THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS

Pleochroism is due to the unequal absorption of light by the mineral in

different orientations.For example,in a longitudinal section of biotite,
when plane polarised light from the polariser enters the mineral which
has its cleavages parallel to the vibration direction of the light,consider-
able absorption of light occurs and the biotite appears dark brown.If
the mineral section is then rotated through 90°so that the plane
polarised light from the polariser enters the mineral with its cleavages
now at right angles to the vibration direction,much less absorption of
light occurs and the biotite appears pale yellow.

Habit
This refers to the shape that a particular mineral exhibits in different
rock types.A mineral may appear euhedral,with well defined crystal
faces,or anhedral,where the crystal has no crystal faces present,such as
when it crystallises into gaps left between crystals formed earlier.Other
descriptive terms include prismatic,when the crystal is elongate in one
direction,or acicular,when the crystal is needle like,or fibrous,when
the crystals resemble fibres.Flat,thin crystals are termed tabular or
platy.

Cleavage
Most minerals can be cleaved along certain specific
crystallographic directions which are related to planes of weakness
in the mineral's atomic structure.These planes or cleavages which
are straight,parallel and evenly spaced in the mineral are denoted by
Miller's indices,which indicate their crystallographic orientation.Some
minerals such as quartz and garnet possess no cleavages,whereas
others may have one,two, three or four cleavages.When a cleavage is
poorly developed it is called a parting.Partings are usually straight
and parallel but not evenly spaced.The number of cleavages seen
depends upon the orientation of the mineral section.Thus,for
example,a prismatic mineral with a square cross section may have
two prismatic cleavages.These cleavages are seen to intersect in a
mineral section cut at right angles to the prism zone, but in a section
cut parallel to the prism zone the traces of the two cleavages are
parallel to each other and the mineral appears to possess only one
cleavage(e.g.pyroxenes,andalusite).

Relief
All rock thin sections are trapped between two thin layers of resin (or
cementing material)to which the glass slide and the cover slip are
attached.The refractive index (RI)of the resin is 1.54.The surface relief
of a mineral is essentially constant (except for carbonate minerals),and
depends on the difference between the RI of the mineral and the RI of
the enclosing resin.The greater the difference between the RI of the
mineral and the resin,the rougher the appearance of the surface of the
mineral.This is because the surfaces of the mineral in thin section are
6
THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS

objectives used.The entire lens system below the microscope stage,

including polariser,aperture diaphragm and condenser,can often be
racked upwards or downwards in order to optimise the quality of
illumi- nation.Some microscopes,however,do not possess a
separate con- vergent lens and,when a convergent lens is
needed,the substage lens system is racked upwards until it is just
below the surface of the micro- scope stage.

Stage
The microscope stage is flat and can be rotated.It is marked in degrees,
and a side vernier enables angles of rotation to be accurately
measured. The stage can usually be locked in place at any
position.The rock thin section is attached to the centre of the stage
by metal spring clips.

Objectives
Objectives are magnifying lenses with the power of magnification
inscribed on each lens (e.g.×5,×30).An objective of very high
power (e.g.×100)usually requires an immersion oil between the
objective lens and the thin section.

Eyepiece
The eyepiece(or ocular)contains crosswires which can be indepen-
dently focused by rotating its uppermost lens.Eyepieces of different
magnification are available.Monocular heads are standard on student
microscopes.Binocular heads may be used and,if correctly adjusted,
reduce eye fatigue.

The analyser
The analyser is similar to the polariser;it is also made of polarising
film but oriented in a N-S direction,i.e.at right angles to the
polariser.When the analyser is inserted into the optical train,it receives
light vibrating in an E-W direction from the polariser and cannot
transmit this;thus the field of view is dark and the microscope is said
to have crossed polars (CP,XPOLS or XP).With the analyser
out,the polariser only is in position;plane polarised light is being
used and the field of view appears bright.

The Bertrand lens

This lens is used to examine interference figures(see Section
1.3.2). When it is inserted into the upper microscope tube an
interference figure can be produced which fills the field of
view,provided that the con- vergent lens is also inserted into the
optical path train.

The accessory slot

Below the analyser is a slot into which accessory plates,e.g.quartz
4
THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS
wedge,or first order red,can be inserted.The slot is oriented so
that

4
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS

accessory plates are inserted at 45°to the crosswires.In some

micro- scopes the slot may be rotatable.

Focusing
The microscope is focused either by moving the microscope stage up or
down(newer models)or by moving the upper microscope tube up
or down(older models).Both coarse and fine adjusting knobs are
present.

1.3 Systematic description of minerals in thin

section using transmitted light

Descriptions of transparent minerals are given in a particular manner

in Chapters 2 and 3,and the terms used are explained below.The
optical properties of each mineral include some which are determined
in plane polarised light,and others which are determined with
crossed polars. For most properties a low power objective is used
(up to ×10).

1.3.1 Properties in plane polarised light

The analyser is taken out of the optical path to give a bright image
(see Frontispiece)

Colour
Minerals show a wide range of colour(by which we mean the natural or
‘body'colour of a mineral),from colourless minerals (such as quartz and
feldspars)to coloured minerals(brown biotite,yellow staurolite and
green hornblende).Colour is related to the wavelength of visible light,
which ranges from violet(wavelengthλ=0.00039 mm or 390 nm)to
red(λ=760 nm).White light consists of all the wavelengths between
these two extremes.With colourless minerals in thin section(e.g.
quartz)white light passes unaffected through the mineral and none of
its wavelengths is absorbed,whereas with opaque minerals(such
as metallie ores)all wavelengths are absorbed and the mineral
appears black.With coloured minerals,selective absorption of
wavelengths take place and the colour seen represents a combination
of wavelengths of light transmitted by the mineral.

Pleochroism
Some coloured minerals change colour between two 'extremes'when
the microscope stage is rotated.The two extremes in colour are each
seen twice during a complete(360°)rotation.Such a mineral is said to be
pleochroic,and ferromagnesian minerals such as the amphiboles,biotite
and staurolite of the common rock-forming silicates possess this
5
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS
property.

5
 -focusing eyepiece

eyepiece location pin

Bertrand lens control
incident polariser lever
head securing screw polariser holder
incident light position
compensator slot-
transmitted light position
compensator— *-
incident reflector lever
(DIN standard)
incident lamp
rotating nose piece adjustment control
objective centering- field
screws diaphragm
lever
objective aperture
diaphragm
rotating stage lever
stage clip
condenser
coarse
condenser focus
diaphragm control fine
lever focus
condenser swing
out lens control
filter tray
polariser,fixed E-W

lamp switch
incident lamp
transmitted lamp on/off
switch
voltmeter- (intensity
mains supply indicator control)

Model MP 3502M
*Analyser
The analyser is located on the
left-hand side of the head
mounting block on all MP3500
microscope
models

Figure 1.1 The Swift Student polarising microscope(photo courtesy of

Swift Ltd).

2
THE TRANSMITTED-LIGHT MICROSCOPE

Figure 1.2 Modern transmitted light microscope.Older models may focus by

moving the upper barrel of the microscope(not the stage as in the
illustration), and may use an external light source.The illustration is based on a
Nikon model POH-2 polarising microscope.

plane.This is called plane polarised light(PPL).In most UK micro-

scopes the polariser is oriented to give E-W vibrating incident light
(see also Ch.4).

Substage diaphragms
One or two diaphragms may be located below the stage.The field
diaphragm,often omitted on simple student microscopes,is used to
reduce the area of light entering the thin section,and should be in
focus at the same position as the thin section;it should be opened until
it just disappears from view.The aperture diaphragm is closed to
increase resolution;it can be seen when the Bertrand lens is
inserted.

The condenser or convergent lens

A small circular lens(the condenser)is attached to a swivel bar,so that it
can be inserted-into the optical train when required.It serves to direct a
cone of light on to the thin section and give optimum resolution for
3
THE TRANSMITTED-LIGHT MICROSCOPE
the

3
Introduction to the
microscopic study
of minerals
1.1 Introduction
Microscopes vary in their design,not only in their appearance but also in
the positioning and operation of the various essential components.
These components are present in all microscopes and are
described briefly below.Although dual purpose microscopes
incorporating both transmitted-and reflected-light options are now
available (Fig.1.1),it is more convenient to describe the two techniques
separately.More details on the design and nature of the components
can be obtained in text- books on microscope optics.

1.2 The transmitted-light microscope

The light source
In transmitted-light studies a lamp is commonly built into the
micro- scope base(Fig.1.2).The typical bulb used has a tungsten
filament (A source)which gives the field of view a yellowish tint.A blue
filter can be inserted immediately above the light source to change the
light colour to that of daylight (C source).
In older microscopes the light source is quite separate from
the microscope and is usually contained in a hooded metal box to which
can be added a blue glass screen for daylight coloured light.A small
movable circular mirror,one side of which is flat and the other
concave,is attached to the base of the microscope barrel.The mirror
is used to direct the light through the rock thin section on the
microscope stage, and the flat side of the mirror should be used
when a condenser is present.

The polariser
The assumption is that light consists of electromagnetic
vibrations. These vibrations move outwards in every direction from a
point source of'white'light,such as a microscope light.A polarising
film(the polar- iser)is held within a lens system located below the
stage of the micro- scope,and this is usually inserted into the
optical path.On passing through the polariser the light is'polarised'and
now vibrates in a single
1
THIN-AND POLISHED-SECTION PREPARATION

(3)Grinding the surface fat using carborundum grit and water on

a glass or a metal surface.
(4)Polishing the surface using diamond grit and an oily lubricant on
a relatively hard 'paper'lap.
(5)Buffing the surface using gamma alumina powder and water
as lubricant on a relatively soft'cloth'lap.

There are many variants of this procedure,and the details usually

depend on the nature of the samples and the polishing materials,and
equipment that happen to be available.Whatever the method
used,the objective is a flat,relief-free,scratch-free polished
surface.The tech- nique used by the British Geological Survey is
outlined by B.Lister (1978).

29
 THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS

crossed polars it should have four extinction positions at 90°,and

the polarisation colours seen in each quadrant should be
identical.Adjust the polariser and analyser until the best results
are obtained(see Hallimond 1970,p.101).
Ensure that the stage is well centred using the high power
objective before studying optical figures.

1.11 Thin-and polished-section preparation

Thin sections are prepared by cementing thin slices of rock to glass

and carefully grinding using carborundum grit to produce a paper thin
layer of rock.The standard thickness of 30 microns is estimated
using the interference colours of known minerals in the section.A
cover slip is finally cemented on top of the layer of rock (Fig.1.11).
The three common types of polished section are shown in Figure
1.11. Preparation of a polished surface of a rock or ore sample is a
rather involved process which involves five stages:

(1)Cutting the sample with a diamond saw.

(2) Mounting the sample on glass or in a cold-setting resin.
polished surface
gure Thin Polished block
1.11

rock slice
rock slice ~ 50 mm thick
30 μm
resin block

Polished thin section Polished wafer resin

or doubly
cage
polished section
polished surface glass

thick
rock
rock slice slice polished surfaces
~ 30 μm thick

3 cm

28
POINTS ON USE OF MICROSCOPE

Table 1.2 Relation between VHN and Moh's hardness.

Moh's hardness(H) ~VHN

1 talc 10
2gypsum 40
3 calcite 100
4 fluorite 200
5 apatite 500
6 orthoclase 750
7 quartz 1300
8 topaz 1700
9 corundum 2400
[10 diamond]

Thin sections must always be placed on the stage with the cover
slipon top of the section,otherwise high power objectives may not
focus properly.
Polished samples must be level.Blocks may be mounted on a small
sphere of plasticine on a glass plate and pressed gently with a levelling
device.Carefully machined polished blocks with parallel faces can usu-
ally be placed directly on the stage.A level sample should appear
uniformly illuminated.A more exact test is to focus on the samples,then
close the aperture diaphragm(seen using the Bertrand lens)and rotate
the stage.The small spot of light seen as the image should not wobble
if the sample is level.
Good polished surfaces require careful preparation and are easily
ruined.Never touch the polished surface or wipe it with anything other
than a clean soft tissue,preferably moistened with alcohol or a
pro- prietary cleaning fluid.Even a dry tissue can scratch some soft
minerals. Specimens not in use should be kept covered or face down on
a tissue.
The analyser is usually fixed in orientation on transmitted-light
microscopes but the polariser may be free to rotate.There is no need
to rotate the polariser during normal use of the microscope and it should
be positioned to give east-west vibrating polarised light.To check that
the polars are exactly crossed examine an isotropic substance such as
glass and adjust the polariser to give maximum
darkness(complete extinction).
The alignment of polariser and anlyser for reflected light can be set
approximately fairly easily.Begin by obtaining a level section of a bright
isotropic mineral such as pyrite.Rotate the analyser and polariser to
their zero positions,which should be marked on the microscope.Check
that the polars are crossed,i.e.the grain is dark.Rotate the analyser
slightly to give as dark a field as possible.View the polarisation figure
(see Section 1.4).Adjust the analyser(and/or polariser)until a perfectly
centred black cross is obtained.Examine an optically homogeneous area
of a uniaxial mineral such as ilmenite,niccolite or hematite.Using
27
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS

Internal reflections
Light may pass through the polished surface of a mineral and be
reflected back from below.Internal reflections are therefore shown by
all transparent minerals.When one is looking for internal
reflections, particular care should be paid to minerals of low to
moderate reflectance (semi-opaque minerals),for which internal
reflections might only be detected with difficulty and only near
grain boundaries or fractures. Cinnabar,unlike hematite which is
otherwise similar,shows spectacular red internal reflections.

1.6.3 The external nature of grains

Minerals have their grain shapes determined by complex variables act-
ing during deposition and crystallisation and subsequent recrystallisa-
tion,replacement or alteration.Idiomorphic (a term used by reflected-
light microscopists for well shaped or euhedral)grains are unusual,but
some minerals in a polished section will be found to have a
greater tendency towards a regular grain shape than others.In the ore
mineral descriptions in Chapter 3,the information given under the
heading 'crystals'is intended to be an aid to recognising minerals on
the basis of grain shape.Textural relationships are sometimes also
given.

1.6.4 Internal properties of grains

Twinning
This is best observed using crossed polars,and is recognised when areas
with differing extinction orientations have planar contacts within
a single grain.Cassiterite is commonly twinned.

Cleavage
This is more difficult to observe in reflected light than transmitted light,
and is usually indicated by discontinuous alignments of regularly
shaped or rounded pits.Galena is characterised by its triangular
cleavage pits. Scratches sometimes resemble cleavage traces.Further
information on twinning and cleavage is given under the heading
of crystals'in the descriptions in Chapter 3.

Zoning
Compositional zoning of chemically complex minerals such as
tetrahed- rite is probably very common but rarely gives observable
effects such as colour banding.Zoning of micro-inclusions is more
common.

Inclusions
The identity and nature of inclusions commonly observed in the
mineral is given,as this knowledge can be an aid to
21
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS
identification.Pyrrhotite,for example,often contains lamellar
inclusions of pentlandite.

21
 THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS

R(%) Grey scale

0-10 dark grey

10-20 grey
20-40 light grey
40-60 white
60-100 bright white

Bireflectance
This is a quantitative value,and for an anisotropic grain is a measure of
the difference between the maximum and minimum reflectance values.
However,bireflectance is usually assessed qualitatively,e.g.

Weak bireflectance:observed with difficulty,AR<5%(e.g.hematite)

Distinct bireflectance:easily observed,AR>5%(e.g.stibnite)

Pleochroism and bireflectance are closely related properties;the term

pleochroism is used to describe change in tint or colour intensity,
whereas bireflectance is used for a change in brightness.

1.6.2 Properties observed using crossed polars

The analyser is inserted into the optical path to give a dark image.

Anisotropy
This property varies markedly with crystallographic orientation of
a section of a non-cubic mineral.Anisotropy is assessed as follows:

(a)Isotropic mineral:all grains remain dark on rotation of the

stage, e.g.magnetite.
(b) Weakly anisotropic mineral:slight change on rotation,only seen
on careful examination using slightly uncrossed polars,e.g.
ilmenite.
(c)Strongly anisotropic mineral:pronounced change in brightness
and possible colour seen on rotating the stage when using exactly
crossed polars,e.g.hematite.

Remember that some cubic minerals (e.g.pyrite)can appear to be

anisotropic,and weakly anisotropic minerals(e.g.chalcopyrite)may
appear to be isotropic.Anisotropy and bireflectance are related proper-
ties;an anistropic grain is necessarily bireflecting,but the bireflectance
in PPL is always much more difficult to detect than the anisotropy
in crossed polars.

20
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS

1.6 Systematic description of minerals in polished

section using reflected light

Most of the ore minerals described in Chapter 3 have a heading

'polished section'.The properties presented under this heading are in
a particular sequence,and the terms used are explained briefly
below.Not all properties are shown by each mineral,so only properties
which might be observed are given in Chapter 3.

1.6.1 Properties observed using plane polarised light (PPL)

The analyser is taken out of the optical path to give a bright image
(see Frontispiece).

Colour
Most minerals are only slightly coloured when observed using PPL,and
the colour sensation depends on factors such as the type of
microscope, the light source and the sensitivity of an individual's
eyes.Colour is therefore usually described simply as being a variety
of grey or white, e.g.bluish grey rutile,pinkish white cobaltite.

Pleochroism
If the colour of a mineral varies from grain to grain and individual
grains change in colour on rotation of the stage,then the mineral
ispleochroic. The colours for different crystallographic orientations
are given when available.Covellite,for example,shows two extreme
colours,blue and bluish light grey.Pleochroism can often be
observed only by careful examination of groups of grains in different
crystallographic orientation. Alternatively the pleochroic mineral may
be examined adjacent to a non-pleochroic mineral,e.g.ilmenite
against magnetite.

Reflectance
This is the percentage of light reflected from the polished surface of
the mineral,and where possible values are given for each
crystallographic orientation.The eye is not good at estimating absolute
reflectance but is a good comparator.The reflectance values of the
minerals should there- fore be used for the purpose of comparing
minerals.Reflectance can be related to a grey scale of brightness in
the following way,but although followed in this book it is not a
rigid scale.A mineral of reflectance ~15%(e.g.sphalerite)may appear
to be light grey or white compared with a low reflectance mineral
(such as quartz)or dark grey compared with a bright mineral (such as
19
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS
pyrite):

19
 THE REFLECTED-LIGHT MICROSCOPE

Figure 1.3 The Vickers M73 reflected light microscope.Note that it is the polariser that rotates in
this microscope.

The incident illuminator

The incident illuminator sits above the objective and its purpose is to
reflect light down through the objective on to the polished specimen.As
the reflected light travels back up through the objective to the eyepiece it
must be possible for this light to pass through the incident illuminator.
There are three types of reflector used in incident illuminators
(Fig.1.4):

13
THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS

Zoning is generally a growth phenomenon and is therefore related to

the crystal shape.

Dispersion
Refractive index increases as the wavelength oflight decreases.Thus the
refractive index of a mineral for red light is less than for blue light
(since the wavelength of red light is greater than the wavelength of
blue light). White light entering a mineral section is split into the
colours of the spectrum,with blue nearest to the normal (i.e.the
straight through path) and red the furthest away.This breaking up of
the white light is called dispersion.In most minerals the amount of
dispersion is very small and will not affect the mineral's optical
properties.However,the Na-rich clinopyroxenes,the Na-rich
amphiboles,sphene,chloritoid,zircon and brookite possess very
strong dispersion.With many of these minerals, interference figures
may be difficult to obtain and the use of accessory plates(to determine
mineral sign etc.)may not be possible.

Each mineral possesses a few diagnostic properties,and in the descrip-

tions in Chapter 2 these have been marked with an asterisk.Sometimes
a final paragraph discusses differences between the mineral being
described and other minerals that have similar optical properties.

1.4 The reflected-light microscope

The light source
A high intensity source (Fig.1.3)is required for reflected-light studies,
mainly because of the low brightness of crossed polar images.
Tungsten-halogen quartz lamps are used,similar to those in
transpa- rency projectors,and the tungsten light(A source)gives
the field a yellowish tint.Many microscopists prefer to use a blue
correction filter to change the light colour to that of daylight (C
source).A monochro- matic light source (coloured light corresponding
to a very limited range of the visible spectrum)is rarely used in
qualitative microscopy,but monochromatic filters for the four
standard wavelengths(470 nm, 546 nm,589 nm and
650nm)could be useful in comparing the brightness of
coexisting minerals,especially now that quantitative measurements
of brightness are readily available.

The polariser
Polarised light is usually obtained by using a polarising film,and
this should be protected from the heat of the lamp by a glass heat
filter.The polariser should always be inserted in the optical train.It is
best fixed in orientation to give E-W vibrating incident
light.However,it is useful to be able to rotate the polariser on occasion
12
THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS
in order to correct its orien- tation or as an alternative to rotating the
analyser.

12
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS

removing the upper analyser from the optical train)and the mineral
grain rotated until a cleavage trace or crystal trace edge or twin plane is
parallel to the crosswires in the field of view.The position of the
microscope stage is again noted and the difference between this reading
and the former one gives the extinction angle of the mineral
grain. Several grains are tested since the crystallographic orientation
may vary and the maximum extinction angle obtained is noted for
that mineral. The results of measurements from several grains
should not be aver- aged.
Extinction angles are usually given in mineral descriptions as
the angle between the slow(y)or fast (a)ray and the cleavage or
face edge(written as y or a^cl),and this technique is explained in
detail in Chapter 4.
In many biaxial minerals the maximum extinction angle is obtained
from a mineral grain which shows maximum birefringence such as,for
example,the clinopyroxenes diopside,augite and aegirine,and the
monoclinic amphiboles tremolite and the common hornblendes.How-
ever,in some minerals the maximum extinction angle is not found in a
section showing maximum birefringence.This is so for the clinopyrox-
ene pigeonite,the monoclinic amphiboles crossite,katophorite and
arfvedsonite,and a few other minerals of which kyanite is the most
important (see also Ch.4,Section 4.10).
Throughout the mineral descriptions given in Chapter 2,large varia-
tions in the maximum extinction angle are shown for particular
minerals. For example the maximum extinction angles for the
amphiboles tremolite-actinolite are given as between 18°and
11°(y cleavage). Tremolite,the Mg-rich member,has a maximum
extinction angle be- tween 21°and 17°,whereas ferroactinolite has a
maximum extinction angle from 17°to 11°.This variation in the
extinction angle is caused mainly by variations in the Mg:Fe
ratio.Variation in extinction angles are common in many minerals
or mineral pairs which show similar chemical changes.

Twinning
This property is present when areas with differing extinction orienta-
tions within the same mineral grain have planar contacts.Often only
a single twin plane is seen,but in some minerals(particularly
plagioclase feldspars)multiple or lamellar twinning occurs with parallel
twin planes.

Zoning
Compositional variation (zoning)within a single mineral may be ex-
pressed in terms of changes of 'natural'colour from one zone to an
adjoining one;or by changes in birefringence;or by changes in extinc-
tion orientation.These changes may be abrupt or gradational,and
commonly occur as a sequence from the core of a mineral grain(the
early-formed part)to its edge(the last-formed part).
11
THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS

the field of view.Sometimes a series of coloured ovals will

appear, arranged about a point on the isogyre,especially if the mineral
section is very thick or if the mineral birefringence is very high.The
stage is then rotated until the isogyre is in the 45°position(relative to
the crosswires) and concave towards the NE segment of the field of
view.In this position the isogyre curvature can indicate the size of the
optic axial angle (2V)of a mineral.The more curved the isogyre the
smaller the 2V.The curva- ture will vary from almost a
90°angle,indicating a very low 2V(less than 10°)to 180°when the
isogyre is straight (with a 2V of 80°to 90).When the 2V is very small
(less than 10°)both isogyres will be seen in the field of view,and the
interference figure resembles a uniaxial cross,which breaks
up(i.e.the isogyres move apart)on rotation.The first order red
accessory plate(length slow)is inserted and the colour noted on
the concave side of the isogyre:

blue means that the mineral is positive (+ve)

yellow means that the mineral is negative(-
ve)

If the accessory plate is length fast(as mentioned in the preceding

section)the colours above will be reversed,that is a yellow colour will be
positive and blue negative(see Fig.4.20).

Extinction angle
Anisotropic minerals go into extinction four times during a
complete 360°rotation of a mineral section.If the analyser is
removed from the optical train while the mineral grain is in
extinction,the orientation of some physical property of the
mineral,such as a cleavage or trace of a crystal face edge,can be
related to the microscope crosswires.
All uniaxial minerals possess straight or parallel extinction since
a prism face or edge,or a prismatic cleavage,or a basal
cleavage,is parallel to one of the crosswires when the mineral is in
extinction.
Biaxial minerals possess either straight or oblique
extinction. Orthorhombic
minerals(olivine,sillimanite,andalusite,orthopyrox- enes)show
straight extinction against either a prismatic cleavage or a prism
face edge.All other biaxial minerals possess oblique extinction,
although in some minerals the angular displacement may be extremely
small:for example,an elongate section of biotite showing a basal cleav-
age goes into extinction when these cleavages are almost parallel to one
of the microscope crosswires.The angle through which the mineral has
then to be rotated to bring the cleavages parallel to the crosswire will
vary from nearly 0 to 9°depending on the biotite composition,and this
angle is called the extinction angle.

10
THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS
The maximum extinction angle of many biaxial minerals is an
import- ant optical property and has to be precisely determined.This is
done as follows.A mineral grain is rotated into extinction,and the
angular position of the microscope stage is noted.The polars are
uncrossed (by

10
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS

Maximum
birefringence (δ) Interference colour range Description

0.00-0.018 first order low

0.018-0.036 second order moderate
0.036-0.055 third order high
>0.055 fourth order or higher very high

Very low may be used if the birefringence is close to zero and the
mineral shows anomalous blue colours.

Interference figures
Interference figures are shown by all minerals except cubic minerals.
There are two main types of interference figures (see Figs 4.19 and
21), uniaxial and biaxial.
Uniaxial figures may be produced by suitably orientated sections from
tetragonal,trigonal and hexagonal minerals.An isotropic section (or
near isotropic section)of a mineral is first selected under crossed polars,
and then a high power objective(×40 or more)is used with the substage
convergent lens in position and the aperture diaphragm open.When the
Bertrand lens is inserted into the optical train a black cross will appear in
the field of view.If the cross is off centre,the lens is rotated so that the
centre of the cross occurs in the SW(lower left hand)segment of the
field of view.
The first order red accessory plate is then inserted into the
optical train in such a way that the length slow direction marked on
it points towards the centre of the black cross,and the colour in the NE
quadrant of the cross is noted:

blue means that the mineral is positive (denoted +ve)

yellow means that the mineral is negative (denoted-ve)

Some accessory plates are length fast,and the microscope may not allow
more than one position of insertion.In this case the length fast direction
will point towards the centre of the black cross and the colours and
signs given above would be reversed,with a yellow colour meaning
that the mineral is positive and a blue colour negative.It is therefore
essential to appreciate whether the accessory plate is length fast or
slow,and how the fast or slow directions of the accessory plate relate
to the interfer- ence figure after insertion (see Fig.4.20).
Biaxial figures may be produced by suitable sections of
orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic minerals.An isotropic section
of the mineral under examination is selected and the microscope
mode is as outlined for uniaxial figures,i.e.×40 objective and
convergent lens in position. Inserting the Bertrand lens will usually
reveal a single optic axis interfer- ence figure which appears as a black
arcuate line (or isogyre)crossing
9
THE MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF MINERALS

1.3.2 Properties under crossed polars

The analyser is inserted into the optical path to give a
dark,colourful image.

Isotropism
Minerals belonging to the cubic system are isotropic and remain dark
under crossed polars whatever their optical orientation.All other min-
erals are anisotropic and usually appear coloured and go into extinction
(that is,go dark)four times during a complete rotation of the mineral
section.This property,however,varies with crystallographic orienta-
tion,and each mineral possesses at least one orientation which will make
the crystal appear to be isotropic.For example,in tetragonal,trigonal
and hexagonal minerals,sections cut perpendicular to the c axis
are always isotropic.

Birefringence and interference colour

The colour of most anisotropic minerals under crossed polars
varies, the same mineral showing different colours depending on its
crystal- lographic orientation.Thus quartz may vary from grey to
white,and olivine may show a whole range of colours from grey to red
or blue or green.These are colours on Newton's Scale,which is
divided into several orders:

Order Colours

first grey,white,yellow,red
second violet,blue,green,yellow,orange,red
third indigo,green,blue,yellow,red,violet
fourth and above pale pinks and green

A Newton's Scale of colours can be found on the back cover of this

book. These orders represent interference colours;they depend on the
thick- ness of the thin section mineral and the birefringence,which
is the difference between the two refractive indices of the anisotropic
mineral grain.The thin section thickness is constant (normally 30
microns)and so interference colours depend on birefringence;the
greater the bi- refringence,the higher the order of the interference
colours.Since the maximum and minimum refractive indices of any
mineral are oriented along precise crystallographic directions,the
highest interference col- ours will be shown by a mineral section
which has both maximum and minimum RIs in the plane of the
section.This section will have the maximum birefringence(denoted
δ)of the mineral.Any differently oriented section will have a
smaller birefringence and show lower col- ours.The descriptive terms
used in Chapter 2 are as follows:
8
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS

made up of tiny elevations and depressions which reflect and

refract the light.
If the RIs of the mineral and resin are similar the surface
appears smooth.Thus,for example,the surfaces of garnet and
olivine which have much higher RIs than the resin appear rough
whereas the surface of quartz,which has the same RI as the
resin(1.54)is smooth and virtually impossible to detect.
To obtain a more accurate estimate of the RI of a mineral
(compared to 1.54)a mineral grain should be found at the edge of the
thin section, where its edge is against the cement.The diaphragm of
the microscope should be adjusted until the edge of the mineral is
clearly defined by a thin,bright band of light which is exactly parallel
to the mineral bound- ary.The microscope tube is then carefully
racked upwards (or the stage lowered),and this thin band of light -
the Becke line -will appear to move towards the medium with the
higher RI.For example,if RImineray is greater than Ricement the Becke line
will appear to move into the mineral when the microscope tube is
slowly racked upwards.If the RI of a mineral is close to that of the
cement then the mineral surface will appear smooth and dispersion
of the refractive index may result in slightly coloured Becke lines
appearing in both media.The greater the difference between a
mineral's RI and that of the enclosing cement, the rougher the surface
of the mineral appears.An arbitrary scheme used in the section of
mineral descriptions is as follows:

RI Description of relief

1.40-1.50 moderate
1.50-1.58 low
1.58-1.67 moderate
1.67-1.76 high
>1.76 very high

The refractive indices of adjacent minerals in the thin section may

be compared using the Becke line as explained.

Alteration
The most common cause of alteration is by water or CO₂coming
into contact with a mineral,chemically reacting with some of its
elements, and producing a new,stable mineral phase(s).For
example,water reacts with the feldspars and produces clay
minerals.In thin section this alteration appears as an area of
cloudiness within the transparent feld- spar grain.The alteration may
be so advanced that the mineral is completely replaced by a new
mineral phase.For example,crystals of olivine may have completely
altered to serpentine,but the area occupied by the serpentine still has the
configuration of the original olivine crystal. The olivine is said to be
7
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS
pseudomorphed by serpentine.