an early-phase habitat requires no

further orbital hardware. In the longer term, however, a number of options are worth
consideration.

A space station would allow outbound crews to amass in orbit to await an incoming
transfer vehicle. This is unlikely to be of great utility early on; as discussed in Getting There
and Back , the lift of a habitat is primarily used for propellant mass, which in turn cannot be
rapidly regenerated over short timescales. Hence a single habitat cannot rapidly re-launch its
ascent vehicle to send more crew to a station. However, for a colonized Venus with multiple
habitats, crews could be amassed from different habitats. Additionally, for larger future
habitats with much higher propellant production rates, relaunch rates could be much higher,
allowing the habitat to make multiple launches in a relatively short period of time.

From a long-term view, a propellant depot would greatly increase the delivery and
return capacity of incoming transfer stages. The propellant type would need to be compatible
with the transfer stage, either implying a transfer stage which can burn low-hydrogen fuels,
or very large-scale processing of mists in-situ.

A spacecraft in orbit around Venus, like Earth, will slowly decay over time; this
occurs at higher altitudes than on Earth. For a satellite with a 138 kg/m² ballistic coefficient,
over the course of two years, it would lose around 195 m/s at 200km, 50m/s at 225km,
10m/s at 250km, and 1 m/s at 300km.668

Preliminary steps

Studies and prototypes

● Design studies: Created integrated model combining structural design, FEA,
radiative and convective balance, power production, climate control / humidity,
propulsion, buoyancy calculations, and planetary models (VenusGRAM / etc).
Optimize the model over desired mission parameters.

● Humans / human models: Followup studies on long-term reduced pressure effects.

Follow-up studies on the effects of long days and coping strategies. Better
quantification of acceptable levels of gas permeation. Studies on crew abilities to
perform tasks in simulated habitat environments (envelope cleaning, harvesting, etc
while on trusses, ropes, etc). EVA suit development / selection.

668
Lockwood, M. K., Paulson, J. W., Kontinos, D. A., Chen, Y.K., Laub, B., Olejniczak, J., ... (2006). Systems Analysis for a
Venus Aerocapture Mission. NASA STI Program, NASA/TM-2006-214291
● Agriculture: Followup studies on long day lengths and strategies to minimize harmful
effects. Plant selection and breeding / engineering to maximize production in long day
/ low pressure environments. Self-contained mushroom cultivation system prototype.
Hydroponics and aeroponics prototypes tested in simulated conditions. Seed
germination rates under various storage, temperature and atmospheric conditions.
Waste incineration, cation recovery and fractional crystalization system prototype.

● Animal husbandry: Studies on livestock adaptation to Venus habitat conditions.

Breed optimization for small transport size and backbreeding effectiveness without
sacrificing production or feed conversion. Studies on the effectiveness of various
agricultural waste diets. Functional prototype pens and all livestock management
hardware, both for habitat and transit environments.

● Aquaculture: Follow-up studies on adapting current systems to a Venus habitat

environment, optimally for simultaneous culture of multiple species. Studies on the
minimization of species size during transport. Full-size prototypes tested through all
stages of operation, using locally available feedstocks. Consideration of the ability to
use the aquaculture facilities for recreational bathing.

● Apiculture: Investigation of bee navigational ability in a Venus habitat (requires

prototype habitat). Investigation into bee adaptability to Venus-like day lengths,
pressures and gas mixtures. Prototype transport hive and demonstration of
survivability through transport conditions.

● Testing: Development of environment to simulate Venus s middle cloud environment

(chemical mixture, temperature, light, etc). Development of environment to test
surface probes. Existing facilities may be used as appropriate.

● Materials: Develop flight-intent system for extruding envelope gores. Include all
additives and surface treatments (plasma, coatings, etc). Incorporate optional solar
printing. Prototype flooring. Prototype solar tents . Ensure adaptability to all types of
required polymer sheeting. Develop flight-intent gel spinning and rope braiding
system; demonstrate for all required fibres. If loose-fill fibre is to be utilized, prototype
a fibre chopping system. Acquire or develop a miniature loom capable of producing
all necessary weaves. Prototype a system for doing all necessary fibre and fabric
treatments (such as PAN carbonization). Analysis of the usage of carbon nanotube
wiring and capability for local production. Development / adaptation of structural
element extrusion systems.

● Habitat propulsion and In-Situ Resource Utilization: Feasibility study of

alternative means of propulsion. Investigation into ionic liquids optimized for
scrubbing. Prototype scrubber / propulsion system, incrementally enhanced with
recovery, boiling / catalytic decomposition, distillation, and inert gas recovery /
distillation. Incremental prototyping of propellant feedstock synthesis systems. For
any cryogenic compounds, prototyping of flight-capable cryogenic storage systems.
● Envelope: Accelerated aging of envelopes for long-term survivability, transparency,
permeation, electrical and mechanical properties. Demonstration of secure joining of
gores and in-situ repairs. Development and demonstration of and pinhole detection
and repair systems. Development and testing of safety systems (netting, etc).

● Entry systems: Detailed reentry heating analysis study, in conjunction with habitat
and ascent vehicle design studies. Envelope testing in simulated entry conditions.

● Transfer stages: Full design studies for the habitat and crew transfer stages.

● Ascent vehicle: Low-hydrogen propellant studies with engine prototyping.

Nuclear-thermal concept study for Venus conditions, including capability for hover
while docking. Automated envelope repacking testbed.

● Laboratory / shelter / bathroom: Design, prototyping, deployment and human

usage studies for a combination laboratory / shelter containing a bathroom with a
desiccating toilet. Selection and adaptation of all necessary laboratory equipment to
support local scientific, medical, and industrial needs.

● Common area / medical: Design, prototyping, deployment and human usage studies
for a common area, optionally integrated with medical facilities.

● Kitchen / food storage / processing: Design, prototyping, deployment and human

usage studies for the facilities for handling food. Prototyping or adaptation of
lightweight food processing systems. Creation of lightweight / collapsible refrigeration,
oven, range and microwave systems. Integrated wastewater handling system study.

● Bedrooms: Design, prototyping, deployment and human usage studies for

lightweight bedrooms, including water collection / handling and power systems.

● Shower: Design / prototyping (or acquisition / adaptation) of a grey water recycling

shower system with integrated solar tent and water collection.

● Climate control and dehumidification: Prototyping of lightweight climate control

and dehumidification systems, optionally involving structural elements as radiators.

● Radar / communications: Development of prototype crow s nest phased-array radar

and communications system with continuous adjustment for flexing of the habitat s
structure. Integration with a wireless LAN.

● Medicine: Continuation of current programmes for the development of lightweight

medical systems. Increased emphasis on in-situ produced medical consumables
where possible. Investigations on medication compounding with locally-available
fillers. Development of a common surgical theatre.
 ● Entertainment: Development of lightweight multipurpose gaming systems and other
entertainment activities.

● Scientific payloads: Continuation and expansion of programmes to develop

systems useful for meeting VEXAG goals.

● Surface systems: Continuation of the development of high temperature systems for

use on Venus s surface, with a focus on phase-change and bellows balloons that can
raise samples to high altitudes. Prototype dredging system.

Missions
● Entry testbed(s): A programme must test entry and inflation prototypes on Earth to
advance the TRL for use on Venus missions (both full scale and smaller-scale
preliminary missions).

● In-situ test mission: A balloon probe (ideally as part of a broader scientific mission)
must operate in the target environment for a significant length of time (90-day
minimum baseline), testing basic technologies such as envelope materials, solar
power generation, etc., as well as fully quantifying the atmospheric properties of the
operating environment (chemical, wind, etc).

● Mini-habitat in-situ testbed: A miniature (e.g. 1/10th scale) unmanned version of

the habitat should be deployed on Venus, performing all of the same basic functions
as the full-scale manned habitat.

● Heliox testbed: A mid- to full-scale version of the habitat launched on Earth and
inflated with heliox, a breathable lighter-than-air mixture of helium and oxygen
commonly used for deep-sea diving. This would enable testing all aspects of
long-term habitation in a floating habitat within Earth s troposphere - even
atmospheric scrubbing (albeit with the recovery of different species).

● Communications relay(s): Before any launch of humans, there should be at least

one satellite present which can function as a communications relay during the period
that Earth is occluded from Venus. As in the case of Mars, such satellites will
generally serve other scientific purposes as well as relaying communications.

● Surface probes: While not necessary for an initial habitat, probes which can
repeatedly access the surface (bellows / phase-change balloons) are both of
significant utility to the habitat (ISRU, science), as well as being useful on their own
without a habitat being present.
Mass budget
For the below sample mass budget, we will consider a habitat with a CyMet/MON
ascent vehicle (nuclear would be smaller) with a surface area of 60614m² and a volume of
881217m³, entering to 60kPa/30°C, before rising to 50kPa/20°C. The initial lift (aka, without
ISRU-produced lifting gases) is 9 tonnes less than the initial habitat mass, premised on the
concept that propulsive lift, a L/D ratio or the rate of production of lifting gases would be
sufficient to make up such a small difference.

Pre-cre Crew
Arrival Eventual
Name w ISRU arrival Notes
(kg) (kg)
(kg) (kg)

Envelope
Assumed base fabric mass of 180g/m²; small
Fabric 10910 0 0 1091
expansions over time assumed.
2% of total entry mass added for entry-related hardware
Retained entry systems 1147 0 0 0
which is not jettisoned.
Reinforcement /
Reinforcement, walkways and hydroponics / aeroponics
walkways / hydroponics 2728 0 0 273
allocated at 25% of fabric mass
channels
Empennage allocated at 10% of (fabric + reinforcement)
Empennage 1364 0 0 0
mass
Cables carrying the entire habitat mass (incl ascent
vehicle) across it s height at average angle of 30
degrees with tensile strength of 5GPa, density
Primary support cables 241 0 0 24.5
1,85g/cm³, and safety margin of 400%. Allocated for 1)
accessing remote areas, and 2) hanging structural
mass (including within individual rooms)
Horizontal transfer Horizontal cables (9600m), as per above, for carrying
61.9 0 0 0
cables up to 500kg to inaccessible locations.
1158x sheaves (300g each) on the horizontal transfer
Sheaves 347 0 0 0
cables
10m catenaries, calculated the same as primary
Catenary curtain mass 40.1 0 0 4.1
support cables.
100g/m² ballonet fabric at the same area as the outer
Ballonet fabric 6061 0 0 606
envelope
100g/m² phase change envelope fabric at 5% the outer
Phase-change envelope 303 0 0 30.3 envelope area (spread along the surface to maximize
heat exchange)
193 g/m² carbon fibre safety netting (designed for 300kg
Safety netting 1704 0 0 170 falling 20m decelerated over 5m) over 8812 m² (40% of
the maximal habitat horizontal cross section)
Precip / condensation
873 0 0 0 8% of the base envelope mass
collection
0.1kg/m² solar cell mass (on top of the base envelope
Solar cells (w/o
1488 0 0 149 mass) generating a peak 2.5MW at a peak 560W/m²
substrate)
(14881m²)
Average wire diameter of 2,5mm (~10 AWG), 1730m
Long-distance HV wiring 114 0 57.1 0 (4x height + 4x width + 2x length), 50% overhead,
copper pessimistically assumed. An additional 50%
 assumed to arrive later.
Lighting, cameras, Average of 1kg per 2000m² surface plus 1kg per
74.4 0 74.4 0
sensors 20000m³ volume, with the same amount arriving later.
Ballonet fans / 3g of ballonet fan system mass per cubic meter of
182 0 0 90.9
enclosures ballonet area
Flexible plastic plus vacuuming system. Fixed value
Airlocks 25 0 0 25
assumed.
Vents 546 0 0 0 5% of the base envelope mass
Total 27269 0 0 2348
With 10% margin: 29995 0 0 2582
Nighttime power storage = 23.06GJ
Fuel cell stacks 18.45 GJ recoverable
Stack 214 0 0 0 0.5g/cm², 0.8W/cm², 80% efficiency, 137kW max
7086kg Cl2 max (7213m³ including 50% leeway),
Cl2 envelope 94.8 0 0 0
130g/m²
204kg H2 for the fuel cell but 6xed for initial H2 surplus
H2 envelopes 239 0 0 0
(28850m³), 130g/m²
7291kg Cl2 max (14425m³ including 50% leeway),
HCl envelopes 301 0 0 0
130g/m², doubled due to cascade subdivision
1/8th delivered initially, 7/8ths produced in-situ. Requires
Cl2 886 6200 0 0
slower initial night flight speeds / night scrubbing.
6x max requirement shipped initially (from decomposed
H2 1227 0 0 0
hydrazine), for extra lift and initial water production.
Produced at night from H2 + Cl2, does not need to be
HCl 0 0 0 0
accounted for separately
Cl2 condenser 13.1 0 0 0 200 times the max chlorine storage rate (65.6 g/s)
Calculated from curve fit of MH compressors for the
H2 compressors 1.1 0 0 0
storage rate (1.89g/s)
HCl plumbing 8.6 0 0 0 100g/m x 86m
H2 plumbing 0.3 0 0 0 100g/m x 3m (handled internally, no long connections)
100g/m x 83m (less cascade plumbing than HCl,
Depleted H2 plumbing 8.3 0 0 0
otherwise similar constraints)
D2 plumbing 8.3 0 0 0 100g/m x 83m (like above)
Cl2 plumbing 8.6 0 0 0 100g/m x 86m (like HCl)
10% of stack, plumbing, and condenser/compressor
Wiring / sensors 26.2 0 0 0
mass
Total 2984 6200 0 0
With 10% margin: 3282 6820 0 0

Phase-change hardware
Arbitrary figure; actual amount controlled by desired
Initial NH3/H2O mixture 1000 0 0 0
passive flight stability.
Curve fit based on contents, pressure, temperature,
NH3/H2O tank 27.5 0 0 0
etc.
NH3/H2O supply
8.3 0 0 0 100g/m x 83m
plumbing
Total 1036 0 0 0
With 10% margin: 1139 0 0 0

Industrial / gondola
Floor (two levels) 81.7 0 0 0 2kg/m² fold-out composite flooring * 40.8m²
 Assumed to be separated from the habitat (e.g. on
Envelope 36 0 0 0 empennage elements or hanging below) and require its
own envelope (same material, 200m²)
Envelope structural 9 0 0 0 25% of envelope mass
Envelope filtration / Requires its own miniature atmospheric regulation
5 0 0 0
climate system.
Powerful light for visual recognition by / illumination of
Spotlight 10 0 0 0
incoming or hanging vehicles.
Docking lighting 5 0 0 0 Multiple smaller lights to assist in docking and offloading
Interior lighting 0.5 0 0 0 LED lighting
Arbitrary values (detailed industrial systems design
TBD). Hardware needed to produce ammonia, water,
Chemical tankage 100 0 0 900 and nitrates sent initially, but not propellant (as there s
no place to store propellant until the crew arrives in an
ascent vehicle)
Plumbing 10 0 0 100 |
Wiring, breaker box 10 0 0 0 |
Primary distillation unit 200 0 0 0 |
Haber unit 200 0 0 0 |
Ostwald unit 200 0 0 0 |
Sabatier unit 0 0 200 0 |
MON unit 0 0 200 0 |
Cyanogen unit 0 0 200 0 |
Dehydrogenation units 0 0 0 200 |
Hydrocarbon distillation 0 0 0 200 |
Solid oxide fuel cell 0 0 0 0 |
Ethylene unit 0 0 0 0 |
Hydrogen cyanide unit 0 0 200 0 |
Caustic unit 0 0 0 0 |
Fischer-Tropsch unit 0 0 0 200 |
Methanol unit 0 0 0 200 |
Acetylene unit 0 0 0 200 |
Ethylene oxide unit 0 0 0 200 |
Organochlorine units 0 0 0 200 |
Cyclar unit 0 0 0 200 |
Naphtalene unit 0 0 0 200 |
Acetic acid unit 0 0 0 200 |
Glycol unit 0 0 0 200 |
Ammoxidation unit 0 0 0 200 |
Chlorofluorocarbon units 0 0 0 200 |
Other chemical units 0 0 100 800 |
Gel spinning 0 0 0 50 |
Film extrusion / blowing 0 0 0 200 |
Film printing (solar,
0 0 0 100 |
coatings)
Extrusion 0 0 0 150 |
Cable braiding 0 0 0 50 |
Textile weaving 0 0 0 80 \/
 Safety netting / rails 7 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
Total 867 0 900 5030
With 10% margin: 954 0 990 5533

Propulsion
Propellor(s) 60 0 0 0 Assumed 2x 4.2m diameter props with mass 1.7 * d²
Motor(s) 60 0 0 0 90kW max prop power, 1500W/kg motor power
Cowlings 60 0 0 0 Assumed equal to prop mass.
Total 180 0 0 0
With 10% margin: 198 0 0 0

Scrubber
Duct 95 0 0 0 4.2m diameter, 60m long, 120g/m²
Collapsible trusses 38 0 0 0 40% of duct mass
ESPs (x3) 83.1 0 0 0 3x, 2kg/m²
70x spray nozzles (227g each) plus 5kg of plumbing
Spray assembly 50.9 0 0 0
per nozzle.
40m, PEX, 3x safety factor, 4m height change, 7.5m/s
Spray feed 550 0 0 0 flow speed, 24 mPas kinematic viscosity, 3 bar feed
pressure, 1 bar pressure drop
20% the mass of the feed line (most of the ionic liquid
IL tank 110 0 0 0 remains in the feed line, the tank acts as a surplus
reservoir)
As discussed under In-Situ Resource Utilization, the
IL 3000 0 0 0
scrubbing system has not been optimized.
Based on an existing system with similar flow and head
( https://product-selection.grundfos.com/product-detail.p
IL pump 800 0 0 0 roduct-detail.html?lang=ENU&productnumber=9616212
3&productrange=gps&qcid=221514724), lightened by
60%
Demisters and return
249 0 0 0 Assumed 3x the mass of the ESPs.
feeds
SO3 conditioning and Arbitrary values (detailed industrial systems design
20 0 0 0
feeds TBD).
Recovery boiler 300 0 0 0 /\
Recovery heat
300 0 0 0 |
exchanger
Decomposition feed 30 0 0 0 |
Decomposition boiler 30 0 0 0 |
Water stripper 10 0 0 0 |
O2 stripper 10 0 0 0 |
Decomposition heat
30 0 0 0 |
exchangers
Decomposition outbound
20 0 0 0 |
plumbing
Wiring 20 0 0 0 \/
Total 4976 0 0 0
With 10% margin: 5474 0 0 0

Ascent/docking-related
Propellant feed lines 500 0 0 0 Assumed 200m lines; 2x 1kg/m, 1x 0,5kg/m.
Launch winch & cabling 1486 0 0 0 As discussed under Docking, ascent and descent, plus
 a 20% margin.
Miscellaneous purposes; assumed at 10% of the
Secondary winches and
149 0 0 594 primary launch winch, plus more arriving later to assist
cabling
in construction / expansion.
Large tethered docking drone, and all associated
Drone 50 0 0 0
hardware.
Other docking hardware 200 0 0 0 Miscellaneous.
Total 2384 0 0 594
With 10% margin: 2623 0 0 654

Bedrooms
0.4kg/m² composite floor, 13.9m² (embedded solar
Floor 0 0 5.5 0
underside).
Bedframe 0 0 2 0 Composite frame, ideally cable suspended.
Could be lighter (air mattress) or heavier (traditional),
depending on the variety. Composite spring, carbon
Mattress 0 0 4 0
aerogel, or other means could yield particularly
lightweight mattresses without sacrificing comfort.
Heavy duvet not required due to the climate. Durability
Sheeting 0 0 1.5 0
should be emphasized.
300g/m²; 2.1m height; functions as walls and ceiling,
Solar tent 0 0 11.6 0
with openable flap windows and door.
Buffer of 1.5kW for 10 minutes (hair dryer, etc), to
Surge battery 0 0 1.6 0
reduce the external supply wiring s gauge.
Wiring / breaker box 0 0 1.5 0 Arbitrary.
Arbitrary. Includes either drainage feed to a nearby
Plumbing 0 0 1.5 0
hydroponics channel (or mister) to eliminate grey water.
Dehumidifier / condenser 0 0 2 0 Mini water generator; each bedroom has its own supply.
Water tank 0 0 0.9 0 15l water tank
Water 0 0 0 15 15l of water.
Grey water processing 0 0 0.3 0 Simple filtration.
Sink 0 0 0.3 0 Small personal sink (composite).
Shelving 0 0 1 0 Composite shelving (ideally hanging).
Lighting 0 0 0.05 0 Small overhead LED lights.
Misc. furnishings 0 0 1.5 0 Arbitrary.
Every individual has their own gas mask and small
Gas mask 0 0 0.3 0
oxygen tank.
Oxygen tank 0 0 2 0 See above.
Every individual assumed to have their own personal
Laptop 0 0 1 0 laptop, connected to the common data and control
server via wifi.
Indoor clothing 0 0 5 0 Arbitrary.
Atmospheric protection
0 0 4 0 Arbitrary. Designed for EVAs. Not a pressure suit.
suit
Fan 0 0 1 0 Small ceiling / desk fan.
Climbing harness /
0 0 10 0 Ability to ascend cables to inaccessible locations.
ascender
Personal possessions 0 0 25 0 Arbitrary.
Crew 0 0 65 0 Assumed average crew member mass.
Single bedroom, plus one crew member and all of their
Total per bedroom 0 0 149 15
individual needs.
 Total 0 0 1486 150 10x crew. Bedrooms can be joined up for families.
With 10% margin: 0 0 1635 165

Workshop
1.5kg/m² composite floor, 30.2m² including fold-out
Floor (w/foldout leaves) 45.3 0 0 0
leaves (embedded solar underside).
0.5kg/m² composite shelving over 20% of the workshop
Shelving / workbenches 3 0 0 0
area.
300g/m²; 3m height; functions as walls and ceiling; can
Solar tent 24.8 0 0 0
be raised / lowered.
Lighting 0.25 0 0 0 Overhead LED lights.
Wiring, breaker box 6 0 0 1 Arbitrary.
Surplus materials
0 0 100 1000 |
(repairs, etc)
Envelope maintenance
0 0 20 0 |
hardware
Incinerator (w/plumbing) 40 0 0 0 |
Welder (MIG or TIG),
0 0 18 0 |
gear
CO2 tubing from
1.5 0 0 0 |
industrial
Hand tools 0 0 20 20 |
Screws, bolts, tape,
0 0 20 80 |
adhesives, foam, etc
Storage containers 0 0 3 4 |
Drill, bits 0 0 3 5 |
Saw, blades 0 0 3 5 |
Power tool batteries,
0 0 3 5 |
chargers
Vise 0 0 6 0 |
3d printer(s) / CNC 0 0 50 800 |
Printing raw material
0 0 40 600 \/
stocks
300g/m², 2.5m height; extra tent to protect from sparks,
Safety tent 11.8 0 0 0
splatter, debris, etc.
Buffer of 8kW for 10 minutes (welding, sintering, 3d
Surge battery 8.3 0 0 0 printing, etc), to reduce the external supply wiring s
gauge.
Fan 2.5 0 0 0 Ceiling fan
Miscellaneous 10 0 20 50 Arbitrary.
Total 154 0 306 2570
With 10% margin: 169 0 337 2827

Kitchen
1kg/m² composite floor, 30.2m² including fold-out leaves
Floor (w/foldout leaves) 30.2 0 0 0
(embedded solar underside).
300g/m²; 3m height; functions as walls; can be raised /
Solar tent 16.4 0 0 0
lowered.
Must be large enough to wash not just dishes, but also
Sink 2 0 0 0
clothing, sheets, etc.
Lighting 0.25 0 0 0 Overhead LED lights.
 Clothespins and line 1 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
0.2kg/m² composite countertops over 1/7th of the
Countertops 0.9 0 0 0
kitchen area.
600g/m²; 3m height, 6m²; flexible aluminized bubble
Walk-in fridge / freezer,
54 0 0 0 wrap and/or aerogel. Mass increased 50% for internal
collapsible
walls. Chiller assumed at 25kg.
Fridge/freezer shelving 4.8 0 0 0 0.2kg/m², 24m² shelving (4x refrigerator floor area).
Vertically stacked ovens/microwaves (high temperature
4x oven x microwave,
10 0 0 0 collapsible insulation structure), for cooking,
collapsible
dehydrating, etc.
610 days of stockpiled 2000kcal/kg food for
Food stockpiles (dry,
0 0 9150 4575 3000kcal/day diets for a 10-person crew, plus an extra
liquid, frozen)
50% stockpiled over time.
Large-scale hanging dry
0 0 686 0 Assumed to be 5% of max food stockpile mass.
food storage
Large-scale hanging
0 0 343 0 Assumed to be 50% of dry storage mass.
liquids storage
Kitchen shelving 18.1 0 0 0 0.15kg/m², 91m² (3x kitchen floor area)
Containers 0 0 3 3 Arbitrary.
Range 2.5 0 0 0 |
Mushroom cultivation 15 0 0 0 |
Mushroom compost 0 0 0 60 |
Wiring 5 0 0 0 |
Plumbing 3 0 0 0 |
Water in plumbing 0 10 0 0 |
Grey water filtration 0.6 0 0 0 |
Tablet (controls) 0.5 0 0 0 |
Thresher / winnower 0 0 12 0 |
Grain mill, mid-sized 0 0 6 0 |
Grinder, small 0 0 0.5 0 |
Press / extruder (pasta,
0 0 3 0 |
puffed grain, etc)
Food processor / blender 0 0 1 0 |
Kneader / churn / conche 0 0 5 0 |
Cookware 0 0 25 10 |
Fan 0 0 2.5 0 \/
Total 164 10 10235 4648
With 10% margin: 181 11 11258 5113

Common area
0.5kg/m² composite floor, 30.2m² including fold-out
Floor (w/foldout leaves) 15.1 0 0 0
leaves.
Shelving 4.5 0 0 0 0.15kg/m², 30.2m² (same as floor area)
Chairs 0 0 12.6 0 6x, 35% the weight of a bedroom bed
Couches 0 0 8.4 0 2x, 70% the weight of a bedroom bed
Television, brackets, Large, lightweight hanging flat screen (movies, games,
0 0 9 0
cabling, speakers, etc. etc)
Common set of lightweight computers for habitat control,
Media / control / data
0 0 6 0 data storage, internet caching, TV / movies / games,
cluster
local computing, and other needs. Use of multiple
 systems provides redundancy and allows parts to be
cannibalized from broken systems.
300g/m²; 2.5m height; functions as walls; can be raised /
Solar tent 13.6 0 0 0
lowered.
Wiring 3.5 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
Plumbing (pass through) 1 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
Games, general Any physical gaming equipment not part of a gaming
0 0 6 0
entertainment table.
Multipurpose table (pool, table tennis, glide hockey,
foosball, poker, etc) which can double as a general
Convertible gaming table 0 0 15 0
meeting / dining table, or with the addition of sterile
plastic sheeting a surgical table.
Medical / dental hardware 0 0 200 1000 Not broken down individually.
Medicine / disposables 0 0 40 120 Not broken down individually.
Room lighting 0.25 0 0 0 Overhead LED lights.
Ceiling-mounted articulating light over the table for
Surgical light 0 0 6 0
medical / dental procedures.
Total 38 0 303 1120
With 10% margin: 41.8 0 333 1232

Shelter / laboratory + bathroom

4kg/m² composite structure, 4.2m² diameter, 2.1m
height. Airtight and sufficiently robust to withstand a
Floor / walls / ceiling /
222 0 0 0 small pressure differential, so that vacuum-incompatible
doors
hardware can be stored inside, and crew safety in the
event of envelope gas contamination.
Interior walls / doors 5 0 0 0 0.4kg/m² x 6m.
Lighting 0.15 0 0 0 Small overhead LED lights.
Shelving 2.1 0 0 0 0.15kg/m², 13.9m² (same as floor area)
3% of the base structural mass of the shelter /
External platform / railing 6.7 0 0 0
laboratory.
Wiring / breaker box 5 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
Plumbing 5 0 0 0 |
Containers 0 0 1 0 |
Computers 0 0 4 0 |
External winch / bucket /
20 0 0 0 |
cabling
Chairs 0 0 8.4 0 \/
An independent CO2 scrubbing system is required for
CO2 scrubbing system 10 0 0 0
the room to act as a shelter.
Oxygen dewar 29.4 0 0 0 Half the weight of the stored oxygen.
Oxygen liquefaction /
19.6 0 0 0 A third the weight of the stored oxygen.
dispensing
Sufficient oxygen for 10 people breathing 0.84kg/day for
Oxygen 0 58.8 0 0
a week.
Three personal gas masks present, to allow people to
Gas masks (x3) 0 0 0.9 0 leave the shelter in the case of an emergency or to act
as spares.
Individual oxygen tanks Personal oxygen tanks, refillable within the shelter from
0 0 12 0
(x6) stored oxygen.
Climbing harnesses /
0 0 30 0 Spares / for use in emergencies.
ascenders (x3)
 Toilet (washing,
10 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
dessicating)
Sink 0.3 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
Misc. bathroom 0 0 5 0 Arbitrary.
Buffer of 6kW for 15 minutes for the upper central core
Central core surge
9.4 0 0 0 (lab, common area, kitchen), to reduce the external
battery
supply wiring s gauge.
Fan 1 0 0 0 Small ceiling / desk fan.
Total 344 58.8 61.3 0
With 10% margin: 379 64.7 67.4 0

Atmosphere and water management

Condenser /
4000 0 0 0 Arbitrary; see
environmental control
Central core water tank 40 0 0 0 Composite water tank, 4% the mass of the stored water
Central core water 0 1000 0 0 1000l of water
Total 4040 1000 0 0
With 10% margin: 4444 1100 0 0

Shower
Light 0 0 0.05 0 Small LED light.
300g/m²; 2.1m height; shower assumed to be 2m²; no
Solar curtain 0 0 2.9 0
roof present.
Shower base (pumping, Based on existing water-recycling shower systems,
0 0 15 0
water recapture) somewhat lightened.
Dehumidifier / condenser 0 0 4 0 Small condenser to refill the tank
Water tank 0 0 1.8 0 Composite water tank, 6% the mass of the stored water
Water 0 0 0 30 30 liters of water.
Plumbing 0 0 1 0 Arbitrary.
Wiring 0 0 1 0 |
Towels / washcloths,
0 0 5 0 |
drying line
Miscellaneous 0 0 4 0 \/
Buffer of 3kW for 15 minutes, to reduce the external
Surge battery 0 0 4.7 0
supply wiring s gauge.
Total 0 0 39.5 30
With 10% margin: 0 0 43.4 33

Agriculture, apiculture
Individual agricultural fertilizer nutrients, shipped either
as salts ready for dissolution, or to reduce shipping
Nutrients 30 0 30 200
mass, metals or oxides / hydroxides to be reacted with
acids to generate salts locally.
Fractional crystalization 20 0 0 0 Arbitrary
Composite solution tanks, 6% of the mass of the stored
Solution tanks 60 0 0 0
solution.
Solution 0 1000 0 0 1000l of solution, generated with in-situ water.
Solution analysis &
10 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
adjustment
Plumbing 10 0 0 0 /\
Pumps 20 0 0 0 |
 Flow management 10 0 0 0 |
Movable shading / lighting
0 0 40 0 |
tent(s)
Gardening equipment 0 0 30 0 \/
Any plants for which its desirable (and possible) to ship
seeds pre-embedded in germination substrate in the
Seeds / plants 10 2500 50 5000
hydroponics channels are shipped thusly; others arrive
with the crew.
A small hive arrives fully sealed, in hibernation mode;
Beehive (empty) 0 0 30 0 some blooming plants at arrival would allow for
immediate opening of the hive.
Beehive (internal) 0 0 50 0 Bees, honey, etc.
Beekeeping equipment 0 0 12 0 Arbitrary.
Total 170 3500 242 5250
With 10% margin: 187 3850 266 5720

Aquaculture
Transparent, composite-reinforced tank - 8% of the
Pond(s) 0 0 0 800
water mass.
1m deep / 10m². Grown purely on algae, this yields 15g
tilapia per person per day; this figure can be boosted via
Water 0 0 0 10000
LED-boosted algae growth and feeding of agricultural
and/or livestock wastes.
Algae shelter 0 0 0 6 600g per square meter.
Water quality
0 0 0 7 700g per square meter
management
Fingerling / fry rearing 0 0 0 30 Arbitrary
Tools (nets, etc) 0 0 0 10 |
Wiring 0 0 0 1 |
Plumbing 0 0 0 2 \/
Total 0 0 0 10856
With 10% margin: 0 0 0 11942

Livestock
0.7kg/m² x 10.9m² (sum of dairy and egg areas, times
Floor 0 0 0 7.6 1.5 and plus 2 square meters to account for walkways).
Goats assumed for dairy (aka, low floor impact)
300g/m²; 2.5m height; functions as walls and ceiling; can
Solar tent 0 0 0 11.2
be raised / lowered.
Circumference waste
0 0 0 2.9 25% of floor mass plus 1kg
trough
Calculated for goats with 1/2 l per crew member per
Dairy animal mass 0 0 0 125
day.
Containment, feeding, enrichment, etc 1.5kg/m² x
Dairy pen 0 0 0 7.2
4.8m² (pen area increased to 50% over the minimum)
Calculated for hens with 3 small eggs per crew member
Bird mass 0 0 0 12.6
per day.
Containment, feeding, enrichment, etc 2kg/m² x 2.2m²
Enriched caging 0 0 0 4.5
(pen area increased to 50% over the minimum)
Stockpiled dairy feed 0 0 0 143 20 days feed stockpile
Stockpiled laying feed 0 0 0 22.9 20 days feed stockpile
Water in troughs 0 0 0 8.3 6% of animal mass
Dehumidifier / condenser 0 0 0 10 Midsized condenser.
Water tank 0 0 6 0 Composite water tank, 6% the mass of the stored water
Water in tank 0 0 0 100 100 liters of water.
Wiring / breaker box 0 0 0 3 Arbitrary
Plumbing 0 0 0 2 /\
Lighting 0 0 0 0.15 |
Portable milking machine 0 0 0 20 |
Incubator 0 0 0 10 |
Buckets, containers,
0 0 0 20 |
tools
Vetenary 0 0 0 50 \/
Buffer of 1.5kW for 10 minutes, to reduce the external
Surge battery 0 0 0 1.6
supply wiring s gauge.
Total 0 0 6 562
With 10% margin: 0 0 6.6 618

Communications / science
Antennas 75 0 0 0 50x 1.5kg antennas (including relay / power)
Radio management
10 0 0 0 Arbitrary.
system
Wifi / repeaters 15 0 0 0 |
Wiring 10 0 0 0 \/
Nephelometers 2.3 0 0 0 Based on EVE instruments, with small increases.
Radiometers 2 0 0 0 |
XRF 0 0 1 0 |
MET 2.3 0 0 0 |
TDL spectrometers 0 0 1.7 0 |
Mass spectrometer 0 0 3.5 0 |
ATRS 0 0 2 0 \/
Cameras (misc) 10 0 0 0 Arbitrary
Scale + microbalance 0 0 1 0 |
Autoclave 0 0 30 0 |
Robotic chem lab 0 0 0 300 |
Rock tools 0 0 20 0 |
Microscope(s) &
0 0 10 0 |
accessories
Hot plate, stirrir 0 0 1 0 |
Miscellaneous lab
0 0 40 40 |
equipment
Miscellaneous
20 0 20 120 \/
experiments
Total 147 0 130 460
With 10% margin: 161 0 143 506

In-transit (not retained)

Curve fit based on contents, pressure, temperature,
Cl2 supply tank(s) 29.8
etc.
Ammonia tank 340 5% of the ammonia mass.
Nitrogen fraction of 5600 Hydrogen fraction already accounted for under Fuel cell
 ammonia stacks. This nitrogen inflates the habitat portion of the
envelope 1.1% full.
Hydrazine decomposition 100 Catalyst pack to break down and inject ammonia
Separation membrane to strip nitrogen from the
N2/H2 separation 100 hydrogen envelope and inject it into the primary
envelope.
2% of initial spacecraft mass, not counting transit
Propellant and tankage 1218
hardware.
Propulsion 60.9 5% of propellant and tankage mass.
In-transit
10 Arbitrary.
communications
Guidance 10 Arbitrary.
0.5% of initial spacecraft mass, not counting transit
Shielding 305
hardware.
3% of initial spacecraft mass, not counting transit
Disposed entry systems 1827
hardware.
Power subsystem 100 Arbitrary.
0.5% of initial spacecraft mass plus 5% of other
Miscellaneous 385
in-transit mass.
Total 10085
With 10% margin: 11093

The retained habitat mass is 46500 kg, while including the disposed-of transfer
hardware (but not the VTO boost stage) is 57350 kg. This puts it within the range of
upcoming launch vehicles to LEO (SLS Block 1, Falcon Heavy, New Glenn), optionally with
some components (such as liquids) added with a subsequent launch. The transfer stage
could be launched separately and mated in orbit. Contrarily, a larger rocket such as SLS
Block 2 or SpaceX ITS could launch it complete to LEO.

After deployment, an added 11.8 tonnes of mass is produced before the crew arrives.
The first crew arrival brings 15.5 tonnes of payload, most of which could be sent instead with
the habitat if so desired. An extra 37.1 tonnes is eventually added, 32% of which is
represented by the aquaculture pond; if this mass is deemed excessive, aquaculture could
be focused on more intensive means (feeding of waste rather than algae and/or LED-grown
algae), at the cost of not providing a location for swimming, or avoided altogether. Including
the aquaculture pond, the total habitat mass by the end is 121.7 tonnes, versus a total lift of
264.1 tonnes, leaving lift of up to 142.4 tonnes for the ascent vehicle. While a wide variety of
cutbacks or design changes are possible to eliminate up to few dozen tonnes, it is unlikely
that an ascent vehicle for such a habitat would be able to exceed around 170 tonnes wet
mass.
Expansion
The primary goal of long-term settlement of another world is that, once all local needs
are accounted for, the settlement can be expanded, through any combination of enlargement
and new settlement construction. This is no different on Venus. Once a habitat has reached
the stage of stability and is achieving production of structural ISRU materials (envelope
fabric, cabling, etc) in excess of local needs, focus should be moved towards new
construction.

There are no shortage of ways in which a new habitat "could" be constructed -

hanging from beneath the existing habitat, floating above it, to the side, and a variety of
means for building within the habitat and "budded" off. Without casting judgement on any
other possible means, we will focus on the latter, and in particular an airship variant known
as the "airworm".

A variety of airworm designs from 2001 and 2003. Based on Kröplin et al (2006).669

The airworm (multisegmented airship / "steerable draft") concept was first proposed
by Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1890 with a commercialization attempt in 1909 by Theodor
Zorn, but ultimately never implemented.670 The idea was resurrected in 2001 by a University
of Stuttgart spinoff named TAO (later renamed AirChain671) to commercialize a small-scale
variant known as the Sanswire-TAO STS-111. This was subsequently developed into the
Argus One UAV by its successor, World Surveillance Group. Their variant, however,
utilized somewhat different design decisions to that needed for a habitat (the rear cells being
used for holding only gaseous fuel, not for payload-bearing lift). The design was chosen as
one of Time's best 50 inventions of 2010.672

669
Kröplin, B., Epperlein, F., Kunze, A. (2006) Mechanical aspects of flight in the lower stratosphere. Shell Structures: Theory
and Applications - Pietraszkiewicz & Szymczak. 2006 Taylor & Francis Group, London. ISBN 0 415 38390 0
670
Bleibler, J. (2002): Starrluftschiffprojekte in Deutschland 1908 bis 1914, in: Meighörner, W. (Hrsg.): Luftschiffe die nie
gebaut wurden, Friedrichshafen, S. 31.
671
Lutz, T. AirChain. Institut für Aerodynamik und Gasdynamik, Universität Stuttgart.
672
Luscombe, B. (2010, November 11). The 50 Best Inventions of 2010 . Time.
 Argus One. Photo: © World Surveillance Group

Contrary to appearances, the airworm concept was not designed to be a means to

expand existing airships. Rather, it is an airship design from the ground up for achieving high
mass efficiency in large nonrigid airships. As has been discussed previously, the greatest
mass efficiency is achieved the closer an airship is to spherical. Contrarily, aerodynamics
favours long, narrow shapes. Hence, the airworm combines the two: lift from nearly
spherical envelopes, arranged in a line as lift cells, with lightweight, low overpressure
interconnects between them. Each nearly-spherical envelope is built as a largely
independent airship, with its own propulsion/steering, but all coordinate together for collective
mobility.673

While not designed as such, the applicability of the airworm concept towards in-situ
expansion can be clearly seen; the original habitat continues to function as normal, while new
habitats are built with direct connection to the original. Each new habitat can be built bigger
than the last, and - more to the point - it is actually desirable, from an aerodynamics
perspective, to do so; aerodynamics favours tapering shapes. When it becomes desirable to
have a human presence in multiple locations, portions of an airworm can disconnect their lift
cells and their outer skin at an arbitrary point, and each segment remains fully functional as
an airship on its own. Each segment can also be isolated from each other in the event of
emergencies. Entire segments could be, for example, dedicated to industry, with little
concern about contamination of adjacent segments in the event of an accident, simply by
keeping the "door" closed. In the event of a severe explosion, it is unlikely that more than one
or two segments would be damaged; the others would continue to provide lift.

In short, there is much appealing about the design. However, we must now examine
issues that pertain specifically to the use of an airworm design as a Venus habitat expansion
concept.

● Envelope material: Clearly, any envelope fabric exposed to the harsh external
environment must be rated to tolerate it. This includes exterior portions of lift cells as
well as the interconnecting fabric. But what about the inwards-facing portions of the lift
envelope?

Resistant coatings come at a cost - particularly fluoropolymer coatings, due to

the relative rarity of fluorine compared to other atmospheric gases. They also tend to
be heavy and with lower structural strength. While an initial habitat might have only

673
Kröplin et al 2006.
 one layer rather than distinct lift cells surrounded by an outer skin, it may be desirable
for future lift cells to have their unexposed portions lack such coatings, with only the
outer sheath protected. This would have a few implications:

● The void space between lift cells, while it must be buoyancy neutral (carbon
dioxide) to serve the purpose of remaining low stress / lightweight, may not
contain corrosive compounds, such as acidic mists.

● During separation, the inner envelope must never be directly exposed.

● Moisture: The CO 2-filled void space should ideally have slow dehumidification to
recover moisture permeated into it from the habitable lift envelopes, particularly if the
outer envelope is highly impermeable (e.g. PCTFE). High accumulation of water
vapour permeation from the lift cells would not only be a waste of a valuable
resource, but could also lead to condensation and precipitation, and thus potentially
concentrated mass loadings of liquid water on the envelope. Other permeated gases
are not of much concern; nitrogen and oxygen are easier to acquire, and don't pose
any condensation risk.

● Utilization: While the void space cannot be economically utilized for lift (without
imposing stress and thus mass requirements), it can nonetheless be utilized for solar
power generation. The potential of the use of the void space for agriculture is worth
investigating.

Any sort of basic budding process - whether a new habitat section or just a
temporary lift envelope - follows roughly the same process. If there is no external envelope:

● This first involves creation of a reinforcing ring in the envelope. Any holes in an
envelope are high-stress areas that requires cabling to bear the load. This cabling
must be installed without damaging the envelope. Immediately inside the reinforcing
ring, a heater wire should be installed, and inside that, a small retaining line attached
to the envelope.

● Next, the temporary envelope(s) must be built indoors, and joined with the exterior
envelope at the reinforcing ring. The temporary envelope should be securely affixed
to the original habitat (catenaries and/or rigid reinforcement) with winches.

● Current is sent through the heater wire, melting off the section of the original envelope
inside the reinforcing ring. Slowly letting off the brakes on the winches allows internal
pressure to push out the new temporary lift envelope and inflate it. The ballonets
inside the habitat simultaneously inflate to compensate for the loss of air.

● As new ISRU hardware production produces more fabric and cabling, ISRU O 2/N2
production can produce more lifting gas to compensate. The severed section of
envelope and heater wire can be retrieved through the airlock via the retaining line for
reuse.
 For cases where lift cells are separate from the external envelope, this depends on
the habitat s design. A habitat designed from the beginning for airworm-style budding may
already have inner lift cells surrounded by an outer protective envelope. In this case, the
outer envelope can be expanded by budding (the details depending on the implementation),
followed by budding off the new lift cell inside of it as described above. If the original habitat
was not designed suchly, there may be no outer envelope connection between the first and
second lift cells; the outer envelope would then begin at the second lift cell, and be available
for each subsequent expansion. A habitat could also undergo mitosis down the center
(albeit at greater difficulty), deploying an outer envelope at the same time it deploys two lift
cell walls.

Expansion is a double-edged sword: it greatly increases local production capacity,

but at the same time, by having more people s needs to meet and conducting more local
production, it inflates the import requirements from Earth. Hence it is important to ensure that
as a colony grows, it increases its ability to produce a broader range of local goods to help
alleviate import needs. This includes utilization of both atmospheric and surface-dredging
feedstocks.

From this point forward, there are no limits. We thus return to Landis (2003), who
described the long-term potential as follows:

"For o je ts the size o ities, this represents an enormous amount o li tin po er. A
one-kilometer diameter spheri al en elope ill li t 00,000 tons t o Empire state uildin s . A
t o-kilometer diameter en elope ould li t million tons. So, i the settlement is ontained in an
en elope ontainin o en and nitro en the size o a modest it , the amount o mass hi h an
e li ted ill e, in a t, lar e enou h that it ould also hold the mass o a modest it . e result
ould e an en ironment as spa ious as a t pi al it . "

By the time that habitat diameters are measured in kilometers rather than dozens or
hundreds of meters, you could loft whole redwood forests. Sculpted landscapes with soil and
boulders atop a structural grid. You could, in effect, build an entire new surface over the
planet - a surface 3.1 times as large as all the land area of Earth. This is, in effect, a form of
terraforming.

But there are other forms as well.

Terraforming
The ultimate vision of many space colonization advocates is terraforming. The logo of
the Mars Society, for example, features an image of Mars being transformed into an
Earthlike planet with an astronaut standing in the foreground. When discussing their Mars
plans, SpaceX frequently uses a series of images of Mars slowly transforming into another
Earth. Indeed, terraforming is a nearly ubiquitous trope in science fiction.
 The literature on the subject is extensive and we will not seek to recreate it all here,
only to recap some of the major aspects. Making a planet Earthlike requires overcoming a
number of obstacles. First, things which on Venus are far easier to deal with than Mars:

● Gravity

Earth's surface gravity is 9.81 m/s². Mars's is 3.71 m/s². Venus's is 8.87m/s². There
is little reason to suspect that Venus's gravity would pose a problem for long-term human
health, but it's uncertain as to whether Mars's would. Unfortunately, terraforming Mars's
gravity is essentially an impossible task, as gravity is a consequence of mass, and apart
from slamming Venus or Earth into Mars, or somehow extracting potential solid matter from
the cores of gas/ice giants or the sun's plasma, there just is not that much solid matter in the
solar system.

● Insufficient nitrogen

While some of Mars nitrogen has been sequestered to soil as nitrates, most - as
evidenced by its isotopic ratios - has been largely lost to space over its history. Initial levels
of nitrogen on Mars were dozens to hundreds of times higher than they are today.674 Nitrogen
is a key element for all life. The quantity of nitrogen or ammonia ices that would have to be
imported from the Kuiper belt to give Mars an Earthlike atmosphere is far beyond our means
for the foreseeable future.

● Biopreservation

One of the primary arguments against terraforming Mars is fear that it could wipe out
current or past life, or at least evidence of it. As concerns of life on Venus are much lower
and the entire planet appears to have already been resurfaced, this is a much lesser concern
(although some lines of evidence have been suggested as potential evidence of life).675

There are also problems which Venus must address that Mars does not:

● Rotation

Mars' day is 24h 37m, nearly the same as Earth's. Venus's surface however
experiences a day length of 243 Earth days. Making Venus "Earthlike" requires remedying
this situation.

● Insufficient water

Venus's average water inventory of 20ppm means that if Venus's carbon dioxide and
most of its nitrogen were removed, it would be left with an atmosphere containing 0.18%

674
Jakosky, B. M., Pepin, R. O., Johnson, R. E., & Fox, J. L. (1994). Mars atmospheric loss and isotopic fractionation by
solar-wind-induced sputtering and photochemical escape. Icarus , 111(2), 271-288.
675
Landis, G. A. (2003). Astrobiology: the case for Venus . Journal of the British Interplanetary Society , vol. 56, p. 250-254
water vapour (dry air) over a largely water-degassed crust. In short, it would be a desert
planet.

Lastly, there exist problems shared by both:

● Magnetosphere

Creating a planetary magnetosphere, whether internal or artificial, would be needed

for Earthlike levels of radiation at the surface.

● Atmospheric density

Venus has too much of an atmosphere, with far too much CO 2 and somewhat of an
excess of N2; the pressure must be lowered to make it Earthlike. Mars, conversely, has too
little of an atmosphere.

● Radiative balance

Mars and Venus need to ensure, after their atmospheres are adjusted, that the
appropriate level of albedo/greenhouse effect is present to ensure Earthlike temperatures at
the surface.

In short, we have five problems to solve for Venus.

Proposals
Carl Sagan made the first major proposal for depleting carbon dioxide from Venus's
atmosphere in 1961, proposing the injection of photosynthetic bacteria into the atmosphere to
sequester carbon.676 Although the composition of the atmosphere wasn't well known at the
time, today we know that while the upper atmosphere is quite hostile, there exists in it
varying quantities of C, H, O, N, S, and probably significant amounts of P as well - the key
elements of all life on Earth.

Unfortunately for his plan, the Venera programme revealed that Venus's atmosphere
was far more massive than expected. Sagan later conceded that his proposal was unviable:

“...the esult ould e a su a e u ied in hund eds o mete s o fine aphite, and
an atmosphe e made o 64 a s o almost pu e mole ula o en. Whethe e ould fi st
implode unde the atmosphe i p essu e o spontaneousl u st into lames in all that
o en is open to uestion. Ho e e , lon e o e so mu h o en ould uild up, the
aphite ould spontaneousl u n a k to CO2, sho t- i uitin the p o ess."677

676
Sagan, C. (1961). The Planet Venus: Recent observations shed light on the atmosphere, surface, and possible biology of
the nearest planet. Science,133(3456), 849-858. doi:10.1126/science.133.3456.849
677
Sagan, C., & Druyan, A. (2011). Pale Blue Dot. S.I.: Ballantine Books.
 Frequently suggested approaches to removing the atmosphere have involved
bombardment. Unfortunately Pollack and Sagan calculated in 1994 that striking Venus with
an object 700km in diameter (roughly 40% greater than Enceladus) at greater than 20 km/s
would only remove less than a thousandth of the atmosphere - largely into Venus's orbit,
where it could eventually be recaptured.678 The violent impacts might instead indirectly
increase Venus's atmosphere by inducing volcanic outgassing.

More realistic, but still far beyond our capability, involves bombarding Venus with
material to sequester its atmosphere. Gillet proposed bombarding Venus with approximately
8e20kg calcium or 5e20kg magnesium.679 By contrast, the mass of the entire asteroid belt is
only 3e21kg in total. Perhaps more interesting is Birch's 1991 proposal to bombard Venus
with 4e19kg of hydrogen (which is far more abundant) to convert its atmosphere to graphite
and water via the Bosch reaction. Such a process would simultaneously generate seas
covering 80% of Venus's surface. The possibility of hydrogen import through solar wind
capture is yet to be studied, although due to the limited flux it would be a slow process. Other
sea-generating proposals involve trajectory adjustments on comets or ejecting small moons
from the outer planets onto a Venus-intercept trajectory, via encounters with larger moons of
the same system.680 The concept of extracting water from Venus s mantle (which is likely
not completely degassed681) has also been discussed, although a realistic means to do so is
lacking. Regardless of the means, if seas were formed, a portion of Venus's excess nitrogen
would dissolve into them in accordance with Henry s Law.

A variety of concepts presented by Birch also call for freezing the carbon dioxide out
of the atmosphere, by various means such as supermassive heat pipes and solar shades.
This then requires shielding the frozen carbon dioxide on the surface, with expansive sheets
of insulation and massive cooling systems. Obviously, this likewise falls under the category
of mega-engineering. While a long-term problem, the situation would not be permanent; plant
sequestration of carbon and the oxidation of rocks would require steady influxes of carbon
dioxide on a more or less permanent basis, as Venera data indicates FeO quantities of 7.7 to
9.3 percent in the rocks sampled.

An additional proposal from Birch involves pulverizing the surface of Venus to a depth
of 1km or more to expose sufficient surface rock to the atmosphere to form carbonates. This
however appears likely to require first cooling the planet and the creation of water in order to
mediate carbonate formation and allow them to exist in a stable form - thus requiring in part
the situation it is designed to accomplish.

As mentioned in the previous chapter, a proposal from Landis is the concept that
simply "moving the surface" is in effect terraforming.682 That is to say, the more colonies one

678
Pollack, J. B., Sagan, C. (1994). Planetary Engineering. Resources of Near-Earth Space. Tucson: The University of
Arizona Press.
679
Gillet, S. L. (1996). Inward Ho. Islands in the sky bold new ideas for colonizing space (Zubrin, R. M., & Schmidt). John
Wiley & Sons.
680
Birch, P. (1991). Terraforming Venus Quickly . Journal of the British Interplanetary Society , Vol. 44, pp. 157-167.
681
Elkins-Tanton, L. T., Smrekar, S. E., Hess, P. C., & Parmentier, E. M. (2007). Volcanism and volatile recycling on a
one-plate planet: Applications to Venus . Journal of Geophysical Research, 112(E4). doi:10.1029/2006je002793
682
Landis, G. (2011). Terraforming Venus: A Challenging Project for Future Colonization. AIAA SPACE 2011 Conference &
Exposition. doi:10.2514/6.2011-7215
builds in the habitable zone, the more increasingly massive and increasingly interconnected
the lofted structures are, the more it becomes as if the surface of the planet actually is at
cloud height. As these habitats increasingly shade the atmosphere below, it slowly cools and
shrinks. This, like all other proposals, can easily be classified under "mega-engineering".
However, unlike previous proposals, this could be seen as a natural progression from simple
straightforward floating colonies as populations grow and human civilization expands.

A final proposal is, straightforwardly, the outright ejection of Venus's atmosphere to

spin up the planet. Concepts range across the board from mass drivers to space fountains
and beyond. As Landis points out, the amount of energy required - 2.5e28 joules - is equal to
a terawatt of power applied continuously for 850 million years.

Other proposals to accelerate the planet's rotation have ranged from impactors
(facing the same size / availability / damage-from-impact problems as for impact-based
atmosphere removal) to a stream of pellets moving between the sun and Venus at 1/10th the
speed of light and magnetically deflected by a belt girdling Venus's equator.683

Discussion
Let us back up for a moment and make a few general observations.

● Terraforming is not a near-term activity by any stretch. The terraforming of Venus

most certainly not.

● The new surface proposal raises the prospect of simultaneous freezing out of the
lower atmosphere. However, this will not occur passively. At Venus s ~9 MPa
surface pressure, CO 2 freezes at 230°K, significantly below comfortable habitat
temperatures; hence the crust would be undergoing convective and radiative
exchange with an insufficiently cold layer of habitat undersides. However, active
cooling of the underside of the habitats could render this a possibility.

● Ignoring all issues of practicality, mass ejection technically could spin up the planet at
the same time as depleting the atmosphere. With earth-rate rotation requiring
imparting 2.5e28J and the atmosphere massing 4.8e20kg, each kilogram ejected
must impart a minimum of 52MJ to Venus, corresponding to a velocity of 10.2km/s.
This is roughly the same as Venus's escape velocity of 10.36 km/s. Mass with
sufficient escape velocity could be ejected on an intercept with other outer solar
system bodies, potentially helping provide them with a warming atmosphere.

● Arriving hydrogen for water generation could impart angular momentum to Venus as
well.

● All of the masses involved mass ejection or hydrogen import are vastly beyond
anything we have ever done in the history of our species.

683
Birch, P. (1993) How to spin a planet. British Interplanetary Society , Journal (ISSN 0007-094X), vol. 46, no. 8, p. 311-313.
 ● Using atmospheric ejection to eliminate the atmosphere and spin up the planet would
expose a new problem: as soon as you succeeded and then tried to create an
oxygen-rich atmosphere, surface rocks would oxidize and deplete it. By contrast, the
proposals which sequester Venus s carbon locally (analogous to coal and shale
deposits on Earth), would not suffer from this problem, as the oxygen freed in CO 2
decomposition would have oxidized the iron.

● Concerning rotation, 1 petawatt at 100% efficiency, would require 792k years to

accelerate Venus's angular momentum to match that of Earth. With a radius of 6050
km and a solar constant of 2586 W/m², all of the light falling on Venus combined is
297.4 PW - which if entirely harnessed at 100% efficiency would still take 2664 years
to fully change Venus's day length. The light currently arriving from the sun cannot on
its own impart the sort of energy necessary to do the task quickly. Additional energy
sources would be needed. Such levels of energy production would almost certainly
render the planet uninhabitable while in use; utilizing 100 times as much power as the
sun currently provides, at 99% efficiency, would still double the net heating on the
planet.

● These together suggest that the most common alternative approach to Venus's
rotation problem may be more realistic. Birch proposed a solar-sail like "soletta",
large enough to entire blot out the sun from Venus, orbiting on a 24-hour polar orbit.
As it passes on Venus's day side, it creates an artificial night; as it passes on the
night side, it creates an artificial day. He suggests a solar sail material weighing an
extremely light 30 micrograms per square meter, with a net system mass of 4GT.

Such a system falls into a potentially practical mass range for launch from a future
industrialized society, although in no uncertain terms presents a huge technological
challenge on numerous fronts that we are ill equipped to tackle today. By the time
there would be an interest / need for it, however, it could be a potentially viable
solution. It also meets the standard of incremental benefit: a partially completed
sunshade is better than no sunshade at all. Each incremental piece launched makes
the planet a little more Earthlike, thus helping justify the continuation of the
development programme over long periods of time.

The atmosphere s bulk mass, however, still remains a problem - barring extreme
solutions such as freezing it out and storing it.

It has been estimated that, had Sagan's initial microbial plan been "successful", it still
would have taken between eleven thousand and 1.1 million years to complete, depending on
how optimistic the assumptions are about photosynthesis.684 But there's the rub: there would
never have been some sudden, instantaneous flux of graphite and oxygen, some great fire
hazard waiting to go off. Rather, it would have meant low levels of oxygen in the
atmosphere, as well as low levels of a carbonaceous precipitate. Iron(II) oxide is quite
reactive with oxygen at 400-500°C; surface rocks would thus would consume it as fast as it
was being created, until the FeO resource (and other reducing species) were exhausted or
684
Fogg, M. J. (1995) Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments , SAE Press, ISBN 1-56091-609-5
completely buried. So long as the transport of weathered rock continues to expose fresh,
unweathered rock, the entire planet will continue rusting. Venus would be laying down its own
dry-deposited banded iron formations.

In short, what we would be looking at would be a Venusian equivalent of Earth's

Great Oxygenation Event, when cyanobacteria began to photosynthesize and release
oxygen, first oxidizing all of Earth's ferric iron, then subsequently transforming Earth's
atmosphere to one full of oxygen.685 On Earth, it heralded the death of most life. On Venus, it
would be life's birth.

The dynamics are not simple and, without further study, are only speculation.
However, if one has patience - and can produce Sagan's hypothetical microbe - or artificially
achieve the same effect - then perhaps it was not so absurd of an idea after all.

No planet in our solar system will likely ever be another Earth. Mars will always be
small and low gravity. Radiation shielding requires mega-engineering. The planet may simply
have to suffice with having low levels of nitrogen - whatever ended up sequestered in regolith
rather than stripped - and plant life hindered as a consequence. But it could still become a
home. Sufficient oxygen pressures could be established for breathing without excess fire
hazard (0.3-0.4 atm). Heavy amounts of greenhouse gases could raise the temperature, and
allow seas - however sparsely inhabited - to form.

Venus, too, might never become another Earth. Accelerating its rotation speed might
never be achieved - a soletta may need to suffice. Its radiation shielding may be nothing
more than its overinflated, 2.5 bar nitrogen atmosphere. Large amounts of water might never
be delivered, and plant life hindered as a consequence. It would be a world whose residents
live as if always having a mild alcoholic buzz due to the lower ends of nitrogen narcosis,686
until life managed to sequester a large portion of the nitrogen in the lithosphere (as is the
case on Earth).687 Perhaps the extra hydrogen, and thus water, will never come. But even in
such a scenario, it could still become a home - Earth's desert twin.

This is, perhaps, too pessimistic. The first mammals evolved 225 million years ago.
Homo sapiens evolved 200 thousand years ago. 6800 years ago the first known permanent
structures were built. One hundred years ago horse-drawn buggies outnumbered cars in
industrialized nations. The rate of our technological advancement, while highly uneven
between technological fields and timeperiods, has been astounding. Perhaps in the future our
species will be controlling such energies and moving such tremendous masses as to be
able to convert our wayward sibling planets into new Earths - a paradigm to be repeated as
our species reaches out into the stars.

If we do not destroy ourselves first, who knows what the future might hold.

685
Pinti, D. (2011). Great Oxygenation Event. Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, 693-693. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11274-4_1752
686
Diving Physics and You. Maritine and Coastguard Agency.
687
Jacob, D. J. (2011). Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry . Princeton University Press.
Glossary
Aerial vehicle terminology
Airworm A series of roughly spherical envelopes linked with an outer, low overpressure
skin. Provides a way to minimize loadings on a non-rigid envelope of a large
airship while still maintaining an aerodynamic shape.
ALICE A series of Earth-based experiments which demonstrated the viability and
behavioral properties of phase-change balloons.
Ballonet An inner envelope of variable size containing external gas. The inflation and
deflation of the ballonets allows an airship to maintain its shape and pressure as
the volume of its internal gas changes.
Ballute A self-filling balloon that functions as a parachute; air inlets allow air in while a
toroidal "burble fence" allows it to maintain stability. Used as a drag device at high
velocities that are problematic for parachutes, and is being researched for use as
an inflatable reentry system.
Bellows balloon An accordion-like balloon, generally built out of metal, which can be winched down
or expanded out and thus experience varying levels of lift. In research as a means
for moving around Venus's surface.
Blimp Non-rigid airship; has no internal rigid framework or keel.
Catenary curtain A curtain of fabric, shaped like an inverted catenary curve, running across the top
of a non-rigid envelope. Transfers loads from internal cables to the envelope
fabric, which is in turn supported by the overpressure.
Differential load The property that, due to buoyancy, there tends to be a difference in the load at
the top of the envelope and the bottom, with the top load being greater.
Empennage The tail/rudder assembly of an aerial vehicle, which allows for stability in wind and
maneuverability.
Envelope The skin of an airship.
Landis habitat A type of aerial habitat lofted by breathable air, which humans can live inside.
Lifting body An aircraft, lacking wings, whose shape yields a meaningful L/D ratio.
Munk load Stress on the envelope caused by the difference between forces encouraging an
airship to twist and the empennage resisting rotation.
Nacelle A housing for an engine; provides an additional margin of safety, better control of
airflow, and options for vectored thrust.
Phase-change A balloon incorporating a material which boils/condenses or is released/absorbed
balloon as the external temperature and pressure change. This yields a passive means of
regulating lift without requiring a high overpressure. Phase-change balloons tend to
create an oscillating effect, based on the rate of heat transfer.
Rigid airship Airship whose form (and structural strength) are provided for by a rigid lattice
 framework. The extra mass cost of the reinforcement reduces the stress on (and
thus mass of) the envelope.
Semi-rigid Airship whose form is maintained by pressure, like a blimp, but utilizes a rigid
airship keel.
Static load Stress on an airship caused by differences in lift between different parts of the
body, particularly between the empennage and the remainder of the envelope.
Superpressure A balloon designed to handle significant amounts of overpressure. Superpressure
balloon balloons tend to hold to within a particular altitude range for a given load without
the need for ballonets, phase change envelopes, etc, and have reduced load
distribution needs. This comes at the cost of a much heavier envelope.
Vectored thrust The use of vanes or steerable ducts to change the direction in which air leaves an
engine.

Rocketry terminology
Ablative Ablative materials are by their nature designed to erode in a controlled manner
under extreme temperature conditions, such as during atmospheric entry, and by
doing so carry away heat that would have otherwise transferred to the spacecraft.
Acetylene C2H2, the simplest alkyne and a good-performing low-hydrogen fuel.
Aerobraking The reduction of a spacecraft s velocity by passing through the outer layers of a
planet s atmosphere.
Aerocapture Entering a planet s orbit or entry trajectory based on a single aerobraking pass.
Aeroshell A rigid structural element which protects a primary payload during entry before
falling away.
Biprop / A commonly used rocket design where two substances, typically a fuel and an
bipropellant oxidizer, are burned together for thrust.
Carbon A fuel option for propellant combinations that do not require hydrogen. Cryogenic,
monoxide toxic, moderate density, and poor specific impulse.
Cyanogen A fuel option for propellant combinations that do not require hydrogen.
Non-cryogenic, toxic, good density, and good specific impulse, but very high
chamber temperatures (particularly with LOX) unless diluted with hydrogen-bearing
propellants.
CyHy A fuel combination involving cyanogen and hydrogen, improving combustion
properties versus pure cyanogen.
CyMet A fuel combination involving cyanogen and methane, improving combustion
properties versus pure cyanogen.
Cycler A spacecraft that travels on a periodic cycle between two or more celestial bodies
which requires little delta-V to maintain the trajectory. While a cycler does not
stop at its destinations (requiring a separate local ascent/descent stage), it
allows a large amount of mass (shielding, etc) to accompany passengers en route.
Delta-V Change in velocity (and thus orbital energy states). Often used as a measurement
of how much capacity a rocket has for orbital maneuvers and how much of that
capacity would be consumed by a given maneuver.
DSN Deep Space Network, an global series of communications complexes run by
NASA to allow for communications with distant spacecraft.
ETO Earth Transfer Orbit
HEO High Earth Orbit or Highly Elliptical Orbit
Hold-down A common practice where rockets are physically held down after ignition until it
can be confirmed that all systems are operating nominally.
HVO High Venus Orbit
Hypergolic Having the property of spontaneous ignition. Hypergolic fuels are favored in
rocketry wherever simplicity and reliability are important.
Interstage A structure that connects two separate rocket stages and is designed to allow for
their separation.
ISP Specific impulse. Generally reported in seconds , representing the velocity of the
exhaust divided by 9.81. ISP represents a measure of how much delta-V can be
achieved with a given mass of propellant in otherwise equivalent stages.
LEO Low Earth Orbit
LH / LH2 Liquid hydrogen. When burned with LOX (Hydrolox), it represents the highest ISP
(but lowest density) propellant combination in wide usage. Deeply cryogenic.
LOX Liquid oxygen. A powerful and very widely used oxidizer in rocketry. Cryogenic.
LVO Low Venus Orbit.
Mass ratio The ratio between the dry mass of a stage and its mass when fully loaded with
propellant. Low mass ratio rockets can achieve more delta-V than high mass ratio
rockets, all other factors being equal.
MON Mixed Oxides of Nitrogen. Primarily nitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4), but containing
small amounts of nitric oxide to reduce corrosion and otherwise improve handling
properties.
Nitric oxide NO - a minor additive to MON and chemical precusor to other oxides of nitrogen.
Nitrogen N2O4 - a toxic, storable oxidizer; the primary component of MON.
tetroxide
Nitrous oxide N2O ( laughing gas ), a self-pressurizing oxidizer with lower toxicity, density and
impulse versus MON.
Nytrox A mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen, boosting the performance and stability
versus pure nitrous oxide.
Terraforming The process of converting a body in space (typically a planet) to one resembling
Earth.
TRL Technology Readiness Level, a measure of how mature a technology is. TRL
ranges from 1 ( Basic principles observed and reported ) to 9 ( Actual system
'flight proven' through successful mission operations ).
Triprop / A relatively uncommon rocket design involving the simultaneous combustion of
tripropellant three chemicals, often involving one reaction that yields a high heat of combustion
and another that yields a low molecular weight exhaust.
VTO Venus Transfer Orbit.
Spacecraft / probes
Akatsuki Dawn - a Venus orbiter launched by JAXA in May 2010, arrived December 2010
but failed to enter orbit due to engine failure, and successfully entered orbit
December 2015 via a burn from its attitude control thrusters. The mission seeks to
explain Venus s superrotation, gather details about its weather, lightning, and
detect any ongoing volcanism.
AREE Automaton Rover for Extreme Environments, a NIAC concept for an
electronics-free wind-powered walking rover for long-term operations on Venus s
surface.
DAVINCI Deep Atmospheric Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry and Imaging, a
proposed atmospheric probe to better study trace gases in Venus s atmosphere. It
was not chosen in in the 2017 Discovery selection process.
EVE European Venus Orbiter - ESA proposal for a superpressure balloon to float at
55km (middle cloud layer) and investigate Venus s atmosphere and weather.
HAVOC High Altitude Venus Operational Concept, a multiphase proposal for human
settlement on Venus, beginning with a manned orbital mission and preceded by
small manned missions with a small crew arriving with a pre-fuelled ascent
vehicle, living inside a small insulated gondola.
Kosmos-27 See Zond 3MV-1 No.3.
Kosmos-96 See Venera 3MV-4 No.6.
Kosmos-167 See Venera 4V-1 No.311
Kosmos-482 See Venera 4V-1 No.671
Mariner 1 US flyby mission to Venus launched in July 1962. Failed without returning data.
Mariner 2 US flyby mission to Venus launched in August 1962, with a Venus flyby in
December 1962. Discovered that Venus s nightside is nearly as hot as it s dayside
and lacks an intrinsic magnetic field.
Mariner 5 US flyby mission to Venus launched in June 1967, with a successful flyby in
October 1967. Radio occultation data helped provide context to the atmospheric
entry data from Venera 4.
Mariner 10 US mission to Mercury with a Venus flyby, launched in November 1973. The flyby
in February 1974 revealed the first closeup images of Venus from space, including
the varying appearance of the clouds in UV.
Magellan US orbiter mission to Venus, launched May 1989 and arrived in October 1990.
Assembled the most detailed radar maps of Venus to date, and was the last
mission to Venus (excluding flybys en route to other destinations) until the arrival
of Venus Express in 2006.
Pioneer Venus US orbiter to Venus, launched in May 1978 and arrived in December 1978.
Orbiter Conducted direct and radar observations of the planet, and in 1991 was
reactivated to assist the Magellan spacecraft s mapping of the surface.
Pioneer Venus US atmospheric mission to Venus launched in August 1978, arrived in December
Multiprobe 1978. Three small and one large descent probes created profiles of different parts
of Venus s atmosphere.
Planet-C See Akatsuki.
SAGE Proposed US lander mission to Venus. Intended to use a Raman-LIBS instrument,
similar to ChemCam on the Curiosity rover.
Shin’en Japanese student mission to Venus, launched May 2010 and intended as the first
student-built mission to leave Earth orbit. Contact was lost shortly after launch.
VALOR Venus Aerostatic Lift Observatories for in-situ Research, a proposed NASA
long-duration balloon mission.
VAMP Venus Atmospheric Maneuverable Platform, a proposed lighter-than-air flying wing
probe for Venus, utilizing an inflatable lifting body entry system. Designed by
Northrop-Grumman.
VCM Venus Climate Mission, a proposed NASA balloon / dropsonde mission.
Vega 1 Soviet flyby / balloon / lander mission to Venus, launched December 1984, arrived
in June 1985. Vega 1 and 2 remain the only balloon missions to Venus to date,
operating for approximately 2 days each in the middle cloud layer before crossing
out of transmission range and, ultimately, battery failure.
Vega 2 Soviet flyby / balloon / lander mission to Venus, launched December 1984, arrived
in June 1985. A sister mission to Vega 1, it contained the same design and
instrumentation.
VEGAS Venus Geoscience Aerobot, a phase-change balloon mission design study at
NASA / JPL.
Venera 1VA No.1 Soviet impactor mission to Venus, launched in February 1961. Failed to enter
VTO.
Venera 1 Soviet impactor Mission to Venus, launched February 1961. Flew within 100,000
kilometers of Venus but lost communications, with no data returned.
Venera 2MV-1 Soviet lander mission to Venus, launched in August 1962. Failed to leave LEO.
No.1
Venera 2MV-1 Soviet lander mission to Venus, launched in September 1962. Failed to leave
No.2 LEO.
Venera 2MV-2 Soviet flyby mission to Venus, launched in September 1962. Failed to leave LEO.
No.1
Venera 2 Soviet flyby mission to Venus, launched in November 1965. Successfully flew by
Venus in February 1966 but the spacecraft failed before data could be returned.
Venera 3 Soviet lander mission to Venus, launched in November 1965. Entered Venus s
atmosphere in March 1966, but no data was returned.
Venera 3MV-4 Soviet flyby mission to Venus, launched in November 1965. Failed to leave LEO.
No.6
Venera 4 Soviet lander mission to Venus, launched in June 1967. Successfully entered
Venus s atmosphere in October 1967 and returned data, but failed to reach the
surface intact. The returned data included the lack of water, basic atmospheric
constituents, and chemical / temperature profiles.
Venera 4V-1 Soviet flyby mission to Venus, launched in November 1965. Failed to leave LEO.
No.311
Venera 5 Soviet atmospheric probe to Venus, launched in January 1965, with entry in May
1969. Returned more elaborate atmospheric composition data, and by using a
smaller parachute, penetrated deeper into the atmosphere than Venera 4 before its
battery ran out.
Venera 6 Soviet atmospheric probe to Venus, launched in January 1965, with entry in May
1969. A sister probe to Venera 5, it carried the same design and instrumentation.
Venera 7 Soviet lander to Venus, launched in August 1970 and touched down in December
1970. Initially thought lost at impact, a later review of the data recovered the signal
and retrieved basic data about the surface conditions.
Venera 8 Soviet lander to Venus, launched in March 1972 and landed in July 1972. The first
fully successful lander, it survived for 50 minutes on the surface and completed
the first analysis of Venus s surface.
Venera 4V-1 Soviet lander to Venus, launched in March 1972. Failed to leave LEO.
no.671
Venera 9 Soviet orbiter / lander to Venus, launched in June 1975, arrived in October 1975.
The lander survived for 53 minutes and returned the first images from the surface
of another planet. Both lander and orbiter significantly expanded our knowledge of
Venus s atmosphere and clouds.
Venera 10 Soviet orbiter / lander to Venus, launched in June 1975, arrived in October 1975. A
sister probe to Venera 9, it carried the same design and instrumentation.
Venera 11 Soviet flyby / lander to Venus, launched in September 1978, arrived in December
1979. The lander suffered multiple instrument failures but returned the first
evidence of thunder and lightning on Venus.
Venera 12 A sister probe to Venera 11, it carried the same design and instrumentation, and
returned similar results.
Venera 13 Soviet flyby / lander to Venus, launched in October 1981, arrived in March 1982.
The lander survived for 127 minutes and conducted the first XRF analysis of
Venus surface minerals.
Venera 14 Soviet flyby / lander to Venus, launched in November 1981, arrived in March 1982.
A sister probe to Venera 13, it carried the same design and instrumentation, and
returned similar results.
Venera 15 Soviet orbiter to Venus, launched in June 1983, arrived in October 1983.
Conducted radar mapping of the surface.
Venera 16 Soviet orbiter to Venus, launched in June 1983, arrived in October 1983. A sister
probe to Venera 15, it carried the same design and instrumentation, and returned
similar results.
Venera-D A proposed Russian probe to Venus involving a radar-mapping orbiter and a lander
designed for long-duration surface operations.
Venus Climate See Akatsuki.
Orbiter
Venus Express ESA orbiter mission to Venus, launched in November 2005 and arrived in April
2006. It creates thermal maps, confirms the presence of lightning, finds evidence
of past oceans, and analyzes the upper atmosphere.
VEP Venus Entry Probe, an ESA reference study for balloon / dropsonde missions to
 Venus.
VERITAS Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, and Spectroscopy, a proposed radar
mapping mission to Venus designed to significantly increase our resolution of
Venus s surface and detect tectonic / volcanic surface changes. It was not
selected in the 2017 discovery mission selection.
VESSR Venus Surface Sample Return, a proposed mission in the NSF Decadal Survey for
a lander to collect a surface sample in a canister; a balloon to carry it to higher
altitude; a rocket to take it to orbit; and a return stage to take it back to Earth.
VEVA Venus Exploration of Volcanoes and Atmospheres, a proposed NASA Discovery
mission involving a balloon with four dropsondes designed to capture aerial
imagery of their descent.
VISE Venus In-Situ Explorer, a proposed precursor to VESSR which would bring a
sample to high altitudes but not return it, in order to allow for sample analyses
which can take significant lengths of time to conduct.
VITaL Venus Intrepid Tessera Lander, a NSF Decadal Survey concept for a lander
capable of landing on very rough surfaces, in order to do direct surface studies of
a tessera.
VIP-INSPR Venus Interior Probe Using In-situ Power and Propulsion, a NIAC Phase II study
for a balloon probe which scrubs sulfuric acid from the atmosphere and uses it to
generate hydrogen and oxygen for lift.
VME Venus Mobile Explorer, a NSF Decadal Survey concept designed to explore the
surface with a single-use bellows balloon, to help advance the technology for more
elaborate missions in the future.
Zephyr A proposed NASA Discovery-class mission involving a wind-propelled surface
rover.
Zond 1 Soviet flyby / lander mission to Venus, launched in April 1964. Failed en route to
Venus.
Zond 3MV-1 No.2 Soviet flyby mission to Venus, launched in February 1964. Failed to reach orbit.
Zond 3MV-1 No.3 Soviet flyby / lander mission to Venus, launched in March 1964. Failed to leave
LEO.

Materials
Aclon A brand name for PCTFE
Acrylic glass A common name for PMMA sheeting.
ATO Antimony Tin Oxide, , a transparent conductor and additive for low-emissivity /
infrared rejection properties, similar to ITO.
Barex A PAN/PMMA copolymer, utilized as a barrier film.
BoPET Biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
CF Carbon fibre, polymer fibres (most commonly PAN) pyrolyzed under extreme heat,
yielding a mostly pure carbon backbone. Boasts extreme heat tolerance, low
creep, high strength, and - unusually for a polymer - a moderate degree of
electrical conductivity.
COC Cyclic-olefin copolymer, a highly transparent, heat resistant, moisture-insensitive
polymer.
Dacron A brand name for PET fibre
Dyneema A brand name for UHMWPE fibre
ECTFE Ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene, a copolymer of PCTFE and ethylene. While
generally similar to PCTFE, it boasts greater workability but lesser (although still
excellent) barrier properties.
ETFE Poly(ethene-co-tetrafluoroethene) a half-fluorinated fluoropolymer, sometimes used
for transparent inflatable polymer cushion roofs.
EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate, a copolymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate, used as a hot
melt adhesive, tackifier, elastomer ("foam rubber"), and as a precursor to EVOH.
EVAL A brand name for EVOH.
EVOH Ethylene vinyl alcohol (occasionally referred to by the misleading acronym EVA), a
highly permeation-resistant, water-sensitive polymer most commonly used as a
barrier film.
FEP Fluorinated ethylene propylene, a copolymer of HFP and TFE. Similar in most
regards to PTFE (and likewise fully fluorinated), it boasts better workability, lower
permeability, and higher strength.
Halar A brand name for ECTFE.
HDPE High density polyethylene (PE).
ITO Indium tin oxide, a transparent conductor and additive for low-emissivity / infrared
rejection properties, similar to ATO.
Kel-F Former brand name for PCTFE.
Kynar Brand name for PVDF
LDPE Low density polyethylene (PE).
Mylar Brand name for biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Mylar balloons
are, however, no longer made from Mylar / PET.
Neoflon Brand name for PCTFE.
PAN Polyacrylonitrile, a moderately high temperature/strength polymer used in textiles
and filters. In the context of a Venus habitat, it's most notable as the precursor to
high quality carbon fibre.
PBO Polybenzoxaxole, a very strong, extremely heat tolerant liquid crystal polymer.
More favored than PIBO for use in fibres.
PC Polycarbonate, a hard transparent polymer often used in rigid greenhouse glazing.
PCTFE Polychlorotrifluoroethylene, a fully halogenated (but not fully fluorinated)
fluoropolymer. Boasts good mechanical properties and among the highest barrier
to water permeation of any known plastic, but has relatively poor workability.
PE Polyethylene, the world's most commonly used plastic. Boasts a simple path to
production, excellent workability, good abrasion and chemical resistance, and in
long chains offers high strength; however it suffers from a low melt temperature,
high creep, and UV sensitivity.
PET Polyethylene terephthalate, a common polyester with moderate to good permeation
resistance, high stability and good workability.
PEX Cross-linked UHMWPE, commonly used in plumbing
PFA Perfluoroalkanes, a family of fully fluorinated copolymers between TFE and
perfluoroethers. Properties are in general similar to TFE, but with better workability,
permeation and creep resistance, similar to FEP.
PIBO Polyimidobenzoxazole, a extremely heat-tolerant polymer with properties broadly
similar to PBO, but with little to no crystallinity. Solvent castable; more favored
than PBO for use in films.
Plexiglass A brand name for PMMA.
PMMA Poly(methyl methacrylate), a highly transparent polymer used in transparent
sheeting and fibre optics.
PP Polypropylene, the world's second most commonly consumed polymer. Properties
are broadly similar to those of polyethylene (PE), but with somewhat superior
thermal properties and somewhat inferior chemical resistance properties.
PU Polyurethane, a polymer comprised of a di- or polyisocyanate groups linked with a
polyol. Commonly used in foams, elastomers, adhesives and sealants.
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene, the simplest of the fluoropolymers and a fully fluorinated
equivalent to polyethylene. Very heat tolerant and extremely chemical and UV
resistant, but with high permeability, high creep, limited strength and poor
workability.
PVA Polyvinyl acetate, a water soluble polymer (sold dissolved as Elmer's glue, and the
basis for many other adhesives). Precursor to PVOH.
PVC The most commonly sold halogenated polymer, used in applications that can take
advantage of its high workability, rigidity (or, with plasticizers, flexibility), and high
level of chemical resistance.
PVDC A polymer similar to PVC commonly used as a barrier film. Has poorer workability
in comparison to PVC but excellent permeation resistance.
PVDF A half-fluorinated fluoropolymer. Combustion of Kynar insulation on the Pioneer
multiprobes is the leading theory as to their electrical anomaly during descent.
PVF The fluorinated equivalent of PVC; mixes the properties of fluoropolymers (high
chemical / weathering resistance, heat tolerance) with, to a lesser degree, those of
their non-fluorinated equivalents (high tensile strength, low density).
PVOH Polyvinyl alcohol (occasionally referred to by the misleading acronym PVA), an
extremely permeation-resistant, water-soluble polymer used in lubricants,
adhesives, dissolvable packaging/substrates, and barrier films where moisture is
not present.
Saran A brand name for PVDC. "Saran Wrap" is, however, no longer made from Saran /
PVDC.
Spectra A brand name for UHMWPE fibre
Tedlar A brand name for PVF
Teflon A common brand name for PTFE, and occasionally FEP.
UHMWPE Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (PE). Has properties broadly similar to
other forms of polyethylene, but yields fibres with a superb strength to weight ratio
and high abrasion resistance.
Water gel A general name for water-soluble polymers (such as PVA and PVOH) in their
dissolved state.
Vectran A liquid crystal copolymer of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and
6-hydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylic acid popular for use in aerospace
Zylon A brand name for PBO

Chemistry / physics

Biaxial Biaxially-oriented polymers are stretched linearly and laterally as they are
orientation extruded, causing the polymer molecules to be stretched out rather than coiled up.
While unoriented polymers often have tensile strengths in the dozens of
megapascals, biaxially oriented polymers often range into the hundreds of
megapascals.
Cascade In isotopic enrichment, a series of individual enrichment stages connected to each
other such that the output from one stage feeds in as the input to the next, with
each successive stage at a higher enrichment level compared to the previous one.
Creep The process by which a material, subjected to continuous stress over long periods
of time, elongates. This has the generally undesirable property of transferring
loads borne by the element into other connected elements.
Cross-linking The interconnection of individual polymer chains, generally by means of chemical
treatment or exposure to ionizing radiation. Done in controlled conditions, it can
yield improvements in creep and abrasion resistance without sacrificing tensile
strength; however, random scission and crosslinking by long-term UV exposure is
associated with brittle failure modes of polymers.
Cryogen A chemical stored at low temperatures. Use of cryogens is common in the rocket
industry due to the much higher density of liquids over gases, and the fact that
many high performing fuels are only liquids at low temperatures; however, dealing
with cryogens presents significant mass, energy and materials challenges.
Cryopumping A process in which a gas, contacting a surface at below its boiling point,
condenses onto the surface, leaving a partial vacuum in its place that draws in
more gas. In the case of gases that condense to liquids, when the droplet reaches
a large enough size, it tends to run off, allowing the cycle - which draws off
significant amounts of heat - to continue indefinitely.
Crystallinity In polymers, the percentage of the bulk which is comprised of crystals (lamellae /
spherulites) rather than amorphous structure. Highly crystalline polymers tend to
be strong, rigid, low permeability, and opaque, while amorphous polymers tend to
be weaker, flexible, high permeability and transparent.
ESP / Device which uses a high charge gradient and coronal discharge to draw particles
Electrostatic out of a gas stream. Related to EHD thrust devices.
precipitator
Eutectic A mixture between two substances which allows for a favorable lattice structure.
Eutectics allow for thorough dissolution and mixing of the two substances. As the
 mixing ratio approaches the eutectic point, the density tends to increase while the
boiling / melting point tends to drop.
Fluidized bed A hollow channel filled with a loose packing material, designed such that the fluid
passing through lofts and churns it. The high surface area is utilized for industrial
applications such as catalysts and scrubbing.
Ionic liquid A chemical which is a liquid at approximately room temperature which has no
meaningful vapour pressure.
ISRU In Situ Resource Utilization - the process of using locally-available resources to
meet the needs of a mission.
LCP Liquid crystal polymer - a high crystallinity polymer, generally characterized by
high tensile strength, low creep, low permeability and low transparency.
Mist collector A device which, using vanes, fabrics, or other means, captures particles out of a
gas stream into a fluid stream.
Packed bed A hollow channel filled with a static porous packing material. The high surface area
is utilized for industrial applications such as catalysts and scrubbing.
Supercritical A substance where, above its critical point, it tends to adopt properties similar to
both a liquid (such as solvent properties) and a gas (such as effusion through fine
pores in solids).
Tensile strength The ability of a material to withstand tensile (stretching) loads. Ultimate tensile
strength represents the stress at which the material breaks, while yield strength
represents the stress at which the material will permanently deform.
Uniaxial Similar to biaxial orientation, except that the polymer is stretched only on one
orientation axis, causing all molecules to adopt the same orientation. This is commonly used
for fibre production, allowing for tensile strengths of several gigapascals or more.

Geology
Anorthosite An intrusive igneous rock composed overwhelmingly of plagioclase feldspar.
Arachnoid A category of large weblike volcanic structures only found on Venus. Similar to a
small corona, with a series of compressive ring shapes, they are set apart by a
dense network of steep rifts radiating away from their centres.
Basalt A broad category of low-silica extrusive igneous rocks.
Carbonatite A highly fluid, very low temperature lava. Found in only one active volcano on
Earth (Ol Doinyo Lengai), it appears like flowing oil during the day, with a maroon
radiative glow at night, and oxidizes to bright white. Often associated with
valuable mineral deposits.
Corona Very large (up to 2100km diameter) circular formations with a flat centre and
surrounded by rings of dense rifts. Believed to represent the collapse of an area
uplifted by a mantle plume, but the exact details are still uncertain.
Differentiation The process in which magmas undergo chemical changes (depleting or enriching
various fractions) via cooling, reheating, settling, and other processes.
Dike Igneous intrusion through rock, which cools to form a wall-like structure in the
ground which can later be exposed via erosion.
Eolian Related to the wind. Eolian processes move particulates around, forming
sedimentary features (such as dunes) and erosive features (such as yardangs).
Incompatible Elements which tend to be concentrated into the melt phase of magma during
element differentiation.
Gabbro A dark, large-crystalled intrusive igneous rock formed from slow-cooled basaltic
magma. Forming a major component of Earth's oceanic crust, it is mined as a
decorative stone under the misnomer "black granite".
Labradorite A feldspar mineral commonly found in anorthosite which displays a striking bluish
iridescence known as labradorescence.
Lithosphere The outermost layers of a planet, which tend to deform elastically and through
brittle failure rather than through viscous flow.
Mass wasting The movement of material, rapidly or slowly, from high altitudes to low under the
force of gravity.
MORB Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt
Natrocarbonatite See carbonatite.
Pancake dome Large, steep-sided volcanic edifices, considered likely to be related to rhyolite
domes on Earth, and potentially comprised of the silica-rich fraction of
differentiated basaltic lavas.
Phased-array A radar system comprised of multiple independent antennas working together to
radar create the effect of a single radar with a far larger aperture.
Radar-reflective One or more types of terrain found in at high altitudes on Venus which resemble
terrain snows or frosts on Earth, comprised of one or more unknown conductive or
semiconductive materials.
Regolith Loose broken rock, sand, dust and debris found on the surface of bodies in space.
Resurfacing The eradication of all surface features, typically involving large expanses of
molten rock. Venus appears to have undergone a global or near-global resurfacing
event approximately 500 million years ago.
Scalloped Large bowl-shaped depressions representing the remnants of volcanic cones that
margin domes have undergone a series of mass wasting events.
Synthetic A type of radar used for surface mapping, utilizing the motion of the antenna over
Aperture Radar / the surface between the emission and echo return of radio waves to create the
SAR effect of a larger aperture.
Terra, terrae Continent-sized, tesserae-rich masses of land. Venus has three: Lada, Aphrodite,
and Ishtar.
Tessera, tesserae Large, chaotic, highly deformed areas, possibly representing areas of old crust
which survived the last global resurfacing event.
Tholeiitic basalt Subalkaline, non-oxidized basalt. MORBs are a type of tholeiitic basalt.
Tick See scalloped margin domes.
Troctolite An olivine-rich relative of anorthosite.
Yardang A wind-carved rock structure forming a natural aerodynamic shape, with a blunt
face on the upwind side and a tapered face on the downwind side.
Atmosphere and illumination
Albedo The reflection coefficient of a surface. In astronomy, the albedo plays a strong
role in determining a planet's temperature.
Atmospheric Convective regions of an atmosphere, such as Earth's troposphere, involve heat
convection transfer via the motion of fluids. The corresponding dynamic instability creates
turbulence and regional variations weather conditions. Venus contains multiple
convective layers, including the middle cloud layer.
Dynamic stability Dynamically stable regions of an atmosphere, such as Earth's stratosphere, are
thermally stratified and no work can be done by the motion of gas from one layer
to the next. The result is a general lack of turbulence and uniformity in weather
properties.
Insolation The amount of sunlight received by a perpendicular flat surface per unit area.
Lower cloud A dense but variable thickness cloud layer at above earth temperatures and
layer pressures. Generally extends from around 48 km to 51 km.
Lower haze A sparse mist or virga extending from around 32 km to the lower cloud layer at
around 48 km.
Meridional wind Relatively weak north-south or south-north winds, driven largely by the Hadley cell
in the lower latitudes.
Middle cloud A moderate density cloud layer extending from 51 to around 57 km. Portions of
layer this layer fall into the potential habitable zone for humans without the need for
additional control of temperature or pressure.
Nephelometer A device for measuring haze density.
Solar constant The insolation received by a sun-facing square meter surface at a given distance
from the sun.
Superrotation The rotation of a planet's atmosphere at a rate significantly faster than its surface
rotation.
Upper cloud layer A low density cloud layer extending from 57 km to ~72 km in the low latitudes and
to ~64 km in the polar region, where it forms an irregular polar depression.
Pressures in the upper cloud layer are too low for human life.
Upper haze A tenuous haze layer extending from the upper cloud layer for several dozen
kilometers.
VeRa The Venus Radio Science experiment onboard Venus Express, used to assemble
temperature and wind profiles of the planet.
VIRTIS The Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer, an instrument used for
cloud-tracking methods to assemble atmospheric profiles of Venus.
Zonal wind Powerful winds that circle Venus east to west, generally over the course of
several Earth days.

Venus locations
Aphrodite Terra A highly buckled equatorial terra around the size of Africa, centered around 10°S
 100°E. While much more rugged than Ishtar terra, its mountains only reach up to
around half as high.
Baltis Vallis The longest river channel in the solar system - at least 7000 kilomters long, 1-3
kilometers wide and 20-100 meters deep. The fluid which carved it is unknown,
although low-temperature, low viscosity lavas such as carbonatites and
kimberlites are likely contenders.
Dali and Diana Deep troughs bordering Aphrodite Terra, extending for 7,400 km and with cliffs up
Chasmas to 7 km tall at its edges, bearing a form of radar-reflective material at the top.
Ishtar Terra A terra centered around 70°N 28°E. Noteworthy features include Maxwell Montes,
the highest mountain on the planet, and Cleopatra, a much debated 105km-wide
double ring crater whose lava pool spilled out into the surrounding plains.
Lada Terra A terra centered around 60°S 20°E. It is interpreted as a recently active volcanic
hotspot rise. It is dominated by a large (~800km diameter) corona, shows
evidence of surface dikes, and is surrounded by massive rift belts.
Maat Mons 0.5°N 194.6°E. The second highest mountain (and highest volcano) on Venus, at
approximately 8km over the planetary mean. Recent volcanic activity is
suspected but not confirmed.
Maxwell Montes 65.2°N 3.3°E. The tallest mountain on Venus, located on the edge of Ishtar Terra.
It rises 6,4km over the surrounding plains, 10.7km over the planetary mean, and
approximately 13km over the lowest altitudes. Its summit displays a type of
radar-reflective terrain with a distinct, snowline-style cutoff. The mountain appears
to have formed from compressive faulting.
Ovda Regio Comprising the western portion of Aphrodite Terra from 10°N-15°S and 50-110E,
dominated by ribbon canyons 1-3km wide and 500m deep. High areas in Ovda
regio become increasingly radar reflective, without a distinct "snowline".
Polar vortices Irregular and changeable bowl-shaped depressions in Venus s atmosphere at the
poles, superficially resembling hurricanes on Earth.
Skadi Mons The tallest peak on Maxwell Montes.