Extended States of

Consciousness

HYPNOSIS,MEDITATION AND
HALLUCINATION
 Hypnosis

 Hypnosis is a fascinating phenomenon that has aroused

considerable controversy within the discipline of
psychology.
 Research and writings of Ernest Hilgard has made this
concept more alluring for the researchers.
 It has been suggested that hypnotized people experience
an altered level of consciousness.
 The word hypnosis is derived from the word “hypnos”,
the Greek God of sleep.
 Hypnosis is not a state of sleep. Hypnotized people are
very relaxed and calm.
 Hypnosis is qualitatively different from a normal waking
state.
 In what way hypnotic state is unique ?
Hypnosis is characterized by total relaxation and a
strong sense of detachment.
 Hypnotized people are alert and particularly
attentive to the hypnotist’s words , appearing to
have few or no independent thoughts.
 In this passive state, a hypnotized person does not
initiate activity but rather waits for instructions.
 In a deeper state, a person may become oblivious
to stimuli other than the hypnotist’s voice.
 So, hypnosis can be defined as a state of
heightened suggestibility in which a person is
unusually willing to comply with the hypnotist’s
directives , including those that alter perceptions
of self and environment.
Phenomena associated with Hypnosis

 1. Hypnosis and Athletic ability : It is widely believed that people

show outstanding athletic performance as a result of hypnotic
suggestion.
 But this is not true. Hypnosis does not increase a person’s capacity
to perform beyond natural limit.
 But, it may act as a powerful motivator, providing extra impetus to
close the gap between potential and actual performance.
 2. Hypnosis and relief of physical ailments : Well documented
evidence shows that, suggestion given to hypnotized people can help
relieve the symptoms of a variety of stress related illnesses including
asthma, ulcers and colitis.
 Hypnotism has also been used to help clear up certain skin diseases
like psoriasis, warts etc(Spanos etal, 1990).
 However, it has not been effective in treating self-initiated addictive
disorders such as alcoholism, smoking and overeating (Wadden and
Anderton,1982).
 3. Hypnosis and Pain Relief : In the 19th century, before
anesthesia was developed, a few surgeons used hypnosis to
block surgical pain.
 Today, most medical practitioners acknowledge that, hypnosis
can be effective in reducing pain associated with child births,
back problems, arthritis, dental problems, burns etc. (
Evans,1989).
 4. Hypnosis and memory enhancement in criminal
investigations : There was a time when hypnosis was widely
used to enhance memory . However, in recent times, it is not
relied much especially during criminal investigation.
 5. Hypnosis and age regression : In age regression, a
hypnotized subject is instructed to move back in time to an
earlier age.
 How hypnosis is done ?

 Two basic questions come to the mind : 1. How is hypnosis

performed ? 2. Is everyone susceptible to it ?
 1. Standard techniques for inducing hypnosis usually involve
suggestions by the hypnotist that the person being hypnotized
feels relaxed, is getting sleepy and is unable to keep his/her
eyes open.
 Speaking continuously in a calm voice, the hypnotist suggests
the subject that he/she is gradually going to a deeper state,
not sleep but will be highly susceptible to suggestions from
hypnotist.
 Another technique involves asking the subject concentrate on
a small object, often one that sparkles and can be rotated by
the hypnotist. Through this, some people enter to an altered
state of consciousness .
 ………

 2. Can everyone be hypnotized ? The answer is that,

large individual differences in hypnotizability exist. It
appears that, people who are highly hypnotizable show
several distinctive traits.(Silva and Kirsch,1992)
 They often have vivid fantasies.
 They are high in visual imagery.
 They are high in the trait of absorption(the tendency to become
deeply involved in sensory and imaginative experiences.
 They often seek advice from others.
 And most important, they expect to be influenced by hypnotic
suggestions.
 Theories of hypnosis

 Is hypnosis real ? Does it produce actual changes in consciousness ?

Researches have led to many contrasting views
 .1. Neo-dissociation theory : Explanation given by Ernest
Hilgard(1977). According to Hilgard, a hypnotized person operates at
more than one level of consciousness which allows some behaviors to
become dissociated from conscious awareness.
 This theory evolved from an unexpected discovery that , a part of
hypnotized person’s mind (Hilgard calls it the hidden observer) is
observing and remembering all that goes on, even though the person is not
consciously aware of this process.
 Hilgard observed the hidden observer in a classroom demonstration in
which he suggested that, his subject would be unable to hear anything until
Hilgard touched his shoulder.
 As per the suggestion, the subject failed to respond to any verbal stimuli.
But, as per students’ demand, Hilgard asked the subject if he could hear
anything occuring in the class room , it was revealed that , the subject could
hear the noise inside the class.
 ………………………………

 This indicates that, two separate states of consciousness can occur concurrently.
There is nothing mystical about it. All of us have had experiences in which, our
consciousness seems divided. An example of it is, driving our car and thinking about
a complex problem and then suddenly realizing that we have reached our home.
 2. The Social Cognitive or Role Playing view : It
suggests that, effect produced by hypnosis are the result of hypnotized persons’
expectations about hypnosis and their social role as hypnotized subject(Lynn,Rhue
and Weekes,1990 and Spanos, 1991)
 This theory of hypnosis is offered by Theodore Barber (1975), who argues that,
hypnosis is not a special state of consciousness.
 According to Barber, all of the phenomena associated with hypnosis, can be
demonstrated in people who are not hypnotized.
 Hypnosis works because, the subject is willing to go along with the hypnotist’s
suggestion uncritically.
 Barber and others have suggested that many hypnotic phenomena can be shown by
non hypnotized subjects who are instructed to think along with the hypnotist.
 ………………..

 3. Theory of Dissociated Control : According to this

view, hypnotism does not necessarily involve a
division of consciousness. It simply weakens control
by the central function over the cognitive or
behavioral subsystems.
 Meditation

 Meditation is the practice of deliberately altering consciousness in an

effort to achieve a state of tranquility, relaxation and inner peace. This
has been practiced by monks, mystics and yogis since ancient times.
 Many religious and traditional psychologies of the eastern world(Asian and
Pacific cultures) purposely direct consciousness away from immediate
worldly concerns and external stimulations
 . They seek to achieve an inner focus on the mental and spiritual self.
 Meditation is a change in consciousness designed to enhance self
knowledge and well being by reducing self awareness.
 Techniques of meditation :There is no single technique
for meditation. Perhaps the most commonly form of meditation is
“concentrative” . It involves focusing on a single, unchanging stimulus,
such as a repeated word with a full sound like “om”.
 A less popular form of meditation is “opening up” , a technique in which
the mediator attempts to broaden his/her awareness to include all forms of
sensations.
 …………..

 During meditation, a person focuses on and regulates breathing,

assumes certain bodily postures(yogic postures), minimizes external
stimulation and either generates specific mental images or frees the
mind of all thought.
 Meditation has been linked to a range of physiological changes.
 Many studies have shown that, meditators exhibit alpha brain
waves typical of the relaxed state that takes place before
dozing off(Wallacs and Benson,1972).
 Metabolism slows down, oxygen consumption decreases,
respiration and heart beat slow down etc (Wallacs and
Benson,1972).
 Western and Eastern Approach to meditation :To
view meditation as an altered state of consciousness is basically
Western world view. Because , eastern world’s beliefs about mind is
different from that of the western world.
 …………………

 Buddhism states that, the visible universe is an illusion of

the senses.
 The world is nothing but what the mind creates and
individual’s mind is part of the collective, universal mind.
 Excessive mental activity distracts one from focusing on
inner experiences, and allowing mind to rise above
sensory experiences.
 Meditation is a lifelong exercise in discovering how to
remove the mind from distractions and illusions, thus
allowing it to roam freely and discover wisdom.
 To become an enlightened being, a Buddhist tries to stop
the ordinary experiences of senses of mind and discover
how to see things in their truest light.
 …………..

 In contrast, the Western scientist views meditation as an altered state of

consciousness.
 Effects of meditation : Consequence of meditation is mental and
bodily relaxation .Meditation reduces anxiety, especially in those who
function in stress filled environments(Shapiro,1985).
 When practiced regularly, meditation can heighten consciousness, achieve
enlightenment by enabling the individual to see familiar things in new
ways.
 Meditation frees perception and thoughts from well learned patterns. In
other words, when practiced regularly, meditation leads to “mindful
awareness” in one’s daily life.
 Awareness of the routine activities of breathing creates peace.
 A prominent Buddhist teacher of meditation recommends awareness of
breathing, simple appreciation of our surroundings and brief daily actions
as paths to psychological equilibrium(Naht Hanh,1991)
 ……………

 Controversy on meditation : Many researchers believe that, there

is nothing unique about the state of meditation.
 In fact, it has been suggested that the effects of meditation are
virtually indistinguishable from those of merely resting.

 Studies found no significant difference in the heart and respiration

rates, skin temperature, rate of oxygen consumption and blood
presure(HOLMES,1984).
 These findings do not mean to contradict the benefits attributed to
meditation .
 Many people achieve a serenity and sense of well being from daily
meditation.
 A number of clinics have successfully used meditation to reduce
anxiety, blood pressure, reduce chronic pain, ease insomnia (Raskin
etal,1980).
 ……………..

 However, these same benefits might be achieved by

merely learning to relax or rest effectively during
brief intervals once or twice a day.
 Herbert Benson(1977) of Harvard University,
developed a simple procedure for producing
“relaxation response", which is a composite of the
physiological effect attributed to meditation. He
found the same results that are found in meditation.
 However, despite the differences, meditation does
help to achieve peace of mind and a sense of spiritual
awakening.
 Hallucination

 Under unusual circumstances, a distortion in

consciousness occurs during which the individual
sees or hear things that are not actually present.
 Hallucinations are vivid perceptions that occur in
the absence of objective stimulations, they are
mental constructions of an individual’s altered
reality.
 Hallucinations differ from illusion which are
perceptual distortions of real stimuli and are
observed by most people.
 Examples of illusion and hallucinations.
 …………….

 The complex functioning of brain requires constant external

stimulation . When it lacks such stimulation, brain manufactures its
own.
 Hallucination may be a way of restructuring a reality in
accordance with a person’s personality, past experiences and the
demand of the present environment setting (Suedfeld, 1980).
 Too much of wrong type of stimulation can also create
hallucination.
 Hallucinations can also occur in high fever, epilepsy and migraine
headaches. They also occur in severe mental disorders like
schizophrenia.
 Many episodes of altered consciousness have been witnessed such
as mob violence, prolonged dancing etc.
 Hallucinations can also be induced by psychoactive drugs.